UNIT 1: RELIGIOUS TEACHING OF NONTHEISTIC AND POLYTHEISTIC BELIEFS
Key Unit competence:
Appraise the moral and social values from the teachings of non-theisticbeliefs.
1.1 Buddhism
1.1.1 Origin of Buddhism
Buddhism was founded as a way to end suffering. Its founder, Siddarta
Gautama, began his search in response to suffering; he wanted to find a way
to live a life of happiness, wisdom, compassion, joy and equanimity. It is worth
of noting that these values are taught about only in theistic religions, such
as Christianity and Islam; non-theistic religions, including Buddhism also hold
them. In fact, Buddhism does not centre around the veneration of one person,
human or divine. Buddha, from which the term “Buddhism” derives, is not a
god, nor a god-sent mediator; he is not even considered as someone who can
act as a savior or redeemer for others. Buddhism traces its origins to India in
the 6th century BCE (Before the Common Era/Before Christian Era) and the
experience of the man, called Siddharta Gautama, who came to be called the
Buddha.
The founder: Birth and context of growth
Siddharta was born in about 560 BCE in a village called Lumbini, near the
modern border between India and Nepal. As is common with the founder of a
religion, all sorts of legends have grown up around Siddhartha’s birth. However,
there is today no doubt that the ‘historical’ Buddha, founder of Buddhism,
actually lived. He was born of King Shuddhodanna and Queen Maya, his wife.
The Buddhist literature says that it had once been prophesied to Siddhartha’s
parents that their son would become either a great ruler or a homeless itinerant
(homeless/vagrant/wanderer). In order to protect Siddharta from the second
and ensure the first, his father brought him up as a prince in the greatest luxury
and splendid and sheltered him from pain or ugliness so that he would not
experience suffering. The prince also married a girl called Gopa or Yashodara
and had a unique son, whom he called Rahula, which means ‘chain’, for in the
midst of all this luxury he felt as if he were in chains. Life gave him no satisfaction,
and at 29 years of age he decided to leave and become homeless (R. Pierce
Beaver et alii, The World’s Religions, Lion Publishing, Oxford, 1992, p. 223).
The founder: journeys and experiences
When Siddharta decided leave his family and riches, he opened himself up to
the great awakening through four journeys. The latter allowed him to experience
life’s realities in a way which he had never known before. On the three first
journeys, he saw the suffering of the world in three forms: a frail old man, a
very sick man racked with pain (a sick man), and a dead man whose body
was escorted by weeping mourners. To the question of the meaning of sorrow,
poverty and misery he had just seen, Siddharta was answered that suffering is
merely the common fate of all mankind; deeply troubled, he returned back to his
family. However, he has become aware of human suffering.
On his fourth journey, Siddharta met a traveling and mendicant monk, though
contended and joyful. This journey was decisive; it showed him that all life’s
pleasures and attractions are vain and worthless. From that standpoint, he began
to seek for true knowledge (R. Pierce Beaver et alii, The World’s Religions, Lion
Publishing, Oxford, 1992, p. 224).
From Hinduism to Buddhism (Enlightenment)
When Siddharta left his home for good (on the fourth journey), it was an attempt
to find the true knowledge, the truth by which people are set free from suffering
and death. He sought this truth through Hinduism for a while, living the homeless
life as a proper method for earnest seekers after spiritual truth and reality. He
took instruction from teachers, undertook yoga exercises, and lived in extreme
self-denial and discipline until he lived the point of starvation. However, he did
not fully accept Hinduism because its rigid practices were not bringing aboutthe way out of suffering and death.
In fact, at the age of 35, Siddharta came to realise that death would bring him
no closer to true knowledge, and that severe ascetism was not the right way
to set people free from the cycle of death and rebirths. He had realised that
external treatments were no use; what was needed was wisdom to understand
reality and compassion to overcome greed for life. Henceforth, he abandonned
his strict life-style and resolved to direct all his energies to achieving holiness by
meditation. He entered a deep mediation beneath a fig-tree, which came to be
called ‘the tree of enlightnment’ or bodhi-tree. He sat for 49 days of meditation
after which he believed he finally reached enlightenment as he has come to
understand causes and cure of suffering (David B. Kopel. 2007., “Self-defense
in Asian Religions” in Liberty University Law Review, Vol. 2: 79, p.120). His
enlightenment had three stages:
• First stage: he saw his previous lives passsed before him.
• Second stage: he saw with a supernatural insight the cycle of birth,
death and rebirth and recognized the laws that governs it.
• Third stage: the four holy truths were revealed to him: the knowledge of
suffering, the source of suffering, the removal of suffering and the way to
the removal of suffering.
It is only after these three stages that, Siddharta Gautama became known as
“Buddha”. Buddha is a title of honour meaning “the Enlightened One”, “the
Awakened One”. This title became attached to his name in much the same way
that the title ‘Christ’ became attached to the name of Jesus. At this level, he was
in a state of complete redemption and could have entered nirvana, the Buddhist
heaven, at once.
Beginning, growth and expansion of Buddhism
All the events of Siddharta Gautama’s life – luxurious life, being locked within
palace walls, journeys and awareness of suffering, fasting and meditation, etc.
– lead him to enlightenment which provided the basic inspiration upon which
Buddhism religion and all ‘Sangha’ (the Buddhist communities) have been built.
After his experience of enlightenment, Buddha (Siddharta Gautama) travelled
about India for about 44 years, living as a beggar-monk and teaching monks,
disciples, and laypeople. He quickly won disciples who followed him into the
homeless life and missionary service. The way of life of this first Buddhist
community may be characterized as meditative, mendicant and missionary. They
were in effect a missionary order fully devoted to proclaiming the liberating truth
of dharma (Teaching of Buddhism/law/Path) and nirvana.
The Liberty University Law Review (2007) states, “Siddharta taught for nearly
five decades, until about 486 B.C.when he died of food poisoning” (Vol. 2:
79, p. 120) but his followers spread Buddhism from India throughout most
of Asia. Eventually, it came to North America and Europe, where it has grown
tremendously in the past century. Today, at least six or seven percent of the
people on the five continents of the earth follow Buddhism and their number
keeps increasing.
1.1.2 Fundamental teachings and Practices of Buddhism
A. Fundamental Teachings of Buddhism
The term “Dharma” is used to describe the teachings of Buddhism. The primary
source of the Buddhist teachings is the Sutras, that is, the Buddha’s teachings.
Note that the Sutras are many sacred texts which are not compiled in one single
sacred book like the Bible. The Sutras are the spoken word of the Buddha;
wich were recorded after his death. The Tripitaka (literally “Three Baskets”) is a
substantial collection of the Buddha’s teachings, and is one of the central sacred
texts for Buddhists. The Buddhist scriptures are guides for enlightenment, not a
legal code like the Qur’an or the Torah.
Buddhism focuses not so much on a set of doctrines as a course of action. It
often is explained not as something one believes but as something one does in
order to develop both wisdom and compassion.
- Wisdom is to directly see and interpret for oneself and to keep an openmind;
to listen to other opinions; to be truthful and reasonable; to have
an analytical and objective thinking; always being ready to change one‘s
beliefs when facts or truth that contradicts them are presented to us.
- Compassion is both an attitude and an action. It involves feeling the
pain of someone in distress as if it is our own and strive to eliminate or
lessent it. Compassion is manifested through the qualities of sharing,
readiness to give comfort, showing concern and caring; having a kind
heart, being generous and helpful to fellow beings; and respecting alllives while being mindful of one‘s actions and words.
In fact, Buddhism is concerned with alleviating suffering through right living and
mental, moral and spiritual discipline. In Buddhism, suffering results from three
poisons. These are: craving (a powerful desire for something), hatred and
ignorance (State of Washington Department of Corrections. 2013. Handbook
of Religious Beliefs and Practices. p.15). One is saved from these poisons
through a deep understanding of the Four Noble Truths and diligent practice
of the Eightfold Path and of the Ten Precepts. There are four key concepts to
understand the Buddhist teachings and beliefs.
Key concepts in Buddhism
- Anicca
Anicca (impermanence) is easily observable, everything changes. People grow
old and die, seasons change. It is not possible to keep anything static.
- Dukkha
Dukkha (suffering) is not the same as pain, sorrow, loss or anything we usually
think of as suffering. It refers instead to the discontent we feel when we
experience pain, sorrow, loss and so on. Things rarely are exactly to our liking,
and when they are, they do not stay that way, since everything is impermanent.
- Anatta
Anatta (no-self) does not mean our body and sense of self are not real. It means
that the ideas we have about them are not the whole picture. This is explained
by the fact that the parts of the universe, including human beings, and their
individual components are completely interdependent on everything else.
- Karma or Kamma
Karma is the Buddhist law of cause and effect. Every action causes some result,
which in turn causes some action, which again causes a result. Good actions
give to good consequences and evil ones to evil. In the last case, liberation from
karma is possible by a reorientation of life.
- Nirvana
Nirvana is the end of suffering, the goal of Buddhist practice.
The Four Noble Truths
1. All existence involves suffering (dukka). Dukka is universal.
2. Suffering is caused by desire.
3. Suffering can be eliminated by eliminating desire.
4. The eightfold path is the means to eliminate suffering.
The eightfold path (Middle Way) consists of :
1. Right view/understanding/knowledge: a recognition of the Four Noble
Truths.
2. Right resolve/thoughts/intention: having a mental attitude of
goodwill, peacebleness, keeping far from oneself all sensual desire, hate
and malice.
3. Right speech: lying, useless chatter and gossip are outlawed, instead
speech must be wise, truthfull and directed towards reconciliation.
4. Right conduct/actions: embraces all moral behavior. Murder, stealing
and adultery are especially prohibited.
5. Right livelihood/living: one’s way of earning a living must not be
harmful to others.
6. Right effort: evil impulses must be prevented and ones fostered, so that
the individual can develop noble thoughts, words and deeds.
7. Right mindfulness/awareness: careful consideration, not giving in to
the dictates of desire in thought, speech, action and emotion.
8. Right concentration/meditation: which frees the holy man from all
that holds him back in the quest.
Note:
1. The path is usually divided by Buddhist practitioners into three sections:
the wisdom/insight section (1-2); the morality section (3-5); the
mental development/spiritual discipline (6-8).
2. 4 Noble Truths & 8 Fold Path are the core beliefs of Buddhism.
3. Understood the Four Noble Truths + follow the 8 Fold Path =
enlightenment & nirvana.
4. Far from any strictness or rigidity, the Eightfold Path is the middle way
between a life of self-pleasure and a life of self-denial. The path offers a
demanding life-style that is both practical and balanced.
5. Buddhist teachings are rafts; they should be changed or discarded when
the truth is reached (Andrew Harvey. 2002. “Foreword”, in Dhammapada
Annotated & Explained xii).
Precepts
Buddhist moral understanding is not very different from that of other faiths. The
precepts describe the life and actions of a fully enlightened Buddha. It is worth
of noting that in Buddhism, the precepts are taken in a formal ceremony, again
and again, because we continue to make mistakes, they are not easy. The ten
cardinal precepts in Buddhism are:
1. Not to kill, but to cherish all life.
2. Not to take what is not given, but to respect the things of others.
3. Not to misuse sexuality, but to be caring and responsible.
4. Not to lie, but to speak the truth.
5. Not to cause others to use substances that confuse the mind, nor to do
so oneself, but to keep the mind clear.
6. Not to speak of the misdeeds of others, but to be understanding and
sympathetic.
7. Not to praise myself nor disparage others, but to overcome my own
shortcomings.
8. Not to withhold spiritual or material aid, but to give them freely where
needed.
9. Not to indulge in anger, but to exercise control.
10. Not to revile the Three Treasures:Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha but
to cherish and uphold them.
Note:
6. In many Buddhist traditions, the Ten Cardinal Precepts are compressed
into first five precepts. The precepts 6-10, in essence, are all encompassed
within the fundamental principles expressed in the first five precepts.
7. The tenth precept means to regard all living beings equally, recognizing
that all are inherently equal and worthy of respect. Cherishing yourself is
equally important to cherishing and upholding the Sangha, supporting the
people you practice with and all those around you (Princeton Buddhist
Students Group, Buddhism Religious Basics on http://www.princeton.
edu/~buddhism/old/basics.pdf)
B. Religious Practices of Buddhism
With the lack of a centralized Buddhist authority and the huge cultural
differences that have been added in over the years, Buddhism can look like it
is many faiths, not just one. Nevertheless, Buddhism is divided into two main
movement: Theravada Buddhism (traditional), the strict and narrow teaching
of the ancients, and Mahayana Buddhism, more liberal and open to a wider
range of ideas (Wulf Metz, “One Goal, Many Paths”, in The World’s Religions,
Lion Publishing plc, Oxford, 1992, p.237). Therefore, there are great variations
in what is considered to be essential to individual or group practice. However,
there are common - or particular to some sects - practices and observances.
These include:
8. Meditation
Form of prayer, silent meditation is practiced to cultivate mindfulness and
attentiveness to the present moment. Meditation is ideally practiced at all times
it is not just in a quiet room free from distractions, but while working, washing
dishes, running, walking, cleaning, etc. However, regular silent meditation helps
to calm and focus the mind and gives strength to apply to daily life.
9. Chanting
Form of prayer, sutras (the teachings of the Buddha) are recited by chanting;
chants are done in different languages depending on the country. Chants are
commonly translated so that people know what they are saying. Often, chanting
services are dedicated to those who are suffering, sick, hungry, or otherwise
experiencing pain.
10. Metta
Another Buddhist practice is metta meditation: loving-kindness meditation,
in which loving thoughts are directed first to one’s self, then to a benefactor,
then to a friend, a neutral person, and finally to an “enemy” (someone we have
difficulty with) and then to all living beings.
11. Dietary
As in the differences in holidays, different Buddhist communities follow dietary
practices based on cultural origin and geographical conditions. For instance,
in the West, lay Buddhist practitioners often choose to follow a vegetarian
diet, and should be allowed this option.Generally, monks in the monastery are
expected to be vegetarian.
12. Days, Holidays and festivals
According to Handbook of Religious Beliefs and Practices (2013), Buddhist
faith and practice require no work proscription days and fast days. Moreover,
Buddhists celebrate several ceremonies and holidays throughout the year.
While these may vary according to different lineages or traditions and the dates
may change, here are the essential holidays:
• Vesak: The Buddha’s birth, generally recognized as April 8;
• The Buddha’s Enlightenment: December 8;
• The Buddha’s Death: February 13 (again, dates may vary according to
tradition). The Buddha’s Paranirvana is an extremely important ceremony,
and is not regarded as a negative day in Buddhism but rather, was a time
of great serenity and joy for the Buddha.
• Jukai: Jukai is the formal ceremony of entering the Buddha’s Way, or
becoming a Buddhist. Jukai consists of a repentance ceremony, chanting,
taking the three refuges (in Buddha, Dharma and Sangha), three general
resolutions (to avoid evil, to do good and to liberate all sentient beings),
and the ten cardinal precepts, stated below.
Buddhists also have ceremonies for the New Year, a Hungry Ghost Ceremony
(for those beings who, due to their greed, cannot eat food or drink unless it is
offered to them), and Ceremonies of Aid (for ending world hunger, for world
peace, and other causes).
13. Burial practices
Prayer, incense burning, and chanting take place at intervals following death,
those intervals being determined by the tradition. In most Buddhist traditions
cremation is the preferred method of disposal of the remains, as a new vessel
will be used for the next incarnation. But cremation or burial should wait until
the body has been at repose for a bit, to allow the consciousness time to leave
the body (State of Washington Department of Corrections. 2013. Handbook ofReligious Beliefs and Practices. p.18-19).
1.2 Confucianism
Confucianism is looked on by some as a mere philosophy, or simply as a guide
for social and political life, and not as a religion. Nevertheless, Confucianism is
ranked among world’s religions. One of the reasons (not only one) for calling
Confucianism a religious tradition is the importance of the term “Heaven” (tian).
“Heaven” has a range of meanings – such as the realm of the heavenly bodies
(sun, moon, planets, stars), the realm of gods and ancestors - but Confucians
understand Heaven to be the absolute reality, the ultimate moral authority,
and the source of human virtue and the explanation for whatever is beyond
human control, for example events that we might attribute either to chance or
to necessity, such as the family one is born into or the fact that we must all die
(Adler 2012, p. 4). In many respects Heaven is a functional equivalent of the
Biblical god. So, even though the Confucian “god” (heaven) is impersonal and
does not speak to people, Confucianism is approached in this unit from the
religious perspective.
1.2.1 Origin of Confucianism
Confucianism is traced back to the thoughts expressed by a certain Confucius
in the 6th – 5th Before Common Era (BCE). The latter lived about from 551 to
479 BCE in the State of Lu (now Shandong or Shantung). After his professional
experience along with the Prince of Lu and travels around China, he founded his
own school so as to provide students with the teachings of the ancients.
In fact, Confucianism existed even before Confucius. In fact, it should not be
traced back to the ideas or experiences of an individual as it is for Buddhism,
Islam or Christianity, but to moral, ethical, social, intellectual, political, religious
teachings of the ancestors. Confucius himself considered as a transmitter who
knowingly tried to re-visit and value the old in order to attain the new. Confucius
was strongly convinced that the past holds the roots of the present and future
life. This conviction lead Confucius to the love of the history and culture and
nourished the desire to understand why certain life forms and institutions, such
as reverence for ancestors, human-centred religious practices, and mourning
ceremonies, had survived for centuries. In fact, it is this sense of history and the
awareness of the importance of culture in finding out sustainable solutions to
the humanity’ deepest needs that inspire Confucius to establish a school. The
mission of his school was nothing else but ensuring the continuity of the cultural
values and social norms.
It was while he was teaching that he started to write. His write included,
• The Book of Odes (poetry)
• The Book of Documents (poetry)
• The Book of Changes (treatises on divination)
• The Spring and Autumn Annals (History of Lu)
None of these works outlined Confucius’ philosophy. Rather his thoughts
are found from second-hand writings which became the major sources of
the Confucian thought. These include: Analects (the most reliable source
of Confucianism); Mencius; Great learning and Mean. Through these texts,
Confucianism became the official state religion of China from the second
century right up to the present day.
Note
Confucianism is essentially based on mutual respect and kindness towards
others. It was developed to bring peace and stability in society. It was founded
before the birth of Confucius and developed through his later life.
1.2.2 Fundamental teachings and Practices of
Confucianism
A. Fundamental Teachings of Confucianism
Confucianism is more concerned with social fulfillment than with spiritual
fulfillment and afterlife as it is in Hinduism for example. This influences the
Confucian teachings, ethics and practices. Emphasis is put less on rituals,
deities or the divine than on relationships, duties, values and virtues.
In fact, Confucius did not give his followers a god or gods to be worshiped.
This is not because the Confucianism is not against worship but because it
essentially believes that social duties are more important. The focus is on the
following three elements:
• Ethical behavior
• Good governance
• Social responsibility
Thus, Confucianism isn’t a creed; it also has no many of the conventions and
doctrines of a religion. Also, there are neither monks nor priests or religiousleaders.
Li is the term to describe Confucian rites and good manners. It refers to the
respect to all facets that support good social order. The followers of Confucianism
believe that when Li is observed (respect) everything runs smoothly and in its
right place. Relationships and virtues are important for a healthy social order
and harmony.
The fundamental relationships in Li are:
• Father over son;
• Older brother over the younger;
• Husband over wife;
• Ruler over subject;
• Friend is equal to friend.
Relationships are important in Confucianism. They exist at the different levels:
family, school, local community, the state and kingdom. Confucius taught that
virtue was essential for balancing people and society. He gave out five main
relationship principles/virtues:
• Love within the family (Hsiao): Examples include love of parents for
their children and of children for their parents.
• Loyalty to the state (Chung): According to Confucius, broken political
institutions are attributed this to unworthy people being in positions of
power. He believed rulers were expected to learn self-discipline and lead
through example.
• Righteousness or duty (Yi) in an ordered society.
• Honesty and trustworthiness (Xin): Confucius believed that people
were responsible for their actions and treatment of other people.
• Benevolence and humaneness (Jen) towards others: It is the highest
Confucian virtue and can also be translated as love. This is the goal for
which individuals should strive.
These virtues/principles allow an individual to respect the position that s/he has
in all relationships. Due honor must be given to those people above and below
oneself. This makes for good social order.
B. Practices and rituals in Confucianism
- The respect of elders and ancestors is the most important and is
practiced at home, at temples and at the graves of relatives. A common
practice includes ancestral tablets and shrines dedicated to deceased
eleders.
- A Confucian practice shows veneration for the departed through:
• Visiting their graves at least once a year and cleaning the tombs
and adding frest soil to the surface of the graves;
• Placing favorite foods and wine of the departed on their graves
and burning incense;• Kneeling before the dead to show respect.
• Birth rituals
A certain number of birth rituals center on the spirit of the fetus. These
are designed to protect an expectant mother.
The mother is given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after
delivery.
The mother’s family supplies all the items required by the baby on the
first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversaries of the birth.
Etc.
• Marriage rituals are conducted in six stages:
1) The proposal: It can be accepted or rejected.
2) The engagement. It is manifested through the announcement of the
wedding day.
3) The dowry.
4) Procession: The groom visits the bride’s home and brings her back to
his house. The procession is accompanied by a great deal of singing and
drum beating.
5) The marriage ceremony and reception: The couple recite their vows,
toast each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet.
6) The morning after the ceremony: The bride serves breakfast to the
groom’s parents, who then reciprocate. This marks the completion of the
marriage.
• Death rituals
At the time of death, the relatives cry loudly. This is a way of informing the
neighbors. The family begins mourning.
Mourners bring incense and money to offset the cost of the funeral. Food
and significant objects of the deceased are placed in the coffin.
A Buddhist, Christian, or Taoist priest performs the burial ceremony.
Liturgies are performed on the seventh, ninth, and forty-ninth days after
the burial.
- Confucianism celebrates different holidays and festivals. These include:
The birthday of Confucius, every 28th of September. Celebrations last
10 days;
The Chinese New Year, which is on 31st of January;
Qing ming. They go to their ancestors’ graves and give them offerings;
Chongmyo Taeje. It is celebrated on the 1st Sunday in May to honor the
kings and queens of the Yi dynasty; Etc.
1.3 Hinduism
1.3.1 Origins of Hinduism
Hinduism is the religious tradition of Hindus, that is, the peoples of India or
Indians. Indians themselves prefer to call their religious tradition “sanatana
dharma”, which means ‘eternal religion’ or ‘eternal truth’. By this denomination,
Indians indicate the “givenness” or revelatory character of the beliefs that
underpin their ways of life. On the other hand, Hinduism should not be
understood as a belief system in the sense of Islam and Christianity because it
has no historical founder (comparable to Buddha), no prophet (comparable to
Muhammad) and no set creed (comparable to the Nicene Creed). The Indians
understand Hinduism more as culture than a creed (Radhakrishnan, former
President of India). Understood from this perspective, Hinduism is an umbrella
which embraces a wide diversity of beliefs. These beliefs existed hundreds of
years before the current era. It is worth of noting that the term, ‘Hinduism’ didn’t
exist until the late eighteenth/early nineteenth century, when the British coined
it to categorize the religious traditions they were encountering in colonial India
(Largen 2013, p. 14).
Scholars agree that Hinduism is the oldest living major religious tradition. Indeed,
there is no firm date of origin of Hinduism. However, between the year 1500
and 1200 Before Christ (BC) the Aryan (literally ‘noble’) peoples invaded India
from the northwest bringing their language and tradition, influencing the olderreligions, ideas and practices.
Although, the older Hindus religion seems to have included yoga, renunciation
and purification rites – all of the which, continue to mark the ‘holy men’ of India
– the Aryans appear to have been dominant. For instance, they had an important
class of priest who composed hymns to their gods for use at sacrifices. Over
the years these hymns were committed to memory and remarkable preserved
until in later centuries 1,028 of them were enshrined in writing in the Rig Veda,
the world’s oldest living religious literature and Hinduism’s most sacred book
(State of Washington Department of Correction, p. 36). So Hinduism as we
know it today is the mix of the Aryan religion and the beliefs, and practices of the
numerous races, ethnic groups and cultures of the Indian sub-continent. This
means that there are almost as many versions of Hinduism as there are villages
or groups of Hindus.
Hinduism has been growing and spreading in time and space. From the 7th
century Anno Domini (AD) Hindu culture and religion exercised a widespread
influence throughout south-east Asia, taking in modern-day countries
of Thailand, Laos and Vietnam as well as many of the islands of Indonesia.
(Hammer 1992, p. 174). Today, Hinduism is the third largest religion in the
world, behind Christianity and Islam. The majority of Hindus are located in India
at 95 percent (Muesse 2011, p. 6). and Nepal. Hinduism is indeed the religion
of most Indians and consequently Hinduism exists wherever Indians are to be
found in all continents, including Africa.
1.3.2 Fundamental teachings and practices of Hinduism
A. Fundamental teachings of Hinduism
Contrary to all other major world religions, Hinduism has no basic confessional
statements, unifying doctrines, or creed. The Supreme Court of India once
declared: “In distinction from followers of other religions, one does not believe
in a specific set of theological or philosophical conceptions.” Hinduism is more
a “way of life” than a belief system. In other words, Hinduism is more about how
one conducts one’s life than about what one holds to be true. That is, Hinduism
is more about “orthopraxis,” right actions, than “orthodoxy,” right beliefs. If
what makes one a Christian is one’s belief in Jesus Christ (and, correspondingly,
baptism), what makes one a Hindu is being born and raised in a Hindu family
and living one’s life in accordance with specific religious beliefs and teachings.
Although, Hindu beliefs and teachings may vary from geographic and cultural
contexts to others, some features can be identified to Hindu Religion. These
features include:
• Hinduism is a theistic religion, but it can be difficult to determine whether
it is a polytheistic or even monotheistic religion. On one hand, 33 gods
are identified in Hinduism (polytheism). On the other hand, Hindus are
monotheists at heart. They believe in one High God, whom they refer to
as Brahman, ‘the absolute’, ‘the One’- the origin, the cause and the basis
of all existence. Neutral and impersonal, Brahman is manifested through
lesser gods through whose aid he rules over the world.
• Reincarnation: Hindus believe that at the death the soul always passes
from one body into another body until released from the continuous wheel
of rebirth.
• The principle of karma (actions): Hindus believe that a person’s moral
actions have unavoidable and automatic effects on one’s fortunes in this
life and condition of rebirth in the next (the law of cause and effect: good
actions are bears good fruits, vice versa).
• The four orders or stages of life:
1. The life of the student: school years - grow and learn
2. The life of the householder: marriage, family and career
3. The life of the retired: one is removed from the ordinary
demands of family, community and society.
4. The life of the ascetic: one abandons world to seek spiritualthings
• The four purposes of life
1. Dharma: fulfill moral, social and religious duties;
2. Artha : attain financial and worldy success;
3. Kama : satisfy desires (sexuality, enjoyment) and drives in
moderation;
4. Moksha : attain freedom from reincarnation.
This is the great goal for the Hindu. Moksha speaks of ‘release’ – deliverance,
emancipation, calm and, all in on, salvation.
This goal of salvation is attained through three paths:
a. Path of works and action
We live in the world, where there is work to be done and there are obligations to
be met. Our status in society involves duty. It is through action that man attains
freedom from action.
b. Path of knowledge or philosophy
Hindus believe that it is ignorance that ties a person to the round of birthdeath-
rebirth (reincarnation). Release would be attained as knowledge replaces
ignorance, when reality is properly understood and illusory rejected. This would
involve yoga and ascetic practices.
c. Path of devotion to God or love
It is in commitment to God that we accept the leap from the temporal to the
eternal, the realm of the Ultimate and absolute reality, Brahman.
• Ten Commandments
1. Do not harm (Ahimsa);
2. Do not lie (Satya);
3. Do not steal (Asteya);
4. Do not overindulge (Brahmacharya);
5. Do not be greedy (Aparigraha);
6. To be clean (Saucha);
7. Be content (Santosha);
8. Be self-disciplined (Tapas);
9. Study (Svadhyaya);
10. Surrender to God (Ishvara Pranidhana)
Note
• Hinduism emphasizes on tolerating the different beliefs of others,
respecting the pluriformity of truth, and recognizing diversity of belief and
practice. In this sense, Hindus say, “Truth is one; sages call it by different
names.” This attitude towards religious beliefs, and truth made Hinduism
one of the more open-minded religions whereby peaceful coexistence
among religious traditions and theories is highly favorable. Hinduism
teaches other religions that unity (not uniformity) in diversity is possible.
• Hindus and other Asian religions (including Buddhism) believe in
reincarnation. Reincarnation is also called “transmigration”. It refers to
the “Hindu” understanding of life. Life is thought as a flow through which
many existences occur: from birth to death, and then on to rebirth to
death, and so on. Reincarnation refers to the cycle of rebirths; it indicates
an unending round of existences which were influenced by the deeds
each individual performed (karma).
B. Religious practices of Hinduism
Hinduism is a way of life. It is a path of duty to be followed within a divinely
ordered society. The basic unit of society is the family. The individual is reminded
that he is part of a family. Hindu families mark an individual’s life at every stage
by domestic rituals. These rites are performed by a Hindu priest, either at home
or at a temple. Birth, initiation, marriage and death (each has a ritual, as well
as rites of daily worship and annual festivals). Some of these practices are
understood and explained as follow:
- After birth, there are practices for the naming of a child, the child’s first
haircut, and the initiation to enter the first stage/order of life. From then on
the man will wear the sacred thread which passes over his left shoulder
and under his right arm.
Marriage is a foundational practice in Hinduism. The wedding ceremony is one of the
most solemn and complicated rites in Hinduism. Arranged marriages still are common
in India. Marriage ensures not only the continuity of the family but also the welfare of
its dead members in the other world. As an institution, marriage is, in practice,
obligatory: divorce is rare, as is not having children and staying single.
• After death, Hindus organize the funeral. Cremation is the norm for
Hindus, although certain categories of people, including sadhus and
young children, typically are not cremated. Before cremation, the dead
body is anointed at home, and wrapped in layers of colorful cloth. He
or she is accompanied by chanting, singing, and drums. The body is
submerged there, and certain rites are performed.
• There are dozens upon dozens of Hindu festivals. They mark specific
seasons, specific events in the lives of the different gods and goddesses,
and specific concerns of life—wealth, health, fertility, etc. Examples of
festivals: Divali, the festival of lights that falls somewhere in October
or November; Holi, that inaugurates the coming of spring, in February/
March; etc.
• Hindus are lacto vegetarians who use no eggs, no meat of any kind, noonions, and no garlic. Milk or dairy products can be used.
1.4 End Unit Assessment
