Social Studies for LE SME

Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to analyze types and different ways of Human Rights

violation, its prevention and the national duties and obligations towards the achievement of national cohesion

Introductory Activity

In Paris, on December 10th 1948, United Nations General Assembly adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Thereafter, a number of countries ratified this text. Assess how Human Rights have been protected in general and what your country has been able to achieve in particular in this area?

How the Rwandan citizens and non-citizens towards have contributed to national duties and obligations? What were the challenges faced during the implementation of the national duties and obligations?

7.1. Types and prevention of Human Rights violations

Learning activity 7.1

Through the use of internet, textbooks and or newspapers make research about Human Rights violations and give answers to the following questions:

1. Explain the concept of Human Rights.

2. Identify types of Human Rights and describe different ways of prevention of Human Rights violations.

7.1.1. Definition of the concept of Human Rights

Human Rights are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights which are inherent in the mere fact of being human. The concept of Human Rights is based on the belief that every human being is entitled to enjoy her/his rights without discrimination.

Human Rights differ from other rights in two respects.

Firstly, they are characterized by being:

• Inherent in all human beings by virtue of their humanity alone (they do

not have, e.g., to be purchased or to be granted);

• Inalienable (within qualified legal boundaries); and

• Equally applicable to all.

Secondly, the main duties deriving from Human Rights fall on states and their authorities or agents, not on individuals.

Human Rights are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the Human Rights of others. They should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances, and require freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.

7.1.2. Types of Human Rights

Human Rights can be classified and organized in a number of different ways. At an international level the most common categorization of Human Rights has been to split them into civil and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights. The following are some of the types of Human Rights:

Individual or civil rights are a set of ‘physical integrity rights’ which concern the right to life, liberty, and security of the person; privacy and freedom of movement; ownership of property; freedom of thought, conscience, and religious belief and practice; prohibition of slavery, torture, and cruel or degrading punishment.

Rule of law is related to equal recognition before the law and equal protection of the law; effective legal remedy for violation of rights; impartial hearing and trial; presumption of innocence; and prohibition of arbitrary arrest.

Rights of political expression comprise freedom of expression, assembly,  and association; the right to take part in government; and periodic and meaningful elections with universal and equal suffrage.

Economic and social rights concern adequate standard of living; free choice of employment; protection against unemployment; “just and favorable remuneration”; the right to form and join trade unions; “reasonable limitation of working hours”; free elementary education; social security; and the “highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.”

Rights of communities refer to self-determination and protection of minority cultures.

7.1.3. Ways of prevention of Human Rights violations

The concept of prevention

Human Rights violations occur when actions done by state’s (or non-state) actors abuse, ignore, or deny basic Human Rights (including civil, political, cultural, social, and economic rights). Furthermore, violations of Human Rights can occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) treaty or other international Human Rights or humanitarian law.

By becoming parties to international treaties, States assume obligations and duties under international law to respect, protect and fulfil Human Rights for all persons within their territory or jurisdiction, without discrimination of any kind.

States have the primary responsibility for the promotion and protection of all Human Rights, including the prevention of Human Rights violations. The obligations of States include the duty to protect against Human Rights abuse by third parties, including private actors. States may breach their international Human Rights law obligations where they fail to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress private actors’ abuse.

For example, the prevention of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity requires “sustained efforts to build the resilience of societies to atrocity crimes by ensuring that the rule of law is respected and that all Human Rights are protected, without discrimination; by establishing legitimate and accountable national institutions; by eliminating corruption; by managing diversity constructively; and by supporting a strong and diverse civil society and a pluralistic media”.

The terminology used in relation to the prevention distinguishes between specific practical actions which need to be taken for preventive purposes (direct prevention or mitigation), and the response to violations which needs to be taken in order to remedy those violations and prevent recurrence (indirect prevention or non-recurrence).

Direct prevention/mitigation

Direct prevention aims to eliminate risk factors and establish a legal, administrative and policy framework which seeks to prevent violations.

It is also contingent on establishing a culture of respect for Human Rights, good governance and the rule of law, and an enabling environment for a vibrant civil society and free press.

Indirect prevention/non-recurrence

Indirect prevention of Human Rights violations, or non-recurrence, takes place after a violation has occurred. It aims to prevent recurrence by identifying and addressing causes of violations of all Human Rights, through investigation and prosecution, ensuring the right of victims and societies to know the truth about violations, and the right of victims to an effective remedy, in accordance with international law.

In practice, prevention of violations of Human Rights can be done through the establishment of a legislative and institutional framework for prevention; Human Rights education; dialogue,truth commissions, international war crimes tribunals, democratization measures and humanitarian aid and development assistance.

Legislative and institutional framework for prevention

As a first step, prevention includes ratifying Human Rights treaties and their implementation at the domestic level and adopting laws and policies that guarantee Human Rights in law and practice. Regular and systematic review of existing and proposed legislation for compliance with a State’s Human Rights obligations is an important safeguard. Such review may be done through a judicial, parliamentary or internal State process. National Human Rights institutions may be specifically mandated to complement such a review and to provide relevant authorities with information about compatibility or recommendations, which have led to changes in proposed laws or policy.

The role of Human Rights education in prevention of Human Rights violation

Human Rights education contributes to the prevention of Human Rights violations and conflict, and to the enhancement of participation in decisionmaking processes within a democratic system. Education about Human Rights must become part of general public education. Technical and financial assistance should be provided to increase knowledge about Human Rights. Members of the police and security forces have to be trained to ensure the observation of Human Rights standards for law enforcement. Research institutes and universities should be also strengthened to train lawyers and judges.

Dialogue

Dialogue groups that assemble people from various ethnicities should be organized to overcome mistrust, fear and grief in society. Getting to know the feelings of ordinary people of each side might help to change the demonic image of the enemy group. Dialogue also helps parties at the grassroots level to discover the truth about what has happened and may provide opportunities for apology and forgiveness.

Truth commissions

Truth commissions are sometimes established after a political transition. They can be understood as bodies set up to investigate a past history of violations of Human Rights in a particular country which can include violations by the military or other government forces or armed opposition forces. Their goal is to uncover details of past abuses as a symbol of acknowledgment of past wrongs. They typically do not have the powers of courts, nor should they, since they do not have the same standards of evidence and protections for defendants. As such, they usually do not «name names» of those responsible for Human Rights abuses, but rather point to institutional failings that facilitated the crimes. Finally, they conclude with a report that contains recommendations to prevent a recurrence of the crimes and to provide reparations to victims.

International war crimes tribunals

International war crimes tribunals are established to hold individuals criminally responsible for violations of international Human Rights law in special courts. The international community rarely has the will to create them. As the experiences with the war tribunals for Rwanda and Yugoslavia indicate, even where they are created, they are imperfect. They cannot hold all perpetrators accountable and typically aim for the top leadership. However, it remains difficult to sentence the top-level decision-makers, who bear the ultimate responsibility for atrocities. They often enjoy political immunity as members of the post-conflict government. Incriminating a popular leader might lead to violent protests and sometimes even to relapse into conflict.

Democratization measures

Various democratization measures can help to restore political and social rights. For sustainability and long-term viability of Human Rights standards, strong local enforcement mechanisms have to be established. An independent judiciary that provides impartial means and protects individuals against politically influenced persecution must be restored. Election of monitors who help to guarantee fair voting procedures can help to ensure stable and peaceful elections.

And various social structural changes, including reallocations of resources, increased political participation, and the strengthening of civil society can help to ensure that people›s basic needs are met.

Humanitarian aid and development assistance

Humanitarian aid and development assistance seeks to ease the impact that violent conflict has on civilians. During conflict, the primary aim is to prevent human casualties and ensure access to basic survival needs. These basics include water, sanitation, food, shelter and health care. Aid can also assist those who have been displaced and support rehabilitation work. Once conflict has ended, development assistance helps to advance reconstruction programs that rebuild infrastructure, institutions and the economy. This assistance helps countries to undergo peaceful development rather than sliding back into conflict.

Application activity 7.1

1. Explain the concept of prevention of Human Rights violations.

2. Differentiate direct prevention from indirect prevention.

3. How education can help in the prevention of Human Rights violations?

7.2 National cohesion, identities and respect of Human Rights

Learning activity 7.2

Use the internet or visit your school’s library and read about the national

cohesion and identities and then answer to the questions below:

1. Explain the concepts of national cohesion and national identity.

2. Discuss how the national cohesion and national identity can influence the respect of Human Rights.

National Cohesion

National cohesion involves the constructing of an integrated citizenry with a sense of belonging amongst members of different groups and from different regions, through the regulation and reconciliation of differences as well as competing interests and demands.

National identity

National identity is the sense of a nation as a cohesive whole, as represented by distinctive traditions, culture, language and politics. A person’s national identity is his/her identity and sense of belonging to one state or to one nation, a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one’s legal citizenship status. Scientists see national identity in psychological terms as an “awareness of difference”, a “feeling and recognition of ‘we’ and ‘they’”.

National identity is not an inborn trait, various studies have shown that a person’s national identity results directly from the presence of elements from the “common points” in people’s daily lives: national symbols, language, national colors, the nation’s history, national consciousness, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, and so on.

National identity markers are those characteristics used to identify a person as possessing a particular national identity. These markers are not fixed but fluid, varying from culture to culture and also within a culture over time. Such markers may include common language or dialect, national dress, birthplace, family affiliation, etc.

Factors of national cohesion and identities

The promotion of the national cohesion and identities requires deliberate strategies to reorganize the management of diversities. These strategies include:

There is need to strengthen social institutions and organizations as well as mechanisms of governance to enhance national cohesion. The transformation of the political and governance institutions such as the executive, legislature, judiciary, civil service, local government, public administration, electoral rules, and party composition is particularly important for the achievement of national cohesion and integration.

Adoption of diversity concepts at all levels of organizational management at public and private establishments. There is need for a mandatory provision to infuse cohesion principles in all ministries, departments and agencies within the public sector. Private sector agencies should also ensure that they mainstream national cohesion in their respective institutions especially in their recruitment, promotion and retention of staff.

Establishment and enhancement of local community dialogue forums by creating, developing and/or expanding local community dialogue forums such as local workshops are essential. This will offer a platform for individuals

and community members to discuss issues and generate solutions to the problems affecting national cohesion.

Strengthening the role of national, province and community leaders in promoting national cohesion and identity; community leaders and traditional systems that promote national cohesion such as the Councils of Elders should be recognized and supported.

Implementation and enforcement of legislation that is related to prosecution of individuals or groups that promote negative ethnicity and hate speech in Rwanda. Individuals who make expression that promote negative ethnicity and hate speech should be reported and prosecuted irrespective of their ethnic background or status in society. Communities should not embrace such individuals and should instead warn them for fueling enmity against other communities. The media should equally avoid giving publicity to such individuals.

Embracement of diversity and symbols of national unity: Emphasis should be placed on the sovereignty of the people, effective management of indigenous languages, national symbols, the national anthem, national days, national values and principles of governance among others.

Develop and monitor a set of indicators and indices that capture the role of governance institutions in enhancing cohesion. These indicators will include: democratic governance, rule of law, reduction of corruption, justice and human security as well as promotion of value systems and public policies.

Accelerate the development of special economic zones to improve the socio-economic profile of the less developed regions. It is imperative that the socio-economic profiles of less developed regions are improved through investment in infrastructure and industries. The Government should ensure equitable infrastructural development across the country with attention to roads, electricity, water and sanitation among others.

Facilitate equitable investments in social and economic services, education, training institutions, health facilities, food, security and water among others. Ensure universal access to fundamental Human Rights such as basic education, health services, and water and food security.

Improve land management practices and challenges related to natural resource mismanagement. Since many conflicts in Rwanda revolve around land and management of resources, there is need to improve land management practices and address land inequalities and resource mismanagement.

Address youth unemployment and other forms of socio-economic exclusion. The economy should be improved with the aim of facilitating the creation of more job opportunities.

The youth should also be provided with relevant training skills and necessary capital to generate wealth and become self-reliant.

Use traditional performances such as dance, music, drama and sporting activities to facilitate cohesion amongst communities. Cultural performance and arts, especially those that are linked to specific events and national days, should be used to encourage and support national cohesion and integration.

Media and cultural activities such as art, music, pictures and film can be used to broadcast messages of peace and positive co-existence. Therefore, the media should be used to promote various cultural activities that encourage and support national cohesion and integration.

There is a need of strong communication strategy which should entail working with local media among others in a bid to counter stereo-types and other negative practices.

Another factor for national cohesion and identity includes the existence of a visionary leadership that practices good governance and develops a vision for the nation. It also involves community empowerment through participation and engagement through a bottom-up consultation process.

It is also essential to recognize changing demographics such as youth, men, women, people with various challenges and other groups.

Influences of national cohesion and identity on the respect of Human Rights

National cohesion and culture play a significant and fundamental role in fostering identity and sense of security by directing individual behavior. Cultural products serve to unify people while participation in cultural activities ensure that issues of national importance are profiled and messages of integration communicated thereby promoting mutual coexistence and respect of Human Rights as follows:

When the people identify themselve in one group, one country or state with the same culture, this enables them to defend them and safeguard their life and the life of each other. 

The national cohesion is amongest the key points in respect of the Human Rights especially the right to the nationality as defended in Universal declaration of Human Rights and in the constitution of Rwanda as amendated up to date. 

This is due to the will of sharing a nation as their identity. 

In the traditional Rwanda, the Rwandans had the same religion, beliefs and rituals.

This facilitated them to enjoy the freedom of worship because everyone was allowed to participate in his or her own traditional ritual like Kubandwa and guterekera.

Today, even if there are various religions practices; the Constitution of Rwanda grants all citizens with freedom of worship. In this redard, the respect of Human Rights is ensured.

Culture is essential for individual survival and for social relations. Just as culture is essential for individuals, it is also fundamental for the survival of societies. Some system of rule-making and enforcing is necessary in all societies. In order to survive, societies need rules about civility and tolerance toward others. We are not born knowing how to express kindness or hatred towards others.

National cohesion and Rwandan identity can promote the respect of the Human Rights in the sense that they destroy the sectarist references, exclusions, division and negative ideologies that had characterised the Rwandan societies and led to the genocide against the Tutsi.

In culture of Rwanda and as it is stated in the constitution of Rwanda, every child has the right to the family and is entitled to special measures of protection by his/her family, society and the State. This enforces the respect of Human Rights especially the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted in 1989.

In ancient Rwanda as well as today, the Rwandans enjoy the rights of being fairly tried. Judicial institution like Gacaca for instance, had been set up to perform such noble task. This cemented the culture of justice and all Rwanda people respected the decision made by hierarchal courts of justice.

Application activity 7.2

1. Examine different ways through which the Rwandan identity can be reshaped in order to enable Rwandans to no longer consider each other according to the different stereotypes that have characterized the Rwandan society.

2. Carry out a survey on different policies currently set up by government of Rwanda basing on the Ancient Rwandan cultural practices to rebuild the National cohesion and identity.

3. Explain how Rwandans have been known under different identities and some of them underwent mistreatments due to that discrimination.

7.3. The background and structure of the national duties and obligations

Learning activity 7.3

Use the different resources like books, internet or documentary films about national duties and obligations in Rwanda in order to give relevant answers to the questions below: 

Explain the national duties and obligations of Itorero ry’Igihugu, Umuganda, Imihigo and Community Policing and describe their background

7.3.1 Itorero ry’igihugu

Historical background

According to the History of Rwanda, Itorero was initiated during the reign of Gihanga and reinforced by King Ruganzu II Ndoli 510 A.D. Itorero ry’Igihugu was a national forum for glooming national leaders. Itorero trainees would delve deeply in discussions relating to national programs and Rwanda’s cultural values. Graduates of Itorero; Intore, would be qualified to become leaders at various levels of the country’s leadership, depending on how each one would distinguish oneself during the Itorero mentorship.

As an educational institution, Itorero ry’Igihugu was deeply rooted in the Rwandan culture, till it was later abolished by the colonial administration. It was through Itorero that the country channeled various subjects relating to national culture. These included Language, Patriotism, Social Studies, Sports, Creative Arts, Martial Arts, good governance, the spirit of courage,

integrity, and synergy while dealing with challenges because in the olden times, Intore would never give way to defeat. That should be the very legacy we hand over to our posterity.

Itorero trainees would be immersed in the Rwandan culture; they were encouraged to critically discuss, explore and analyse Rwandan cultural  values with the aim of instilling its values, which would in turn give them the lifelong foundation in the way they mirror their social environment, shape their conduct, tune their mind-set, their way of doing things, and mould their social interaction.

From 1924 to 1994, Itorero was banned by the colonial rule and further by the post-independence regimes. Itorero lost its significance which resulted in distortions of the Rwandan culture and breakdown of Rwandan social fabric, mutual support and selfless service to the nation.

These distortions are indubitably among the main causes of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi which devastated the Rwandan society.

 Legal framework

During the Urugwiro consultative meetings that took place between May 1998 and March 1999, top national leadership and various other leaders in the country met and discussed the issues of national unity and  reconciliation, democracy, justice, economy and security. Among the many recommendations that were passed at that time, was that of reviving the Rwandan cultural values that could help to cultivate decent citizens.

This is why the Rwanda Government decided to draw from the Rwandan culture, some home-grown tools of dealing with the country’s peculiar challenges, be it in the area of governance, economy or social welfare.

The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda, promulgated on 4th June 2003, as revised and amended to this day; in its Article 8 of the Preamble gives the guideline on which Itorero ry’Igihugu was established; that is where it states the following;

“We, the People of Rwanda...,considering that it is necessary to draw from our centuries-old history the positive values which characterized our ancestors that must be the basis for the existence and flourishing of our Nation…”

The idea of establishing Itorero ry’Igihugu came up during the top leadership retreat that took place in Akagera in February 2007. During that retreat, all  Government institutions that have community sensitization in their mandate were given the responsibility of developing strategies which would ensure that all Rwandans are sensitized on their tangible role in the rapid implementation of National and International Vision.

One of the recommendations passed during the Akagera retreat in February 2007, was to establish a “National Service” which would help to sensitize Rwandans on the importance of changing their mind set, especially in as far as their way of looking at things, of conduct, and of doing things is concerned. This would help to bring about peace and development, revolutionize the socio-economic life of the people, hence speeding up the attainment of National and international Vision objectives.

It is in this perspective that a Cabinet meeting of November 12th 2007 resolved that Itorero ry’Igihugu be revived as an appropriate tool of achieving the goals of all Visions and enhance sustainable development.

Itorero ry’Igihugu was revived at the official launch presided upon by His Excellency the President of the Republic on 16/11/2007, in the Parliament Buildings.

During the launching ceremony, His Excellency the President of the Republic reflected on the origin of Itorero. He pointed out that Itorero is a home-grown tool that has root in the Rwandan culture. He stressed Three Key Factors that must be taken into account if we have to get solutions to the challenges faced by our Country; he said this, however, without any shade of doubt that the work of Itorero would bring solutions to them.

The first factor was to understand that dealing with challenges faced by our country was primarily the responsibility of leaders, and secondly that of every citizens.

The second factor was that Rwandans should have conviction that they have, in themselves, the capacity to deal with those challenges.

The third point was that Rwandans should begin working hard, bearing in mind that they are working for their own good, but also have constant evaluation mechanisms to detect impending obstacles and give early warning signals.

7.3.2 National Itorero Overall goal

National Itorero is one of the Rwanda’s Home-Grown Solutions in the governance cluster and is regarded mainly as a cultural-centred programme. 

The overall goal of the National Itorero is to build a patriotic Rwandan who  has values and taboos of the Rwandan culture and who has Ubutore culture”. 

In order to achieve the broader aim of the Itorero, the following objectives have been set:

1. Train Rwandans to make them:

a) Understand their shared values and taboos in their coexistence, be patriotic and contribute to national development;

b) Be aware of and have proficient knowledge of national programs and necessary means for their implementation;

c) Be confident in their ability to solve problems to they are faced to with and uphold their dignity;

d) Be Intore who are worthy Rwandans found in all categories and are catalysts for positive changes;

e) Have the culture of volunteerism through national service;

f) Have the culture of being proud to set performance targets and to proclaim their achievements;

2. Train leaders to engage in a leadership style that promotes the values and strive to become the best performers;

3. Train Rwandans to promote respect for the values and taboos as a basis for coexistence and national development;

4. Collaborate with other public and private institutions and non-governmental organizations that train in values and taboos and seek their advice;

5. Prepare and follow up volunteerism activities through the national service;

6. Perform any other task as the Commission may find relevant to its mission. 

In order to achieve the above objectives, the following strategies and content have been set to bringing up a patriotic rwandan who have values and taboos and ubutore culture.

a. Some Strategies

1. Reinforce Rwandan culture and values as a foundation for peace and unity (NST1 art 79) by enshrining Kinyarwanda language and Rwandan values of integrity, transparency, fighting injustice and intolerance for corruption among Rwandans in families, schools’ curricula and the youth; this will be achieved through the operationalization of Itorero in schools and in all villages. Strategies of Itorero at village (Itorero ry’Umudugudu) and schools Level (Nursery, primary, secondary, University and high Institutions of learning).

2. Mentor and monitor the operationalization of Itorero in public & private institutions.

3. Increase citizens’ participation, engagement and partnerships in Development (NST1 art 107) by promoting the culture of self-reliance, teamwork spirit, integrity, solidarity and patriotism among Rwandans and develop home-Grown Solutions to problems encountered by different categories of our society and strengthening the voluntary National  service program (Urugerero) with the objective of developing the Rwandan youth into citizens who aspire to become self-reliant and hardworking.

The National Service (Urugerero) Program is provided by the constitution of Rwanda in its Art. 47.

4. Volunteerism Program: is an effective tool of mobilizing people for national and community service activities including among others: security, disaster relief and other socio-economic community services. It was used at all levels among Rwandans to address issues confronting society at various levels.

The International Labor Organization (ILO) proposes the following working definition of volunteerism as “unpaid non-compulsory work or non-obligatory work, work not done for family members.

According to the adopted Itorero strategy, Volunteerism (Ubwitange) in Rwanda is a Self-motivated action, performed by an individual or a group of individuals who contribute their time, skills, advice, talents and passion to the provision of services for the benefit of the larger community, without expecting a salary. Example: Umuganda, Ubudehe, Umusanzu (Communal self-help activities based on solidarity), Abunzi, local government councils (Njyanama), Gacaca judges, electoral commission agents, community health workers (abajyanama b’ubuzima), traditional birth attendants etc.

The volunteers might however be entitled to stipends intended to cover some of the expenses incurred for the accomplishment of the volunteering activity. Based on the concept of Ubwitange (National Service) that was used by Rwandans in rebuilding and developing pre-colonial Rwanda, the preferred option to guide our volunteer activities is National Service. Opting for National Service is mainly due to the following principal reasons:

i) Rwandans in pre-colonial Rwanda applied National Service in state rebuilding and led the Country to great achievements hence need to be re-adopted;

ii) National service is carried out by nationals and non-nationals without expecting any pay for the work accomplished unlike Volunteerism here the Volunteer expects some little pay for the work done;

iii) Nationals and non-nationals engaged in National Service activities may later participate in Volunteerism activities as a recognition of their dedicated and committed services to their State;

5. Ubutore development Centre is a centre where trainers from different areas are trained. This is also another strategy to foster a mindset that accelerates development and national self-reliance.

b. Some Content

The curriculum content for Itorero ry’igihugu is unique to Rwanda due to the fact that it is based on principles of intore and values peculiar to the Rwandan culture while Urugerero (National Service) on the other hand, has much in common with what takes place in other countries. Participating in Itorero is the right of every Rwandan, regardless of status and social group. During Itorero, the participants are encouraged to critically discuss, explore and analyse Rwandan cultural values and the following principles of Intore have been set up.

The principles of Intore:

1. Intore ntiganya; Ishaka ibisubizo (This literally means solving problems as they may arise without waiting for others to do it for you).

2. Intore ntiyoba; No mu ishyamba ry’inzitane, yishakira inzira (This simply means creating a way where there is no way through)

3. Intore ni umurinzi w’ibyagezweho; ntacyabisenya ibona (This means protecting what has been achieved)

4. Intore si nanjye binyobere; ni nkore neza bandebereho. (Being role model)

5. Intore ntigambanira indi ; kirazira gutatira igihango (Not being a traitor to your nation)

6. Intore ikemura ibibazo byayo itabyerekeje ku bandi, Kirazira (Selflessness, solving own problems with out depending on others)

7. Intore ntivunda ntisahinda, Ijabo ryayo riyiha ijambo (Respecting one another)

8. Tugire amahoro, Ubworoherane ubumwe n’ubwiyunge, (Being a peace maker)

9. Ingengabitekerezo ya jenoside, tuyirandurane n’imizi yayo yose (Uprooting Genocide ideology)

10. Tugire ubukire, Tubukoreye, dufatanije twese hamwe kandi vuba. (Quick inclusive economic growth and development)

The Core Values have also been set to achieve the Itorero objectives:

1. Unity – The state of being joined together to form one unit. A genuine vehicle of “the same wisdom, the same vision of the world, and the perception of political life”.

2. Patriotism – Love and allegiance to the nation and the government of the Republic of Rwanda

3. Selflessness – the renunciation of one’s own interests in favour of the interests of others. The spirit of not putting one’s self first but being willing to give one’s time and resources for the benefit of others.

4. Integrity – the act of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations and outcome.

5. Responsibility - the obligation and authority to take the necessary actions to ensure success. The obligation for the proper custody, care, and safekeeping of resources entrusted to the possession or supervision of an individual.

6. Volunteerism – Volunteering is the practice of people working for a particular cause without payment for their time and services. It is the desire to undertake by choice and free will a task or work for the benefit of the wider community beyond the volunteer’s immediate family and friends

7. Humility – defined as a disposition to be humble; a lack of false pride. This attribute increases one’s willingness to listen to others.

c. Benefits of Itorero and National Service (Urugerero & Ubwitange).

• Increased solidarity and strengthened national identity and reduced stereotypic thinking by interfacing with the realities of the communities and the country in general.

• Increased patriotism and civic participation especially among the young generation.

• Receive committed, motivated workers at no financial reward. The committed and motivated workers often influence the atmosphere in the work place.

• The well-being of beneficiaries is improved with the injection of new compassionate dedicated workers.

• Increases Social integration and cohesion.

• Self-actualization because of the recognition of participants’ efforts in people’s lives or other forms of change emanating from their efforts.

• The participation empowers those involved in different ways including gaining new skills, interaction with others etc.

• Bridging the gap between communities and participants who may not otherwise get such an opportunity.

• Gain practical skills that bridges the gap between theory and practices thus exposing participants to the world of work.

• Increases a sense of responsibility as a citizen to serve the country as well as an opportunity to gain knowledge and professional experience through their service.

The same content focuses on a desire to promote opportunities for development using Rwandan cultural values; identify taboos that inhibit the development of the country; fight violence and corruption; eradicate the culture of impunity; strengthen the culture of peace, tolerance, unity and reconciliation; and eradicate genocide ideology and all its roots.

7.3.3.Umuganda

Umuganda was created to help supplement the national budget spent in construction and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done is organized by community members and is done voluntarily and without pay. The projects completed through Umuganda include the construction of schools, feeder roads, road repair, terracing, reforestation, home construction for vulnerable people, erosion control, water canals, etc.

Planning for Umuganda is done at council meetings at the cell level. It is the responsibility of local leaders as well as national leaders to mobilize the population to participate in Umuganda. Community members meet and plan the date and the activity. Participation in Umuganda is compulsory for all able-bodied citizens and it is expected that this policy will result in a more cohesive society as all members of a community come together to complete a project that benefits the community.

        Rwandan population performing the umuganda activities

Source:https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/07/18/628364015/how-rwandatidied-up-its-streets-and-the-rest-of-the=country=too

Umuganda is one of Home-Grown Solutions. Modern day Umuganda can be described as a community work. On the last Saturday of each month, communities come together to do a variety of public works. This often includes infrastructure development and environmental protection.

7.3.4. Imihigo

Imihigo (Performance Contract) is the plural Kinyarwanda word of Umuhigo, which means to vow to deliver. Imihigo also includes the concept of Guhiganwa, which means to compete among one another.

Imihigo describe the pre-colonial cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual set targets or goals to be achieved within a specific period of time. The person must complete these objectives by following guiding principles and be determined to overcome any possible challenges that arise.

As part of efforts to reconstruct Rwanda and nurture a shared national identity, the Government of Rwanda drew on aspects of Rwandan culture and traditional practices to enrich and adapt its development programs to the country’s needs and context. The result is a set of Home-Grown Solutions - culturally owned practices translated into sustainable development programs. One of these Home-Grown Solutions is Imihigo. In 2000, a shift in the responsibilities of all levels of government as a result of a decentralization program required a new approach to monitoring and evaluation. Local levels of government were now responsible for implementing development programs which meant that the central government and people of Rwanda needed a way to ensure accountability.

In 2006, Imihigo were introduced to address this need. Since its introduction, Imihigo have been credited with improving accountability and quickening the pace of citizen centered development activities and programs. The practice of Imihigo have now been extended to ministries, embassies and public service staff.

Ceremony of Evaluation 2015-2016 and planning 2016-2017 contract performance

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E0_U8TTCfOaOmM&w=873&h=491&itg=1&q=imihigo%20evaluation%202018&hl=en-US&source=sh%2Fx%2Fim

In putting into practice imihigo, the districts are responsible for implementing programs under this broad agenda while Central Government assumes

the task for planning and facilitating. The decentralization policy is also designed to deepen and sustain grassroots-based democratic governance and to promote equitable local development. This entails enhancing citizens’ participation, promoting the culture of accountability, fast-tracking and sustaining equitable local development.

The principle of subsidiary underpins the decentralization policy, which is designed to ensure transparency and accountability for local service delivery through citizen participation in planning as well as civil society and faith based organizations, the private sector and development partners.

7.3.5. Community Policing

When Rwanda National Police (RNP) was created in the year 2000, it adopted the Community Policing strategy to build ties and work closely with members of the community to fight crime. Since then, the department for community policy has been influential in reducing crime throughout the country.

Traditionally, the Police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of that, the Police cannot always be everywhere and, therefore, relies on routine patrols, rapid response to calls for service, arrests and follow-up investigations Community Policing,

therefore, was adopted to encourage citizens to participate in crime-solving.

Community Policing encourages the Police to increase the means by which citizens can report incidents or the use of volunteers to provide timely reports that help the Police in anti-crime operations. 

This strategy has been very successful in increasing Police response to crime, because many reports are now provided by community members. This shows that the community trust the Police members to do their best in protecting their lives and property.

Application activity 7.3

1. Explain the background of the creation of itorero. What was its curriculum content at its origin?

2. Explain the concept of Imihigo in its present-day meaning.

3. Account for the reasons for the creation of the Community Policing and umuganda community work.

7.4. The contribution of the Rwandan citizens and noncitizens towards the national duties and obligations

Learning activity 7.4

From the result of your research in learning activity 7.3, assess the role played by the Rwandan citizens and non-citizens in the implementation of the national duties and obligations of Itorero, umuganda, imihigo and Community Policing.

7.4.1. National Itorero Commission

From 19 November 2007, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the country. In December 2007, a ceremony to present nationwide Intore regiments at district level to His Excellency the President of the Republic of Rwanda and other senior Government officials took place at Amahoro stadium. Each district’s regiment presented its performance contract at that colorful ceremony marked by cultural festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment publicly announced its Identification Name.

There is also Itorero for Rwandan Diaspora that has the authority to develop its affiliated sub-division. From November 2007 up to the end of 2012, Itorero ry’ Igihugu had a total of 284,209 trained Intore. 

In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change of mindset, each group chooses its Identification Name and sets objectives it must achieve. Those projected objectives must be achieved during or after training, and this is confirmed by the performance contracts that necessarily have to be accomplished. With this obligation in mind, each individual also sets personal objective that in turn contributes to the success of the corporate objectives.

The number of Intore who have been trained at the village level amounts to a total of 814 587. Those mentored at the national level are the ones who go down to mentor in villages, schools, and at various work places. In total, 1098 599 Rwandans have been mentored nationwide.

Journalists, artistes and sportsmen who took part in the national Itorero Programme at the

Kigali Convention Centre where they were waiting to meet the President /Village Urugwiro

Source:https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/213653

From 2007 to 2017, about 23 categories composed of over 2,300,000 people from both public and private institutions have been trained under Itorero. These include citizens (1,109,707), students (160,875), professionals (50431), teachers (43600), decentralized (leader 33509), trainers (7520), diaspora (2769), farmers (2256) and people with disabilities (392).

Through Urugerero Program, Intore mentored in 2012 totaled 40,730. Among them, 19,285 were female, while 21,445 were male. However, those who joined Urugerero were 37,660, female being 18,675 while male participants were 18,985.

7.4.2. Umuganda

Rwandans between 18 and 65 are obliged to participate in Umuganda. Expatriates living in Rwanda are encouraged to take part. Professionals also contribute to umuganda. It is in this context that members of Rwanda’s elite and private sector, including engineers, medical personnel, IT specialists, statisticians and other professionals, are actively involved in Umuganda activities. The military personnel also participate in social activities like building schools and hospitals and this inspires the population to be very active as well.

7.4.3. Imihigo

Imihigo is the result of a participatory process of identifying and implementing priorities from the grassroots to the national level. In the process of identifying priorities, each level demonstrates its contribution to achievement of development goals.

Performance contracts offer various opportunities for community participation including various meetings at the district, sector, cell and village. Accountability

days and public meeting after umuganda are interesting opportunities for participating in performance contracts. The above opportunities are exploited by many including communities, women, consultative councils who actively participate in performance contracts. In such meetings, local priorities to be included into the national priorities are directly discussed with all the people contrary to other levels that involve only people’s representatives.

7.4.4. Community Policing

Community Policing Committees (CPCs) were introduced in 2007 and they are made up of ordinary citizens chosen by fellow residents. They operate in cells and sectors to collect information that helps in crime prevention, while they also sensitize residents about the need to collectively overcome crime.

The Youth Volunteers in Crime Prevention is an organization that has over 7,000 young men and women spread throughout the country – with an aim to promote security and participate in crime prevention.

They have been influential in aiding Police operations and also in sensitizing fellow youth against crime.

Police officers creating a road connecting communities during ‘Police Week’ 2017/ Courtesy

Source:https://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/police-attributes-security-gains-people-centred-policing

The Community Policing also works with motorists’ association to ensure that road safety is respected, as well as with the business community to protect the country against economic crimes.

Application activity 7.4

1. Evaluate the contribution of the different categories of Rwandans towards Itorero and umuganda.

2. In the preparation of Imihigo or performance contracts, the Rwandan population plays a crucial role. Discuss this statement.

3. Explain to which extent, the Community Policing requires the participation of civilians in its implementation.

7.5. The challenges faced during the implementation of the national duties and obligations

Learning activity 7.5

Basing on the results of learning activity 7.3, evaluate the challenges faced during the implementation of the national duties and obligations in Rwanda.

7.5.1. National Itorero Commission

According to the Strategic Plan 2009-2012 of Itorero ry’Igihugu, the biggest challenge for Itorero is finding solutions to address the poor mindset of the average Rwandan.

This weakness impedes the understanding of the country’s policies. Therefore, the contribution required from the citizen is not well realized.

Other problems which impede development goals are corruption, genocide and divisionism ideology. Despite measures designed to eradicate these problems, they are still apparent in some institutions and individual Rwandans. This observation was made during the sixth National Dialogue Council held in Kigali in December 2008.

From the time Itorero was launched, it is remarkable that many Rwandans have not yet fully understood its purpose and rationale. This confusion has caused some people to link Itorero ry’Igihugu with activities of other associations. For example, those with a dancing purpose (cultural troupe). There is therefore an urgent need for the purpose of Itorero ry’Igihugu to be fully explained to all Rwandans so that they feel comfortable with it.

To mentor a significant number of Intore throughout the country still requires a substantial financial budget. This also calls for the commitment of the government and its partners to finance the programme.

7.5.2. Umuganda

The challenges faced by Umuganda fall into two broad categories: planning and participation. In some areas of the country, poor planning has led to unrealistic targets and projects that would be difficult to achieve without additional financing. In urban areas, participation in Umuganda has been lower than in rural areas.

To address these challenges, the team responsible for Umuganda at the Ministry of Local Government has run trainings for the committees that oversee Umuganda at the local level. These trainings include lessons on monitoring and evaluation, how to report achievements, the laws, orders and guidelines governing Umuganda as well as responsibilities of the committee. These two days trainings have taken place in every province. The national competition also awards communities that have undertaken proper and successful planning.

To overcome the issue of low participation rates in some areas of the country, especially in urban areas, an awareness raising campaign was conducted through documentaries, Television and radio shows to inform Rwandans about the role Umuganda plays in the society and its importance. A recently produced documentary has been screening at the sector level across the country and a weekly radio show from the Ministry of Local Government often features Umuganda.

7.5.3. Imihigo

Problems of measurements

Umuganda is one of the most important activities planned to be achieved through implementation of Imihigo. However, there is absence of a clear standard on how to measure the value of Umuganda. The first issue has to do with the output on increasing the value and participation in Umuganda. For instance, some districts measure its value based on the number of people participating on the day multiplied by the daily labor (mostly farming) rate applicable in that district, whereas other districts attempt to estimate the financial cost of achievements on the day of Umuganda. However, in both cases it is known that Umuganda lasts only three hours. A key defect from the first approach is that when calculations are based on a full day’s work rate when Umuganda lasts an average of three hours means that the value assigned could potentially mislead by overestimating the achievement.

Budget versus needs

There is a clear discrepancy between allocated budget and the magnitude of citizen needs at the local administrative level. This challenge was raised by a number of leaders at the district level from the Executive Committee, Councils, and the Joint Action Development Forum (JADFs). In all focus group discussions with district authorities, harmonizing citizen needs with the available budget was pointed out as a key challenge. While there are always several competing needs for a limited budget, appropriate apportionment implies that the limited resources should respond to the most pressing demands.

Competing Agenda

The evaluation team noticed the existence of competing agendas between central and local government. In all districts, respondents reported that urgent assignments from line ministries and other central government agencies interfere with local planning. Despite efforts for joint planning meetings between the central and local levels, unplanned for requests emerging from channels outside of joint planning often come from the central government consume local resources (finances and time) particularly when the demands are not accompanied with implementing funds. In some instances, money to implement an inserted item will be promised but the promise is not delivered when it comes to the implementation phase or local authorities are told to insert items and are then told to expect the resources to come from private sources. In general, local implementers would be less concerned if all the requests from central government were accompanied with implementing resources.

Low Ownership of Imihigo

Preferably, district Imihigo should be informed by the needs of citizens at the local level while being aligned to national development priorities that themselves stem from those needs. However, findings from evaluation found out that Imihigo ownership is relatively low among the intended beneficiaries. In some respects, districts officials pointed to a “dependency syndrome” where citizens would rather depend on government to provide them with free or subsidized goods. In some instances, the officials pointed out, citizens will compete for lower categories of Ubudehe in order to become eligible

for free healthcare and Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme, very known as VUP programmes. Overall, officials point to these programs as responsible for diminished ownership of Imihigo.

Understaffing and Low Capacity

Understaffing and capacity gaps at the local government level are widely documented. Studies have provided evidence on the subject. 

According to Rwanda Association of Local Governments Authority (RALGA), lack of staff, insufficient financial means, lack of data base to facilitate planning, monitoring, and evaluation and heavy workload constitute “the most pressings factors influencing service delivery in local government.

While these are factors that affect service delivery at the local level, these shortages have particular effects on the implementation of Imihigo. On one hand, district staff is overloaded to the extent that they may not have the requisite time to implement Imihigo targets. On the other hand, as evidenced by the above studies, local government staff are not skilled enough in Monitoring and Evaluation, a key element if the Imihigo are to achieve optimum impact.

Delays in Funds Disbursement

Some of the key detriments to Imihigo are delays in funds disbursement, be it from the central government or from other development partners. The same RALGA study pointed to delays in funds disbursement as the most important issue affecting service delivery at local government level, equally important as insufficient staff. This evaluation process has pointed to two related issues that make it difficult to implement Imihigo targets in a timely manner. First, there is a discrepancy between the fiscal year and the period of Imihigo signing. This challenge comes from the relationship with stakeholders most of whom use the calendar which starts in January against the district’s fiscal year which starts in July. Overall, time discrepancies mean that there is a period of time that is lost before Imihigo can be effectively implemented. More specifically, Imihigo are usually signed 2-3 months after the fiscal year has started. This means that almost a quarter is lost.

7.5.4 Community Policing

The following are the biggest challenges the National Police of Rwanda is faced to as far as Community Policing is concerned: high population growth rate and high population density, high police population ratio, high Ruralurban migration rate, low level of education, illiteracy, and ignorance of laws and potential for increasing criminality.

Application activity 7.5

1. Explain how the absence of a clear standard on how to measure the value of Umuganda constitutes a challenge in implementation of imihigo.

2. Account for the challenges encountered in implementation of the following national duties and obligations: Community Policing, itorero and umuganda.

Skills lab

Identify the importance of different home grown solutions that Rwandan government has taken to overcome different problems it was faced with in your District.

End unit assessment

1. Explain different types of Human Rights.

2. Describe different ways of prevention of Human Rights violations.

3. Explain the role that the media can play to influence national cohesion and national identity.

4. Describe the historical background of National Itorero Commission.

5. Assess the role played by different categories of Rwandans in the implementation of Umuganda.

6. Examine the challenges of Imihigo.

7. Describe the structure of the Community Policing and its day-today activities.