UNIT 2 POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN TIMES.►

UNIT1 CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 1 MODERN SOCIETY

  • UNIT1 CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 1 MODERN SOCIETY

    Key Unit competence:
    The student-teacher should be able to explore the contribution of the main

    ancient civilisations of the world to the development of the modern society.

    Introductory activity
    The world history has described different civilisations which were developed
    from the antiquity to modern times. Among these civilisations include the
    Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Greek, Roman civilisations and others.
    Each of these civilisations influenced the way of life in the world. Using
    a range of written materials and internet, research on the location and
    expansion of Greek and Roman civilisations and describe the elements and
    contributions of both the Greek and Roman civilisations to the development

    of the modern society.

    1.1 Location and expansion of Greek and Roman
    civilisations
    Use various books and internet and describe the location and expansion of
    Greek and Roman civilisations.

    Activity 1.1
    Use various books and internet and describe the location and expansion of
    Greek and Roman civilisations.
    The word “civilisation” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city.
    Therefore, civilisation is a way of a group of people that entails their various way

    of life such as culture, dressing and food.

    The word “civilisation” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city.
    Therefore, civilisation is a way of a group of people that entails their various way
    of life such as culture, dressing and food.
    Civilisation: Refers to an advanced and organized way of human development.
    It is also the advanced stage of human life in which people have cities and
    organized governments. People have also various specialties and occupations,

    such as farming, pottery, merchant, teachers and others.

    Most of civilisations have also included the construction of big structures, such
    as temples, palaces, city walls etc. The civilisation also includes literature,
    mathematics, architecture, calendar and arts of various types.
    The civilisation is a kind of human living characterized by great advance in human
    culture where people began to farm, form governments, use metals, live in cities
    and use writing.
    To reach to that stage, for many years, man wondered from place to place in
    search of food with no permanent settlement. He lived a life of animals feeding
    on wild fruits and insects. After many centuries of wondering, man felt a need
    to settle down in one settlement and grow crops instead of picking wild fruit.
    Therefore; man became food producer instead of food gatherer.
    The earliest civilisations began along great river valleys in the third millennium
    BC and they were developed around the great rivers: Egyptian civilisation began
    around Nile River, Mesopotamian civilisation around Tigris and Euphrates, Indian
    civilisation around Indus River and Chinese civilisation around Huang River
    (Yellow River). In the second millennium other civilisations appeared around

    Mediterranean Sea. They include Roman, Greek civilisation and others.

    A number of factors explain why the first man settled along river valleys rather

    than any other place.

    • The presence of fertile soils in river valleys. This was due to the silt
       deposited during seasonal flooding of the river. This encouraged
       farmers to settle there.
    • The availability of water which could be used for both domestic and
       irrigation purposes.
    • The presence of a wild game. There was much kind of small animals
       and birds along river valleys that attracted man for survival.
    • The climate along the river valleys. These river valleys had suitable
       temperatures and well distributed rainfall which played a big role in the
       civilisation process.
    • The attractive scenery along river valleys characterized by many kinds
       of colourful flowers like water lilies.
    • River valleys provided fishing grounds which attracted people to settle
       and specialize in fishing.
    • The river favored communication and exchange of ideas. Trade was
       developed, boats were built and helped in the civilisation process.
    • The presence of resources along river valleys such as clay and papyrus

       which helped in making pots and mats.

    a. Location and expansion of Greek civilisations

    Map 1: Ancient Greece

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    Greece is a country in southeastern Europe with thousands of islands throughout
    the Aegean and Ionian seas. Among the different islands of Greece, Crete is
    the biggest. Influential in ancient times, it’s often called the cradle of Western
    civilisation. Athens, its capital, retains landmarks including the 5th-century
    B.C. Acropolis citadel with the Parthenon temple. Greece is also known for its
    beaches, from the black sands of Santorini to the party resorts of Mykonos. This
    country is located near Africa and Asia. It is separated by these two continents
    by waters of Mediterranean Sea.

    From Greece mainland, there is a piece of land that forms a peninsula. This is
    the Peloponnesus peninsula. The great city of Peloponnesus is Sparta. The
    great city of Attic is Athens and the great city of Boeotia is Thebes.

    Greece is bordered by Macedonia in north, Mediterranean Sea in south, and
    Aegean Sea in East. Generally, Greece is a mountainous country. Therefore,
    road transport is difficult but water transport is easy because of many islands
    and there are well located ports that help people from the coastal region to
    communicate. In Greece, there is a Mediterranean climate, dry and hot mainly in

    spring and summer. The main economic activity is trade.

    The Greek culture originated from island of Crete. This island served as a link
    for trade between Europe, Africa and Asia. As a result of this strategic location,
    Crete became a place where many people from different cultural backgrounds
    went and exchanged ideas. The civilisation that developed on Crete city
    became known as Minoan, named after a great King of Crete called Minos. The
    Greek culture copied a lot from Minoan civilisation. The Minoan civilisation was
    replaced by Mycenaean civilisation about 1400 BC. The Dorians then came

    around 1200 BC and pushed the Greeks to Aegean Island (Ionia).

    The Greeks stayed for 200 years on the Aegean Island a period known as
    “dark period”. The Greeks mixed with different people and this gave birth to
    the Hellenes people who shared the common language, customs and beliefs.
    What emerged from this mixture was the Greek civilisation. According to F.
    Kenneth Cox, Greek civilisation developed out of a combination of two earlier
    civilisations, Minoan and Mycenaean. The Minoans, who were known as Cretans,
    were a seafaring people. Their civilisation arose around 2800 B.C on Crete,
    an island in the Mediterranean Sea. Little by little the people of Athens mixed
    with other cities in religions and games. These activities led to Olympic Games
    which united the Greeks even further. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes,

    after Hellas a town in northern Greece.

    Note that with Dorian invasion, the Mycenaean fled in the plateau of Arcadia,
    Boeotia and in Attic or in the Aegean Islands. They also moved to the coast of
    Minor Asia. This invasion makes all Greek speaking people to be scattered in
    the whole basin of the Aegean Sea (Present Greece +Islands+ costs of Asia)

    hence spreading the Greek culture.

    The Roman civilizations

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    b. Location and expansion of Roman civilisations

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    Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images

    Rome is the capital city of Italy and of Lazio (Latium) Region and Rome Province,
    on the Tiber River, in the central part of the country near the Tyrrhenian Sea.
    The geography of the Italian Peninsular made possible the rise of Rome. The
    peninsular extends about 750 miles from north to south with a width of about
    120 miles. It is centrally located in the Mediterranean. The city of Rome is in the
    center of Italy. This central location made Rome to expand, first in Italy, and later
    in the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.

    Italy’s location made it easier to unify than Greece. The Peninsular is not broken
    up into small, isolated valleys. The Apennine Mountains formed a ridge from
    north to south and divides the country into west and east. Italy was equally
    blessed by having broad, fertile plains, both in the north under the shadow of
    the Alps, and in the west, where the Romans settled. The fertile lands supported
    her growing population.

    According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753bc on one of the Seven Hills:

    Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Palatine.

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               Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome#/media/File:Seven_Hills_of_

                                                                                          Rome.svg

    The Roman civilisation grew along the Tiber river in central Italy. It was mainly
    first concentrated in the city of Rome. This was after the Romans conquered the

    Greeks in 146 BC that they founded the city in 753 BC.

    Romans have a legend about the founding of their city.
    After the fall of Troy the gods ordered a Trojan prince called Aeneas to lead his
    people to a promised land in the west. When Aeneas reached Italy they joined
    forces with a people known as Latin. About 800 BC a Latin princess gave birth
    to twin sons fathered by the god Mars. The princess had taken an oath never

    to have children. Because she broke her word, she was punished. Her sons,

    Romulus and Remus were taken from her and left to die on the bank of flooding

    Tiber. Romulus and Remus were found by a she-wolf, which fed and cared for
    them. One day a shepherd killed the she-wolf and discovered babies. He took
    them to his home. There the shepherd and his wife raised them as their sons.
    When the boys grew older, they decided to build a city. The sign from gods
    showed Palatine. Romulus and Remus wanted to be the king, therefore they
    fought and Remus was killed. Romulus became king of the city which he named

    Rome (753 BC) in the plain of Latium.

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                         Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_of_Rome#/media/

                          File:Kapitolinische_W%C3%B6lfin_Museum_Capitolini.jpg


    Sculpture of the
    she-wolf feeding
    the twins Romulus
    and Remus, the
    most famous image
    associated with the

    founding of Rome.

    Rome also managed to take control of the powerful North African city of
    Carthage hence uniting the entire Mediterranean region. She also controlled
    the Mediterranean Sea. At the peak of its powers, her empire covered Egypt,
    Greece, Asia Minor and Syria – all to her East. To her west were Tunisia, Algeria,

    Morocco and Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Belgium and England.

    Rome’s development was greatly influenced by the geography of the Italian
    peninsular. The area had excellent marble and small quantities of lead, tin,
    copper, iron (on the island of Elba) and silver in its extensive coastline. There
    were few good harbours, most of which faced the west away from Greece and
    the Near East. Ancient Italy, nonetheless, was well endowed with large forests.
    It had more fertile land than ancient Greece. However, it was more exposed
    to invasion. Invaders entered it easily, as the Alps posed no effective barrier to
    invaders from central Europe. To make matters worse, Italian low lying coastline
    opened it to invaders from the sea. All these made the Romans, from an early
    time in their settlements, to be absorbed in military pursuits to defend their own
    conquests against the invaders.

    Rome wanted to expand its borders. In order to do so, it had to fight against
    many neighboring countries such as Carthage, Spain, Parts of Italy, Asia, and

    Macedonia.

    a. Conquest of Italy

    Firstly, Rome had been attacked by the Etruscans. Later, the territory was
    invaded by other group: Celts in 390 and they settled in the valley of Po. But
    these people didn’t occupy the territory, they only looted and left. From refuge,
    the Romans organized many attacks and they start conquering central Italy
    against the Etruscan cities because they feared that these people could try to
    regain control of Rome.

    After conquering the whole Italy, they went in Greece. As they become the
    master of Italy the Romans tried to conquer other neighboring territories or
    made alliances with them in order to protect their boundaries. After this, they
    constructed many roads from Rome to the whole Italy and neighboring countries

    conquered.

    b. The war against Carthage
    By 264 BC, the Romans had conquered some Greek City-states in the southern
    Italy. This brought them into contact with the Phoenician city of Carthage.
    Carthage controlled all of North Africa, most of what is now Spain and some of
    islands of the coast of Italy. It also ruled the western half of Sicily, a large island
    at the toe of the Italian foot. Between 264 and 146 BC Carthage fought three

    wars against Romans and these wars came to be known as Punic wars.

    Different factors helped the spread of civilisations to other parts of the world:
    • Through trade, ideas and products moved from one region to another
        and from one civilisation to another thereby enabling civilisation to
        spread.
    • Wars and military expeditions also helped civilisation to spread. When
       civilised people conquered a less civilised people, the conquered
        people often absorbed the ideas of their conquerors, thereby spreading
        their civilisation.
    • Through intermarriage between different groups civilisation could
        spread also from one area to another.
    • Migration movements helped also the spread of civilisation to other
        parts of the world. Migrating people carried their ways of life to new
        lands where they settled. They could also exchange their skills with
        people they encountered.
    • Through education ancient civilisations spread to other places. For
       instance, when Greek teachers went to teach in Roman Empire, they
        spread Greek culture among the Romans.
    • Through colonization also the civilisation spread to other parts of the
       world. The strong countries which dominated small ones, they imposed
       their culture on the population they dominated.
    • Religious conversion also helped to spread the civilisations to other
       regions. The converted people had to adopt a set of beliefs identified

       with one particular religious denomination.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilisation

    Application activity 1.1

    1. Locate Greek and Roman civilisation in the time and space.
    2. Identify the factors that helped the spread of civilisations to other

    parts of the world.

    1.2. Elements/ Achievements of Greek and Roman
            civilisations

    1.2.1. Elements of Greek civilisations

    The Greek Civilisation permeated virtually every aspect of the human life. It
    marked a complete refinement of its predecessors, which are Egyptian and

    Mesopotamian civilisations. Some of its elements were:

    Greek medicine
    “The father of medicine”, the Physician Hippocrates believed that the disease
    had natural, not supernatural cause and that the body could heal itself. He was
    the first doctor to view medicine as science. Basing his work in the late 400s
    BC on observation, he diagnosed and treated illness all over Greece. According,
    to tradition, Hippocrates drafted a code for ethical medical conduct that has
    guided the practice of medicine for more than 2,000 Years. Many doctors today
    recite the Hippocratic Oath when they receive their medical degree.
    A common language
    All the Greece islands spoke an identical language known as Greek. They were
    thus able to communicate easily with one another. The common language also
    brought feelings of togetherness among the islands’ inhabitants. Greek was

    spoken and written.

    Technology

    Since Greek coastal cities were sandwiched between the ocean and the sea,
    they developed an awesome navy for trading and fighting. All cities need fresh
    water. This is a Greek aqueduct, basically a brick water pipe. The first aqueduct

    was Assyrian, but most ancient societies had them.

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    Greek Military
    The Greeks invented many military weapons such as catapults, one could throw
    300 pound stones at walls and buildings. Other weapons invented include
    Flamethrower, a phalanx. Soldiers get in a tight box. They each have a large
    shield and a 9 foot long spear. Some of the weapons were used by Greek
    infantry soldiers called hoplite. Hoplites were middle-class freemen who had to

    pay for their own weapon and shield.

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    Settlement in cities
    City states were a major feature of the Greek Civilisation. Greeks lived in cities
    which were all independent of each other. Each city and the farms around
    it formed a separate state called a polis. By the 8th and 7th Centuries BC,
    cities were built almost everywhere throughout Greece. All these cities were
    independent. The city-states forged alliances with one another.

    The city-states governed themselves differently. Sometimes they had kings for
    example at Sparta. Other cities were led by a self-imposed strong man who
    ruled the way they wanted. Such a leader is known as a tyrant. Sometimes the
    nobleman ruled, and this was called an aristocracy. Sometimes all the citizens
    took part in the government. This was called a democracy. It was practiced in
    Athens. All adult male assembled together to discuss issues of interest to their
    polis. Other forms of government in the city states were: monarchy, oligarchy

    and aristocracy.

    Ancient Greek city of Athens

    In city states were found the asty (city itself) with its watchtower, the agora
    (public square/market place) and surrounding rural- agricultural lands referred
    to as the chora. The asty was the business, political, religious and social centre
    of the entire community while the Chora provided the food to both the villages
    and to the city.

    The ancient Greeks believed that each city-state had one or two gods keeping
    a special eye on that city-state. The god in charge of Athens was Athena,
    goddess of wisdom. The city of Athens was named after their special goddess.

    Education was very important in Athens. From their mothers, girls learned how
    to cook and sew and run a home, and how to be a good wife and mother.
    Boys went to school. They memorized poetry and learned to play a musical
    instrument, usually the lyre. They studied public speaking and drama and reading
    and writing. Sons of nobles went to high school - four more years of learning

    about the sciences and the arts and politics and government.

    For about 100 years, ancient Athens was ruled by direct democracy! It didn’t
    last long, but the invention of democracy is one of the most important gifts we
    received from the ancient Greeks.

    Citizens of Athens had many rights, including the right to stand trial and the right
    (when Athens was a direct democracy) to vote. But not all people in ancient
    Athens were citizens. Originally, a free male would be a citizen if his father was
    a citizen. But Pericles changed that rule in 450 BCE. The new law stated that

    both father and mother be Athenians for a child to be an Athenian. Out of the

    Athenians, only men had full citizenship. Women had partial citizenship, which
    basically meant they had few if any rights. Pericles changed this rule to give
    Athenian women more status. It worked. Even though Athenian women had
    no power of their own, their status as an Athenian made them more likely to

    contract a good marriage.

    Participation in games

    In Ancient Greek, there was a strong belief that athletic competitions were a way
    to please the gods and honour the dead heroes. Greeks therefore participated
    in the Olympic Games from 776 BC. During the games, fighting city-states
    even suspended wars between them to allow the competitions to go on. The
    games were held after every four years. They attracted some 40,000 Greeks
    into the stadium built in Olympia. The games were dedicated to the god Zeus,

    father of the gods. The games lasted for more than five days.

    Games events included foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, and
    javelin, discus throwing and chariot-riding. Athletes were proud of their
    bodies and emphasized physical fitness. The most celebrated event during the
    Olympic Games was known as the pentathlon. It was considered the supreme
    contest of athletic skill. Winners were crowned with a wreath of olive leaves,
    a coveted Olympic prize. The wreath of olives awarded the candidate was

    considered sacred to Zeus.

    The Greeks took the Olympic Games quite seriously. Nearly all the ancient
    Greek cities sent teams to participate in the ancient Greek Olympics. If two or
    more Greek city-states happen to be at war with each other when the game

    date arrived, war was halted for the duration of the games.

    Women were not allowed to attend the games because men did not wear
    clothes when they competed in the events.

    The Greek Olympic Games came to an end in 393 AD. They were banned by a
    Christian Roman Emperor. He saw them as pagan practices. But fifteen hundred
    years later, the games were revived through the efforts of a French baron, Pierre
    de Coubertin, who was inspired by the ideals of the Ancient Greeks. In 1896,
    the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece. Since then, the

    games have been a major event in the history of sports in the world.

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    Belief in gods and goddesses
    Ancient Greeks were very religious. They believed in gods and goddesses.
    They had a common religion based on twelve chief gods and goddesses. These
    deities were thought to live on Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece.
    The gods and goddesses include the following:
    • Zeus – the chief god and father of the gods.
    • Athena – goddess of wisdom and craft.
    • Apollo – god of the sun and poetry.
    • Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty.
    • Poseidon – brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes.
    • Hades – the god of the underworld – where the spirits of the dead went.
    • Nemesis – god of vengeance.
    • Nike – goddess of victory.
    • Apollo - god of archery, music, poetry, prophecy, medicine and later on

                        god of the sun.

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    Although the twelve gods and goddesses were common to all Greeks, each
    city-state usually singled out one of the twelve Olympian gods as its guardian
    for example, Athena was the patron goddess of Athens. Each polis also had its

    own local gods. These local gods remained vital to the community as a whole.

    Important elements in the Greek religion were rituals and festivals. The Greeks

    wanted the gods and goddesses to look favorably upon their lives and activities.

    Artistic heritage

    The Greeks loved all arts. Painting, sculpture and mosaics decorated the
    buildings and almost everything they owned. It might be as simple as a geometric

    pattern or as elaborate a scene from a battle or myth.

    The Greeks attached a lot of importance to artistic expressions. Their arts have

    greatly influenced the standards taken by those of other European groups.

    Greek art was shown in their unique architecture and sculptures. Here, they
    went to great lengths to show their expression of beauty. Some of these works
    still stand today. On architecture, their artistry was visible in the temples they
    built for their gods and goddesses. An example was the famous building built
    in the fifth century BC, the Parthenon. This temple was built between 447 and
    432 BC under the supervision of Ictinus and Callicrates as the master builders.
    The temple covered 23,000 square feet. It was dedicated to Athena, the patron

    goddess of Athens.

    The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with
    their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric,

    Ionic, and Corinthian.

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    They also made sculptures and statues. Their sculptors, showed relaxed
    attitudes. Most of their faces were self-assured; their bodies flexible and smooth
    muscled. Greek art and sculpture has had a profound effect throughout the
    ages. The Greeks used many different types of materials in their sculptures
    including stone, marble and limestone as these were abundant in Greece.
    Other materials such as clay were also used but due to their brittle nature very
    few have survived. Greek sculptures are very important as the vast majority of
    them tell us a story about Gods, Heroes, Events, Mythical Creatures and Greek

    culture in general.

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    Source: https://www.slideshare.net/abiemason/greek-civilisation-10452091

    Love of philosophy
    In the Greek society, there were thinkers who challenged the belief that
    events were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, these thinkers, used
    reason and observation to establish the causes of things. They were known as
    philosophers or lovers of wisdom. The philosophers explored many subjects
    from mathematics and music to logic (rational thinking). Some were interested
    in ethics and morality. Through reason and observation, the thinkers believed
    that, they could discover laws that governed the universe. Philosophers focused
    on personal behavior, especially the question of how to achieve peace in mind.
    Three systems of thoughts attracted most of Hellenistic intellectuals: Cynicism,
    Epicureanism and stoicism. The best known cynic was Diogenes. He
    criticized materialism and asserted that people would be happy if they gave up
    luxuries and lived simply, in accord with nature. The scholar Epicurus started
    the philosophy of Epicureanism He argue that people should avoid both joy
    and pain by accepting the world as it was, ignoring politics and living simply and
    quietly with a few close friends. Zeno founded Stoicism. The name stoicism
    comes from the Stoa Poikileor “painted Porch” in which Zeno lectured.
    The stoics believed that what happened to people was governed by natural
    laws. Accordingly, people could gain happiness by ignoring their emotions, and
    instead following their reason. In this way, they were able to accept even the
    most difficult circumstances of life and do their duty. Stoicism later affected
    both Roman intellectuals and early Christian thinkers. The Greece’s greatest
    philosophers included Socrates, Aristotle and Plato. Socrates developed a
    teaching technique known as the Socratic Method. He encouraged the young
    to clear away mistaken ides and discover the truth. Plato is known with his
    earliest book of political science “The republic”. In this book he presented a
    plan for what he considered would be the ideal society and government. The
    third greatest philosopher of ancient Greece was Aristotle who wrote more than
    200 books on different topics. He influenced later philosophers with his work on

    logic. He developed syllogism.

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    Literature and drama
    Athens led the other Greek city states in literature and drama. The latter was
    made up of both tragedy and comedy. Epic and lyric were other literary forms
    in the Greek world of literature. Drama is said to have developed out of the
    choruses that chanted lyrical poems also known as Odes, to the god Dionysius.
    A group of citizens judged the plays and awarded the winner a simple prize: a
    wreath of ivy. The plays were partly acted and partly chanted. Action was limited
    as emphasis was on the story and its meaning. Greek literature began with
    the epics of Homer, whose stirring tales inspired later writers. The drama was

    closely tied to the political and religious life of the state, which sponsored it.

    In the drama, staging remained simple. There were two or three characters
    (all male) wearing masks, with a chorus of twelve to fifteen members chanting
    commentary on the action. The purpose of tragedy was to inspire pity and fear

    in the audience. While comedy intended to amuse people by inducing laughter.

    Prose was another literary genre that emerged in Ancient Greek. The people,
    from the fifth century, began to express philosophical and political ideas through

    prose.

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                                                                                      The Greek theatre of Epidaurus

    Writing of History
    We owe the discipline of History to the Ancient Greeks. At first, History was
    part of literature until Herodotus campaigned for its separation from literature.
    The Greeks applied observation, reason, and logic in understanding the human
    past. Herodotus was the pioneer in this hence he is often referred to as the

    Father of History.

    According to Thucydides, history was to be written in an accurate, factual and
    impartial way. He also vouched for the use of eye witness accounts in writing in
    this discipline.
    Trade
    Ancient Greeks were also traders. They traded with the neighbouring lands in a
    variety of goods. The Greek city states also traded with each other. Trade made
    the city states to be rich and prosperous.

    The Greeks were united by geographic region, language, religion, economics
    and common customary practices. However, they remained divided politically
    into the scores of the independent city states. Loyalty was first and foremost to

    the city state before it extended to the more remote ideal of Hellas.

    1.2.2 Elements of Roman civilisation
    1. Architecture
    Like other ancient communities, the Romans paid attention to architecture.
    Their architecture borrowed a lot from the Greek and Etruscans ones. They also
    introduced new designs and materials in their works. The Romans, for example,
    pioneered the use of concrete in construction. Roman architectural works were
    hence an improvement over the earlier Greek ones.

    Roman civil engineering and building construction technology became developed
    and refined. Some of what they built have remained to date for example, the
    Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world), a building
    still found in the business district of the present city of Rome. There was also
    the Colossium, a theatre which could accommodate 50,000 spectators. The
    pantheon was a temple of all Roman gods.

    The architectural works were visible in palaces, stadiums, temples, private
    dwellings, villas, public buildings and hydraulics. Roman architectural works
    emphasized grandeur.

    Romans are known to have experimented with the dome and pioneered in the
    building of amphi theatres, public baths, and race courses. In the empire, public

    buildings were of massive proportions and solid construction.

    Roman architecture made use of rows and columns and rectangular buildings.
    They also used curvilinear forms (forms based on curved lines): the arch, vault,

    and dome.

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    2. Law
    The early Roman republic had a written code of law which was heavily based
    on custom. It was known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets’. They were written to
    make the interpretation of the law objective. Work of writing the law begun in
    451 B.C. It involved a group of ten officials. Upon finishing the work, the laws
    were carved on twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum (market place).
    These laws became the basis for future Roman law. They were based on the
    spirit of equality of all citizens to the law. Every individual had thus a duty to

    protect the law.

    Through the universal laws, they were able to establish standards of justice that
    applied to all people. An individual was regarded innocent until proved guilty.
    Every suspect was allowed to face his or her accuser and themselves before
    a judge who was expected to weigh the evidence carefully before making a
    verdict. The Roman law was based on the following principles:
                           • All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.
                           • A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.
                           • The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.
                           • A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.

                           • Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside.

    3. Government
    From the earliest times, the Romans had distrust of Kingship and of a sole ruler.
    This was due to the lessons they learned from their experience with Etruscans.

    As a result, the Romans devised a complicated system of government.

    In the Roman republic, the chief executive officers were the consuls and
    praetors. Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the
    Roman army into battle. In 366 BC, a new office, that of praetor was created.
    The occupant was in charge of civil law. A consul’s term was only one year, and
    once elected, he could not be elected again for ten years. One consul could

    also overrule or veto the others’ decision.

    The senate was made up of a select group of about 300 land owning men who
    served for life. It begun by serving as an advisory body to government officials.
    Senators each year, elected from the patrician class two consuls. The power
    of the consuls was thus checked by the senate. Consuls’ power was further
    checked by limitation of terms. They could only serve for one term. Membership

    to the senate was for life.

    There were also a number of assemblies in the Roman republic. It was
    organized by classes based on wealth. This assembly was fixed in such a way
    that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. It elected the chief officials

    and passed laws.

    The senate was allowed during war, to elect a dictator, or a ruler who enjoyed
    complete control over government. The consuls chose him before the senate
    elected. Each Roman dictator was granted power to rule for six months. After
    the expiry of the time, the dictator had to give up power and go back to his former
    duties. When Rome became an empire, from the reign of Octavian, Senate gave
    him the honorific title of emperor. He became known as Emperor Augustus.
    This marked the beginning of the Roman Empire. From the date, Roman rulers
    adopted the name of emperor. But like before, they exercised the very powers

    as during the period of consulship.

    4. Social organization
    The family held a central place in the Roman society. By law and custom, power
    at the household was vested exclusively in the eldest man, known as the ‘pater
    familias’ or the father of the family. This individual had absolute authority over the
    family. He controlled all family properly. He could sell a member of his household
    into slavery or even kill any member of the family without penalty. The father was
    equally the individual who protected the family, spoke on behalf of the family in

    public assemblies or in law courts. He also acted as the family’s chief priest.

    Roman women were in charge of the day to day management of their families.
    Generally in Rome, women enjoyed more freedom than in the Greek society.
    They had right to own property and testify in court. They also often provided
    advice to their husbands on business and politics. All members of the family
    and by extension the clans, were supposed to uphold the principles of their

    ancestors.

    The Roman society was divided into classes. At the top was a group of families
    which claimed that their ancestors had been “fathers” who had founded the city
    of Rome. These families were privileged and belonged to a class known as the
    patrician. They claimed that due to their ancestry, they had the right to make

    laws for Rome and its people.

    The other class which brought together common farmers, artisans and merchants
    formed the plebeians. They were citizens with a number of rights, including the
    right to vote. However, they were considered to be below the patricians. In the
    Roman society thus, birth and not merit or wealth, was the sole determinant of

    an individual’s social and political status.

    Voting when the Republic was founded in 509 BC was exercised by the

    patricians and plebeians. Slaves, women and children were not allowed to vote.

    On food, the Romans observed very simple dietary practices. They usually ate
    the first meal of the day at around 11 O’clock. It consisted of bread, salad,
    olives, cheese, fruits, nuts and cold meat which had been left over from the

    previous night’s meal. They also had other meals such as breakfast and dinner.

    5. Education
    The formal schooling begun around 200 BC. In most of the Roman Empire,
    pupils began to learn at around age six and spent the next six to seven years in
    school. They learnt basics of reading, writing and counting. By age twelve, they
    were introduced to learning Latin, Greek grammar and literature after which,
    they undertook training for public speaking. Romans highly valued oratory. Good
    orators commanded respect from the rest of the society. It was for this reason,
    that one of the objectives of education and learning was becoming an astute

    orator.

    6. Language
    The Romans’ native language was Latin. This was a form of Italic language in the
    Indo-European family. There were several forms of Latin spoken in the empire.
    Silver Age Latin was the most popular. The language’s alphabet originally came
    from the Greek one. Greek was spoken by the well-educated elite. Most of the
    literature studied by Romans was in Greek. Latin in this area was mostly used
    by the Roman administrators and soldiers. Eventually, Greek replaced Latin as
    both the official written and spoken language of the eastern empire. The western
    empire used Latin. Later Latin was to spread in various dialects to Western
    Europe as a distinct Romance language hence giving birth to Portuguese,

    Romania, French, Italian and Spanish.

    7. Literature
    Roman literature, like, its religion, was greatly inspired by the Greeks’. The
    earliest were historical epics which told the early history of Rome e.g. Augustus
    sponsored the historian, Livy, to document the history of Rome from its founding
    to the rule of Augustus. He did this in 142 Roman style books. Generally, Latin

    literature took many forms.

    The expansion of the empire culminated to expansion in the type of literally
    works. Writers began to produce poetry, comedy, history and tragedy. Some of
    these works have survived in today e.g. “Histories” of Tacitus, Julius Ceasers’

    “Gallic wars” and Livy’s “History of Rome”.

    r

                                                                                             A piece of ancient Roman art

    During the reign of Augustus, the literature of the time is generally referred to as

    works of the Golden Epic.

    Most literature of the “Golden Age” was vigorous, affirmative and uplifting. It
    mainly served political and propaganda ends. Whereas that of the silver age was
    characteristically less calm and balanced. Its effects are said, to have derived
    more often from self-conscious artifice. Most were intended to entertain than to

    instruct or uplift the mood of the reader.

    8. Visual art
    Roman art was greatly influenced by Etruscans – especially in portrayal of political
    issues. Greek art also influenced Roman art from the 3rd BCE. It surpassed the
    influence the Etruscans had exerted on the Romans. Many Roman homes were

    decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.

    With time the Romans came up with their own styles. Some remarkable ones
    were: “Incrustation” in which the interior walls of houses were painted to
    resemble coloured marble. A second style involved painting interiors as open
    landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals and buildings.
    The Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. From the knowledge,
    they were able to create realistic portraits in stone. Much of the Roman art was

    practical in purpose. It was intended for public education.

    The Roman artists were especially good in creating mosaics. These were
    pictures or designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a
    surface. Most villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one coloured
    mosaic. Romans also made good works of painting. Most of the wealthy people

    had bright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls.

    9. Music
    The society in Rome recognized and appreciated the vital role played by
    music in life. There was music during nightly dining and in military parades and
    maneuvers. Romans used a variety of musical instruments in their songs. Some
    of the main ones included tuba, cornu, flute, panpipes, lyre, lute, cithara, timpani,

    drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.

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                                                                                        Some Roman musical instruments

    10. Economy
    In Imperial Rome, agriculture was the main economic activity. About 90% of
    the population engaged in farming. Most people survived on produce from their
    farms. Additional food stuffs (when needed) and luxury items for the rich were

    obtained through trade.

    From the time of Augustus reign, a silver coin called a denarius was used as
    a medium of exchange. Existence of a common currency made commercial
    transactions throughout the empire. The coins often carried the likeness of
    the emperor or depicted a Roman achievement. A standard system of coinage

    developed in 269 BCE.

    Transportation when carrying out trade was made easy by the existence of
    the Mediterranean Sea. Ships from the east travelled along the sea under the
    protection of the Roman’s navy. Trade made cities on the eastern Coast of
    the Mediterranean to expand and become rich. Examples of these cities were:

    Corinth, Ephesus and Antioch.

    A part from water transport, the empire had a good network of roads. Roads
    linked various places in the empire. The roads were originally built by the Roman
    army for military purposes. The most important were the silk roads, named for

    the overland routes on which silk from China reached the Romans.

    11. Religion
    The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divine forces, called Mumina.
    These spirits were thought to reside in everything around them. Closely related

    to these spirits were the Lares, for each family.

    Interactions with the Greeks and Etruscans, made the Romans begin to associate
    the spirits with human like forms and individual personalities. The spirits now got
    Roman names and were honoured through rituals. People expected the gods

    and goddesses to give them favor and protect them from misfortunes.

    In the empire, the state and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of
    the state. Individuals were expected to honour them in private rituals and in their

    homes. Priests also conducted public worship ceremonies in temples.

    Polytheism or belief in more than one god, thrived in the Roman Empire. Among
    the most important gods and goddesses were Jupiter (father of the gods), Juno
    (Jupiter’s wife who supposedly watched over women), Minerva (goddess a
    wisdom and of the arts and crafts) and Vesta (goddess of home). Emperor
    worship also came with the creation of the institution. It became part and parcel

    of the state religion of Rome. Priests were appointed to work for the governor.

    Their religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer,
    ritual and sacrifice. They also never placed great emphasis on rewards and
    punishments after death. But unlike the Greeks, the Romans revered their
    ancestors, their “household gods” included deceased members of a lineage
    who were worshipped in order to ensure a family’s continued prosperity. Each
    home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations were offered to the

    family deity.

    There was religious toleration in the Roman Empire. This witnessed varied
    religious traditions. People were expected to honour Roman gods and
    acknowledge the divine spirit of the empire and upon meeting these conditions;

    they had freedom to observe their other religious practices as they pleased.

    12. Sports
    In the ancient city of Rome, there was a place called the campus. Here, Roman
    soldiers conducted military exercises. Later the campus became Rome’s track
    and field playground. Other urban centres in the empire copied the campus in

    their centres and military settlements.

    The youth in the urban centres, assembled in the campus to play, exercise and
    perform inappropriate acts. These acts included: jumping, wrestling, boxing
    and racing, riding, throwing and swimming. In the rural areas, people also
    participated in fishing and hunting. Women were prohibited from partaking of

    these activities.

    There were several ball games which could be found in Ancient Rome. These
    included: dice (Tesserae or tali) Roman Chess (Latrunculi) Roman Checkers

    (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli) and Ludus duodeeim Scriptorum and Tabula.

    13. Philosophy
    Roman philosophy heavily borrowed from its Greek predecessor. Two major
    philosophical schools – Cynism and stoicism – derived from Greek religion and
    philosophy became prominent in the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd Century
    AD. These two philosophies were fairly merged in the early years of the Roman
    Empire.

    The two philosophies expressed negative views on civilisation, something which
    was reflected in their adherent way of life. Cynicism upheld that civilisation
    was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings while
    stoicism, on the other hand, taught that one must surrender all earthly things

    and assist others.

    Apart from the philosophical schools we have mentioned above, there was
    also Epicureanism. The most renowned of its Roman exponents was Lucretius
    (98- 35B C). He expresses the view that everything is a product of mechanical
    evolution, including human beings and their habits and beliefs. He however
    admitted the existence of the gods but saw them as living in eternal peace,

    neither creating nor governing the universe.

    Cicero wrote in a rich and elegant Latin prose style that has never been
    surpassed. His prose became a standard for composition and has been up to

    today.

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    14. Militarization
    The Roman society was highly militarized. Citizenship for provincials could be
    obtained after 25 years of military service. The army doubled as an army corps of

    engineers. They built roads and other forms of infrastructure such as aqueducts.

    Rome fought mercilessly with its neighbours. It had most of its male population
    pass through military service. This made it a highly militarized state. Even leaders
    had to have passed through the military to be accepted to lead. Political career

    of an individual could only commence after ten years of service in the military.

    The Roman Civilisation spread to all the lands they controlled. This happened
    through trade and conquest. Its location along the Mediterranean region enabled
    people to pursue their commercial interests, while their military nature allowed
    them to register victories in their enemies’ camps. Once they had brought an
    area to their fold, the Roman administrators helped to spread their civilisation in

    the areas.

    Application activity 1.2

    Examine the elements of the Greek and Roman civilisations as they have

    been described by history authors.

    1.3 Contributions of the Greek and Roman Civilisation

    Activity 1.3

    Use the Internet, the encyclopedia and History textbook to find out the
    contribution of the Greek and Roman civilisations with special focus on the

    Rwandan context.

    1.3.1 Contributions of the Greek Civilisation

    1. Sports: In sports we owe to the Greeks the Olympic Games which are
         held after every four years. The games are today a global event which
         attracts teams from various nations in different parts the World, Rwanda
         included.
    2. Literature: Greeks pioneered drama as a form of entertainment. They
         performed plays which explored the struggles made by individuals to free
         themselves from the imperfections in their characters. The playwrights
        balanced their tragedies with comedies. They are famous for their love
         and appreciation of literature especially poems and plays. The world today
        has borrowed heavily from their rules and habits for writing, reaching and
        theatre arts performance. Some of their plays are still being performed in
        different parts of the World today.
    3. History: The Ancient Greeks are credited with developing history as a
        distinct discipline of study. Prior to this, history was considered to be
        part of literature. Herodotus, father of history, constructed a narrative of
        the Persians wars using critical methods and interpretative framework.
        Later, Thucydides (460 – 400 B .C) used scientific methods in writing
        the History of the Peloponnesian war. He used the analytic methods
        borrowed from science and philosophy in writing the history so as to
        produce ‘an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of

       the future.’ The Greeks were the first people to develop history.

    4. Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the
          universe and of human life. The Greeks believed in rational explanation
          for the existence of the universe or wise people. The philosophers tried
          to understand humanity’s relationship to nature, the gods, individual to
          another and between the individual and the groups of human society.
          Some of the most famous philosophers of ancient Greece are Socrates,
          Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurious.
    5. Science and Mathematics: Greeks made most pronounced legacy
          in science and mathematics. Various personalities made numerous

         contributions. A few examples include:

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    6. Architecture
    Ancient Greeks excelled in great architectural works. Most of the formulas they
    invented as early as the 6th Century B.C have informed the world of architecture
    for the past two millennia. They built temples, theatre and stadiums which are
    still the envy of the present world. We owe today our theatres and stadium
    designs to this Ancient civilisation. Greek architecture still influences many
    people today. The US Supreme Court design, for example, was influenced by
    the Parthenon, the Greek temple to the goddess Athena.

    ds

                                                            Part of the United States of America Supreme Court showing Greek

                                                                                                                architecture

    7. Government and Law
    Greeks are credited for introducing and practicing democracy, the system of
    checks and balances in government, equality before the law and active citizen
    participation in the civic functions of the state. They also brought the issue of
    political and civil rights which were limited to citizens of a city state. Athens was
    the first Greek city to set up a democratic government. Today, the principles of
    democracy spread all over in the world.
    8. Art, music and dance
    Greek art, music and dance have exercised an enormous influence on the culture
    of the present world. In art they made sculptures and statues of stones marble,
    limestone and clay. On music and dance, Greek folk music and the balladlike
    reciting of epic poetry. The Greeks civilisations as can be seen from these
    contributions left a rich legacy to the modern world. However, it equally had
    weaknesses. Women and slaves had no political rights. Foreigners were also
    prohibited from owning land. These made the Greek system to be discriminative

    by today’s standards.

    9. Religion
    The Greeks shared a common religion and belief system. They believed in many
    gods and goddesses. Their belief system was also made up of heroes and

    myths.

    Greek gods and goddesses had human appearance. They also bore human
    characteristics and attributes. The deities participated directly in human affairs
    according to Greek beliefs. In addition, the Greeks believed in oracles to tell the

    future and to give prophesies.

    Today, religion is common to humanity. It is based on a system of beliefs just
    as during the Ancient Greek period. Belief in oracles is still practiced in games
    and sports and many other fields of human endeavor. The belief in existence
    of gods (or god), life after death, provision of sacrifices and offerings to god,
    command of divine powers over human life and observance of festivals and
    rituals in religious life, were evident in the Greek Civilisation. We owe these

    partly to the Greek Civilisation.

    10. Belief in military power of a country
    Sparta was renowned for her military power. She built an army which proved
    fatal to other Greek city – states and beyond. War was glorified and every effort
    was made to train boys to serve in the military. Today, all world states have
    developed their military along almost similar lines. A might of a nation is partly

    seen through its military capability.

    1.3.2 Contributions of the Roman Civilisation
    The Romans made countless contributions to us in virtually all the fields. Today,

    we use some of their inventions and innovations. The main ones include:

    1. Christianity: The romans have promoted Christian religion. Rome allowed
        Christianity to spread and flourish in her empire. Today, Christianity is one

        of the major world religions.

    2. Government: Representative democracy was reflected in the Roman
        republican system. Senators represented groups of people thus bringing
        an element of democracy. Power was distributed and not concentrated in
        one office. This form of government has been emulated by governments
        in the world today. In a way too, the Roman division of their republic into
        three branches: The Consuls (who served as judges and army leaders)
        the Senators (who acted as political advisers) and the Assembly (made
        up of army members whose role was to approve or reject laws) mirrors
        the separation of powers found in democratic governments today. Like
        modern democracies, the Romans through their “Twelve Tablets” had

        something similar to a written constitution.

    3. Architecture: Architecture is one field in which the Romans made great
        strides in. Their knowledge and skills have been acquired in the modern
        world. Their architectural styles were evident in use of improved arches
        and columns of the Greeks; the rounded domes, sculptures, frescos and
        mosaics. They also used concrete, mortar and cement. This enabled
        them to develop some structures which have withstood the test of time

        such as the pantheon and the colosseum.

    r

                                                                                                         The Roman colosseum

    Roman engineering skills were also evident in the construction of aqueducts.
    These structures were made across rivers, and included large networks of

    underground channels which supplied water to cities and valleys.

    Today all the innovations of Romans have made our life easy. Buildings, bridges
    and harbours and pipeline transport for water are in use in virtually every part of
    the world. The Roman architectural styles have also been copied in many parts
    of the world e.g. the US capital building, the Lincoln memorial and most state

    capitals in the USA.

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                                                                                                         Roman aqueduct

    4. Entertainment: Our idea for mass entertainment came from the
        Romans. People were entertained in the forum and in the colosseum,
        Rome’s amphitheater which had a capacity of accommodating 60,000
        persons. Games were played, sports were held, musical and theatrical
        performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat performed.
        Today mass entertainment is a feature of modern humanity.
    5. Romans introduced the idea of urban planning: The romans were
       the first people to introduce the idea of city planning. Roman Empire had
       well planned towns linked by a good road network, portions of which
       exist up today. The cities were very well planned with very well street,
       avenues and quarters. Modern man used this knowledge to improve and
       come up with advanced modern urban planning.
    6. Roads: Roman roads have greatly influenced our modern road
        construction. Some of these roads are still in use today. Their highways
        were straight, plane and resistant to damage. Like today’s highways,
        these roads use the most direct route to connect cities.
    7. Calendar: The Julian calendar (named after its inventor, Galus Julius
         “Ceasar”) gave a lot to the modern calendar which was reformed by
          Pope Gregory 1600 years later. The calendar is still being used the way
          it was in many Greek Orthodox churches. Our modern calendar has
          retained the names of the months as they were in the Julian calendar.
          All the months’ names are derived from Latin e.g. January (from “Janus”,

          god of the beginning of times) February (from “Februa” a Roman festival),

         March (from “Mars” the god of war), April (from “aspire” meaning “open”,
         referring to the blossoming of plants in spring), May (from “maia,” goddess
         of fertility), June (from “Juno”, goddess of women and marriage, hence
         the expression “June bride”), July (from Julius Ceasar himself), August
         (from emperor Augustus), September (7th” as March was the first month
         at the time), and, October (8th), November (9th) and December (10th

         month). The use of calendar has remained in today’s society.

    8. Law: The modern world has also borrowed a lot from the Roman law. To
        maintain law and order, Romans were law- making people. Roman legal
        principles are still used in France, Italy, and Latin America.
    9. Literature, philosophy and history: Romans were good writers of
        stories, poems, literature; painting walls, Poetry and use of satire in verse
        in literature were popular in the Ancient Roman Empire. The Romans
        respected philosophy’s contribution to society. They were guided by Greek
        philosophical schools. The Romans spread ideas of these philosophies
        to the areas they controlled. Today, the world owes a lot in these three
        fields to the Romans. Even some of the books they wrote in literature,
        philosophy and history have been interpreted in other languages and are
        still being used today.
    10. Art: Art was another area where the Romans have left an indelible mark.
        Uses of realism, idealism and revealing of an individual’s character in a
        piece of art have their origin in Ancient Rome. Today, art is dominated
        with these qualities. We can also not forget the idea of beautifying homes
        with works of art in the modern society. This was also popularized by the
        Romans. Uses of frescoes and mosaic have also their roots in ancient
        Rome.
    11. The Latin language. It became the intellectual language in Europe.
         Today the Roman alphabet is still widely used in the whole world. For
          instance, Latin was the official language of business, education, law,
         government and arts and in the contemporary world Romance languages
         include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. Latin has
         influenced the English language widely to the extent that Latin is a source
         of many English words like audio, face, graduate, homicide, labour etc.
    12. Currency and trade: Throughout their reign, the Romans maintained a
        stable currency and a prosperous international trade. Stability of currency
        and promotion of international trade, are today still vital economic issues.
    13. Romans are remembered for roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V, X, L,
        C, D, M, Roman calendar of AD (Latin for Anno Domino or After Birth of
        Christ; also After Common Era) and BC (Before the birth of Christ; also
        Before Common Era).
    14. Romans are remembered of their military organization in sections,
            companies and platoons.
    15. Engineering: Roman builders had invented many construction
           techniques like building of roads with many layers of stones which are

           still used today.

    Greek and roman civilisation left a good number of legacies to the modern world.
    These contributions include mathematics, engineering, medicine, Olympic
    Games, Literature, philosophy, history Government and Law, architecture
    Art, music and dance, Religion, urban planning, Christianity, Government,
    Latin language, roman numerals, engineering and many others. All these
    contributions are applied to Rwanda. Let’s consider few examples to prove
    this truth to Rwanda. The Latin language which is a roman contribution is today
    taught in seminary schools in Rwanda. The Latin language is also the mother
    of Romances languages which are the Spanish, Italian, French and Portuguese

    among others. French is an official language in Rwanda.

    Latin has influenced the English language widely to the extent that Latin is a
    source of many English words like audio, face, graduate, homicide, labour etc.
    This English is also used in Rwanda as an official language. In sports we owe
    to the Greeks the Olympic Games which are held after every four years. The
    games are today a global event which attracts teams from various nations in
    different parts the World and Rwanda included because Rwandans participated

    in Olympic Games for many times.

    Application activity 1.3

    Identify the legacies of Greek and Romans civilisations visible in Rwanda to

    date.

    Skills Lab
    With reference to various contributions of the ancient civilisations to
    Rwanda, imitate either Greeks or Romans to create one feature of your

    choice and present it to the class.

    End unit assessment 1
    1) What is civilisation?
    2) Using maps, locate Greece and Italy where Greek and Roman
         civilisation developed respectively.
    3) What achievements is the Greek philosopher Pythagoras credited
        with?
    4) Explain the elements of Greek and Roman civilisations.
    5) Discuss the contributions of Greek and Roman civilisations to

        Rwanda.



    UNIT 2 POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN TIMES.►