UNIT 8: PREVENTION AND RESOLUTION OF CONFLICTS
Key Unit competence:
The student-teacher should be able to analyze the national, international judicial systems and instruments, how the justice has been delayed and denied in Rwandan society, preventing and resolving conflicts and violence at the national as well as international levels.
Introductory Activity
Analyze the national and international judicial systems and instruments, and how to prevent and solve the conflicts at the national and international level.
8.1. National and international judicial systems and instruments
Learning activity 8.1
Describe the Rwandan national and international judicial system and instruments.
8.1.1. Concepts of judicial systems
The judicial system is the system of courts that interprets and applies the laws in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
The term “judiciary” is used to refer collectively to the personnel, such as judges, magistrates and other adjudicators, who form the core of a judiciary (sometimes referred to as a “bench”), as well as the staffs who keep the systems running smoothly.
In some nations, under doctrines of separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make law (which is the responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (which is the responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case.
In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as “Common Law”, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, as opposed to Statutory Law made by the legislature. The Judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law.
Justitia, a symbol of justice.
Source:https://www.figuren-shop.de/en/kulturen-shop/cultures-religion/ancient-gods-heroes/ancient-gods/medium-justitia-figurine-goddess-of-justice-silver-gold-13452.html
In some countries and jurisdictions, judiciary branch is expanded to include additional public legal professionals and institutions such as prosecutors, state lawyers, ombudsmen, public notaries, judicial police service and legal aid officers. These institutions are sometimes governed by the same judicial administration that governs courts, and in some cases the administration of the judicial branch is also the administering authority for private legal professions such as lawyers and private notary offices.
8.1.2. National judicial system and instruments in Rwanda
After regaining its independence, the Republic of Rwanda got a Supreme Court with five sections. However, according to the Constitution of December28th, 1978, the Supreme Court with 5 sections was replaced by 4 High Jurisdictions which were separated from each other, including: The Court of Appeals, the Constitutional Court, the Council of State and the Audit office.
During the post-genocide period (from 1994 to 2003) the Fundamental Law instituted the Supreme Court which consisted again of the five sections such as the Department of Courts and Tribunals, the Court of Appeals, the Constitutional Court, the Council of State and the Auditor Office. With the 18/04/2000 reform to the Fundamental Law, it was provided with the sixth section named Department of “Cacaca jurisdictions”.
In now days, the judicial system is divided in two kinds of courts such as Ordinary courts and specialized courts. The Ordinary courts are headed by the High Council of the Judiciary. This is established by the Rwandan Constitution of 4/06/2003 in its article 157 and 158, as amended in 2015. It is the supreme organ of the judiciary.
Office of the Supreme Court in Rwanda
Source:https://twitter.com/rwandajudiciary
Today, apart from the Supreme Court, there is a High Court with different chambers in the country such as the Chamber of international crimes, the Chamber of Nyanza in Southern Provence, the Chamber of Rusizi in Western Province, the Chamber of Rwamagana in Eastern Province and the Chamber of Musanze in Northern Province. There are the Intermediate (12) in Districts of Nyarugenge, Gasabo, Nyagatare, Ngoma, Muhanga, Huye, Nyamagabe, Rusizi, Kaarongi, Rubavu, Gicumbi and Musanze. At the lower level, there are 41 Primary Courts in the country.
The specialized Courts today, there is Commercial High Courts in Nyamirambo with its branches at Musanze and Huye and the Military Courts.
8.1.3. International judicial systems and instruments
The International judicial system is dominated by the international Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC).The ICJ was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.
A picture of Peace Palace in Hague Netherlands, seat of the ICJ
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/International_Court_of_Justice.jpg
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an Intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, the date that the Rome Statute entered into force.The Court issued its first arrest warrants on 8 July 2005, and the first pre-trial hearings were held in 2006. The Court issued its first judgment in 2012 when it found Congolese rebel leader Thomas Lubanga guilty of war crimes related to using child soldiers.
• The structure and organization of the International Court of Justice
The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. Their Elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. No two judges may be nationals of the same country. There are five seats for Western countries, three for African states (including one judge of francophone civil law, one of Anglophone common law and one Arab), two for Eastern European states, three for Asian states and two for Latin American and Caribbean states. The five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (France, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States) always have a judge on the Court.
Generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with environmental matters (although it has never been used).
• Structure and organization of International Criminal Court
The ICC is governed by an Assembly of States Parties, which is made up of the states which are party to the Rome Statute. The Assembly elects officials of the Court, approves its budget, and adopts amendments to the Rome Statute. The Court itself, however, is composed of four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry.
The Judicial Divisions consist of the 18 judges of the Court, organized into three chambers; the Pre-Trial Chamber, Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber which carry out the judicial functions of the Court. Judges are elected to the Court by the Assembly of States Parties. They serve nine-year terms and are not generally eligible for re-election. All judges must be nationals of states parties to the Rome Statute, and no two judges may be nationals of the same state. They must be “persons of high moral character, impartiality and integrity who possess the qualifications required in their respective States for appointment to the highest judicial offices”.
Application activity 8.1
1. Explain how Rwandan judicial system is organized.
2. Briefly differentiate the International court of Justice from the international Criminal court basing on the cases to be tried.
8.2. Organs responsible for preventing and resolving the conflicts and violence at the national and international levels.
Learning activity 8.2
Identify different organs responsible for preventing and solving conflicts and violence at the National and international levels and suggest the ways of prevention and conflict resolution.
8.2.1. Concepts of Conflict
A conflict exists when there is an interaction between two or more individuals, groups or organizations where at least one side sees its thinking, ideas, perceptions, feelings or will contradicting with that of the other side and feels that they cannot get what they want because of the other side.
A conflict is an opposition, a lack of comprehension or agreement between individuals about opinions, thinking, ideas or interests. As a human fact, conflict can become extreme and lead to the war. It can arise between members of the same group, known as intragroup conflict, or it can occur between members of two or more groups, and involve violence, interpersonal discord, and psychological tension, known as intergroup conflict.
The conflict is a reality of social life and exists at all levels of society. The conflicts are as old as the world itself. Conflicts are inevitable in human kind and the justice is mandatory to deal with them. In order to make the justice perfect, rules and laws were set up and various judicial systems or court systems were organized. The Conflicts are dynamic and are not inherently negative or positive. They can facilitate growth or bring harm to the people involved.
Generally, they are four main factors which lead to the outbreak of conflict:
Structural factors: such as weak states, security concern and ethnic geography;
Political factors: example discriminatory political institutions, exclusionary national ideologies, intergroup and elite politics;
Economic factors: example widespread economic problem, discriminatory economic system, poverty, unequal access to national resources and modernization.
Cultural factors: example cultural discrimination, problematic group histories, emerges dehumanizing ideologies, etc.
8.2.2.Organs and actors responsible for preventing and resolving conflicts and violence at national and international levels.
There are no conflicts that are entirely similar and special features always have to be kept in mind. Domestic disputes are resolved by counselors or psychologist provided by the government; for labor disputes, trained mediators or arbitrators might work well.
Role of the state in prevention and conflict resolution
The state is the only legitimate user of physical violence in a society. Thus, it is almost by definition involved whenever there is an armed conflict in society. There are also fiscal, territorial and ideological monopolies. All these roles make the state an actor in conflict as well as an object of conflict.
The dilemma of state in prevention and conflict resolution can be summarized as follows: if the state is powerful (totalitarian system), it creates counteraction, fear among the population and pay high cost of the repression in case of resistance; if it is weak (failed state enable to maintain, order, and collect taxes) it can be dismissed.
To find the ‘ideal’ state for lasting peace is not easy. Liberal democracy has been identified as an appropriate model, but it may not be applicable in every context and be sufficient to handle all the world’s conflicts.
Internal affairs can be submitted to the international community if the legitimate, government asks for such an intervention. This is a basic principle of the UN Charter and was seen as an untouchable principle during the Cold War.
Internal conflicts have always implications for regional stability. Neighbor states can be innocent victims of internal conflicts, but they are also active contributors to military escalation and regional instability (“spill over”, “contagion”).
The state should set up the mechanisms, institutions and policies aiming at fighting the violence and preventing the conflicts basing on the respect of the human rights.
The state has also obligation of passing the rules and laws which limit the occasion of violence, outbreak of the conflicts and determine the pacific ways of conflict resolutions.
The state, through its organs, must enforce the rules, regulations and the laws. This is basic principle for preventing the conflicts.
Role of international community in prevention and conflict resolution
The United Nations Organization (UN) has a broad mandate for the prevention of violent conflict under Article 1 of the UN Charter. It has a wide array of departments and agencies that have been working to very good effect to mitigate the sources of conflict and stem the proximate causes of violence. For instance, the UN is often best placed to undertake preventive initiatives. Such initiatives include preventive diplomacy, preventive disarmament, preventive peacekeeping, post-conflict peace building, capacity building and technical support, and activities promoting human rights and good governance.
The most visible manifestations of the UN Secretary-General’s “good offices” efforts, Special Envoys, are deployed to help resolve a wide variety of disputes, from territorial questions to constitutional and electoral crises to peace talks. Special Envoys may have country-specific (e.g. Syria, Yemen), regional (e.g. Sahel, Great Lakes), or thematic (e.g. prevention of genocide) mandates.
The UN special political commissions, headed by senior representatives of the Secretary-General, provide a tool for intensive and sustained preventive efforts across a range of disciplines such as electoral support, women’s empowerment and human rights.
They support complex political transitions and help sustain peace in coordination with national and UN development and humanitarian entities and other actors such as regional organizations and international financial institutions.
The UN Peacekeeping missions bring military and police capacities to bear, integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to advance multidimensional mandates. Peacekeepers provide security and political and peace building support to help countries make the difficult, early transition from conflict to peace, helping to prevent relapse and to secure longer term stability, working in partnership with many other actors.
UN peacekeeping soldiers from Rwanda patrol on December 09, 2014 in Bangui.
Source:https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2017/04/20/after-the-rwandan-genocide-
the-un-promised-never-again-now-its-time-for-them-to-take-action-againstisis/#599d5e344142
UN regional offices serve as forward platforms for preventive diplomacy. Their networks and proximity to the countries in their region help to defuse tensions and support national actors, UN Country Teams, and regional organizations to address crises. Regional offices are also well placed to address cross-boundary issues such as transnational organized crime and water sharing.
The UN works closely with regional partners – either in a leading or supporting role – to prevent conflict and maintain international peace and security. Partnerships with regional organizations such as the African Union (AU), the European Union (EU) or the Organization of American States (OAS), and sub-regional organizations like the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), play important roles in early warning, engaging national networks and coordinating regional responses.
Roles of regional organizations
Regional and sub-regional organizations are uniquely placed to affect several factors that are crucial in the prevention of violent conflict. Such organizations can facilitate and help move forward the efforts of the UN system throughout its engagement in a given conflict or potential conflict.
Regional and sub-regional organizations are well placed to act because first, members of regional and sub-regional organizations may be more willing to allow these organizations, rather than the UN, to engage in preventive action.
The actions of regional and sub-regional organizations are likely to be more discreet than those undertaken by the various bodies of the UN, particularly at the early stages of potential conflict.
Moreover, regional and sub-regional organizations may be better placed to act because they are familiar with the actors involved in the dispute and the situation on the ground.
In addition, although their interests are not always benign, neighbors frequently have a greater interest in preventing conflicts that could potentially escalate to the regional level.
The regional and sub-regional organizations have an important role to play in developing a regional “culture of conflict prevention” through the promotion of democracy, human rights and sustainable development.
Lastly, they can and have been quite successful at longer-term and sustained conflict prevention efforts involving capacity building and technical assistance. In the past few years, this has begun to include election monitoring and broader democratization assistance in several regions.
Role of Non – Governmental Organizations in prevention and conflict resolution.
In prevention and conflict resolution, the local and non-governmental organizations could play the following role:
• Addressing structural violence and promoting human security - through development, human rights monitoring and promotion, preventing environmental degradation...
• Making governments and state structures more responsive - through participation in political processes, policy dialogue, monitoring, advocacy campaigns, protests...
• Alleviating social tensions and conflict - through challenging xenophobia and discrimination, facilitating dialogue, promoting tolerance and a culture of peace...
• Developing options and strategies for response - formulating recommendations, engaging in policy dialogue, problem-solving
workshops
• Mobilizing political will for response - lobbying and campaigning, sensitizing domestic audiences
• Developing and strengthening ‘constituencies for peace’ and public awareness work, facilitating social dialogue, public protests...
• Providing the humanitarian relief and support to war-affected communities; which reduce tension to the revengeful war.
• Strengthening capacities to mediate conflict and manage differences - through conflict resolution training, mediation services, education, promoting rule of law.
• Creating a ‘pragmatic peace’ at the local level, strengthening local community organizations’ capacities for conflict transformation and peace building through public dialogue.
• Developing a negotiation agenda and vision for the future that addresses the causes and consequences of conflict.
• Participating in the political negotiations and facilitating / mediating political negotiations process.
Application activity 8.2
1. Explain the role of Non-governmental organization in prevention and resolution of conflicts.
2. Analyze the main factors which contribute to the outbreak of conflict.
8.3. Different ways used to prevent and resolve conflicts and violence
Learning activity 8.3
The conflict is considered as “integral part if humanitarian action”. Suggest the different ways which could be used in order to prevent and resolve it.
Dealing with conflicts is called differently: “conflict management,” “conflict resolution”, “conflict transformation”, “conflict mediation”, “consensus building”, etc. Most of the theorists and practitioners prefer to use “conflict resolution”.The possible outcomes can be win-lose (one wins, the other loses), or compromise (parties settle their difference or win-win). But the common outcome in violent conflicts is that both parties lose.
Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one should learn to manage them in order to prevent escalation and destruction. Throughout history, individuals and groups used a variety of ways to resolve their disputes or conflicts, trying to reach a resolution acceptable to all parties.
• Conflict analysis
In dealing with conflicts, it is necessary to have a better understanding of the dynamics, relationships and issues of the situation. A detailed analysis of the conflict from a variety of perspectives must be carried out by exploring the specific issues and problems that relate to it. This practical process is what is called “conflict analysis”.
The whole dynamic conflict analysis is to be able to move from an attitude of “I don’t know what the real cause of the conflict is!” to “Now I know why we have this conflict!”
It is therefore important for the person or group analyzing a situation to gather data about the positions, values, issues, interests and needs of each party in conflict.
Conflicts change over time, passing through different stages of activity, intensity, tension and violence. It is helpful to recognize and analyze each stage.
• Timelines
It is a list of data (years, months, days, location, and actors) which depicts events in a chronological order. It shows a succession of events and gives examples in the history of the country. People of opposing sides may have different histories, emphasize different events, describe them differently, and attach contrasting emotions to them.
The aim of using timelines in this way is to try to arrive at a ‘correct’ or objective’ history of the conflict and to understand the perceptions of the people involved. The timeline is also a way for people to learn about each other’s history and perceptions of the situation. The aim to reach is the point where the parties in a conflict can accept that others may have valid perceptions, even if these are opposed to their own.
• Conflict mapping
Mapping is a technique used to represent a conflict graphically, placing the parties in relation both to the problem and to each other. When people with different viewpoints map their situation together, they learn about each other’s experiences and perceptions.
• Conflict tree
In many conflicts there is a range of opinions concerning questions such as: What is the core problem? What are the root causes?What are the effects that have resulted from this problem? What is the most important issue for our group to address?
This is called “conflict tree”. It offers a method for a team, organization, group or community to identify the issues that each of them sees as important and then sort these into three categories: Core problem(s), causes and effects. This tool offers also a way of identifying positive and negative forces and to assess their strengths and weaknesses.
• Negotiation
Negotiation is a process in which parties to a conflict discuss directly possible outcomes. Parties exchange proposals and demands, make arguments, and continue the discussion until a solution is reached, or an impasse declared. The goal of negotiation is to reach an agreement that is acceptable to all parties, to which they remain committed, and which they indeed implement.
In negotiations there are many approaches to resolving the conflict. For example, negotiators can focus on the discussion about the interests of parties. Because there are many interests underlying any position, a discussion based on interests opens a range of possibilities and creative options, but positions may not be reconciled and can lead to the failure of the negotiations. That is why the dialogue on interest should be transparent, in order for the parties to arrive at an agreement that will satisfy the needs and interests.
Negotiations are based on the following basic principles:
Separate the people from the problem: The participants in a negotiation have with different perceptions, beliefs, viewpoints and emotions. In negotiation the “people side” must be treated separately from the factual issues. Ideally, participants should also see themselves working side by side attacking the problem, not each other.
Focus on interests, not positions: The object of negotiation is to satisfy underlying needs and interests. To take and hold on a position will not lead to agreements that take care of human needs. Thus, the focus should be on interests.
Invent options for mutual gain: In negotiation, partners must take time to look for a wide range of possible solutions before trying to come to an agreement. If there are many options, there is more chance of finding solutions which advance shared interests and reconcile differences.
Use objective criteria: Agreement must reflect some fair standards. These standards are not subjective criteria of one participant; rather they should be shared by all participants and objectively verifiable.
Finally, active listening is the most important and difficult skill needed for negotiator or mediator to succeed in the negotiation process.
On international level, negotiation in order to resolve conflicts has become a common and frequent practice. Many ways are available to deal with conflict. In most cases conflicts are resolved through efforts of trained government representatives or diplomats. This is an old tradition by which ambassadors were personal representatives of one sovereign to the court of another. In modern times, electronic communication has supplanted the individual diplomat when it comes to the establishment of important international agreements, but the role of person-to-person contact, even at the highest levels, remains important. The process of conflict resolution is like a debate.
• Mediation
Mediation is a process that employs a neutral/impartial person or persons to facilitate negotiation between the parties to a conflict in an effort to reach a mutually accepted resolution. It is a process close to negotiation.
The mediator’s role is to help the parties think in new and innovative ways and to avoid rigid positions instead of looking after their interests. In general, the mediator not only facilitates but also designs the process and helps the parties to get to the root of their conflict, to understand their interests, and reach a resolution agreed by all concerned parties. He/she uses tools such as active listening, open-ended questions, and his/her analytical skills.
The mediator may decide to stop the process for ethical or other reasons, and the parties may decide that they are not satisfied with the process. The agreement, which is reached between the parties, is voluntary; the parties own it and are responsible for implementing it. The agreement is validated and ratified by the courts.
Mediation has a special advantage when the parties have ongoing relations that must continue after the conflict is managed. Since the agreement is by consent, none of the parties should feel they are the losers. Mediation is therefore useful in family relations, disputes between neighbors, in labor relations, between business partners, and political parties. It creates a foundation for resuming the relation after the conflict has been resolved.
Application activity 8.3
1. Analyze the ways used while preventing and resolving conflicts and violence.
2. Evaluate the principles of negotiation in terms of conflict resolution and avoiding violence.
8.4.Challenges encountered during the prevention and resolution of conflicts and violence
Learning activity 8.4
By using textbooks and reports make a research on prevention and resolution of conflicts and violence and examine the challenges encountered by the peacemakers in conflict prevention and resolution process.
8.4.1. Challenges faced during the prevention and conflict resolution
Solving conflicts completely is impossible, as conflict is part of the daily life. What is needed to achieve a lasting peace is to prevent escalation so that it does not become crisis with killings of human beings and destruction of social and material structures.
Practitioners say that peace begins within each individual and then spread out. The question is that not everyone is ready to engage in that process unless there is awareness action with that aim. This can be initiated by the state, the international institutions or civil society organizations.
Lack of conflict mechanism and programs in local community can hinder the prevention and resolution of conflict in the community. Not all countries or communities have such experience. Rwanda is among the countries that have elaborated such kind of programs because of its particular tragic experience.
Minimizing oppressive personal relationships may be a prerequisite for helping to alleviate the oppression of others. The world will be better and less violent place if each individual makes peace in his or her own life (inner peace). Commitment in the struggle for peace may require conflict – preferably non-violent with existing authorities if meaningful change has to happen.
On a wide scene, contemporary armed conflicts encompass different levels from international level (global, regional, bilateral), through national state level, down to societal level. This is what makes them so hard to resolve or transform.
Key challenges to conflict prevention remain in international affairs. Many states in the South are concerned that conflict resolution can be abused as a pretext for the big powers to violate the sovereignty of the weak. These concerns have been some what verified in the past couple of years. It is the case of recent operations in Libya.
Concerns about violations of sovereignty persist, as do suspicions about the underlying motivations behind the use of military power for ostensibly humanitarian purposes, and perceptions that, even when well-intentioned, the application of force can potentially have troubling and unpredictable consequences.
Lack of international community ownership regarding some crises: the actions of the United Nations are limited with insufficient humanitarian activities and in some cases (like in Darfur crisis), the international community’s will is oriented by the big powers such as the USA and China. To some extent, China was mandated to play a more role to end the conflict in Darfur. Therefore, the conflict became insignificant to the UN which delays the action to be taken in order to stop it.
Unwillingness of the UN to develop a conflict resolution mechanism capable of managing crisis also is another challenge in process of conflict resolution. This unwillingness is a result of the misperception of the existence of glob threats by states and non-states actors. Such willingness can be also resulted from the division within international community based on different interests each member state can find in conflict.
In case of intra-state conflict, some states are not able to address the menace of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in polity with functional policies. This enables different groups to get armed and able to challenge the national security. As a result, the government is seen as a weak and failed state. Even the civil society is not able to act in order to prevent the conflict.
Some states also failure to tackle the immediate and root causes of conflict holistically. After many years of neglect, the government can fail to really solve many cases of injustice, poverty, unemployment and issues of resource control. In addition, the state failure to address early warning signs and early response systems can greatly affect the conflict prevention and resolution.
8.4.2. Solutions to the challenges encountered during the prevention and resolution of conflicts and violence
Conflict prevention and resolution involve long-term political processes, with periods of slow to no progress punctuated by shifts in positions, circumstances or contexts. While some types of conflicts can be sorted into broader categories due to certain common features, each conflict has to be seen in its particular environment.
To be effective, conflict resolution tools should integrate state and non-state actors through multi-track approaches at the local, national, and regional levels. Local civil society organizations may have a better understanding of local context and can play a significant role in supporting national conflict resolution and reconciliation processes at the local level.
Mediation is a specialized activity, which requires specific training, expertise and knowhow. Consequently, any third-party actor engaging in mediation efforts should be equipped with a solid understanding of how mediation and conflict resolution work.
Sustainable peace building contributes to the process of conflict resolution. Consequently, national and international efforts have to focus on meeting the most immediate needs of people.
Another key objective is the restoration of state legitimacy and effectiveness, as peace building usually starts after a partial or complete breakdown of the political and social order, for instance due to an armed conflict or other forms of protracted violence.
The establishment and promotion of prevention and conflict resolution must include national peace commissions, national and local institutions for mediation and dispute settlement, national and local early warning networks, local peace committees, truth and reconciliation commissions as well as community-based conflict prevention initiatives.
Early warning and early response systems must be considered on time so that they can be especially important contributions to end the conflict status within a society or between different nations.
The key building blocks for reconciliation include trust, justice and reparation. They should be applied in support of conflict resolution and peace building; reconciliation activities are inherently about learning how to remember and change rather than to forgive and forget.
Application activity 8.4
1. Analyze the different challenges faced by the peacemakers while they are trying to prevent and solve the conflicts.
2. Examine the solutions proposed to the problems faced by the peacemakers when they are preventing and solving the conflicts.
Skills lab
Explain ways of preventing and solving conflicts and violence
End unit assessment
1. “Conflict is a reality of social life and exists at all levels of society”.
Discuss this assertion.
2. While solving conflicts, one of the ways used is negotiation. Explain the basic principles of negotiation.
3. Explain challenges that may occur when preventing and resolving conflicts.
4. Describe the role of international community headed by UNO, in prevention and conflicts resolution.