UNIT 4: THE FIRST AND THE SECOND REPUBLICS OF RWANDA
Key unit competence: The student teacher should be able to examine the achievements and the failures of the First and the Second Republics of Rwanda
Introductory Activity
After recovering its independence, Rwanda was under the First Republic (1962 – 1973) and the Second Republic (1973 – 1994). Both Republics have contributed to the social, political and economic evolution of Rwanda. However, due to different factors, those Republics declined respectively, by 1973 and by 1994.
To which extent the First Republic collapsed by 1973 and the Second Republic by 1994?
4.1 Achievements of the First Republic
Learning activity 4.1
After the recovery of independence, the First Republic had recorded the success in political, economic and social evolution. Examine such achievements under the First Republic.
By the 1st July 1962, Rwanda recovered its independence from Belgian colonization which dated from 1916; then, since 1962 up to 1973, Rwanda was under the First Republic. Under this period, some achievements and political institutional changes were recorded.
The Constitution
In 1962, Rwanda under the Republican form of government acceded to independence without a well formulated constitution. In this regard, on 28th January 1961, during the “Gitarama coup”, PARMEHUTU leaders prepared something that had a semblance of a constitution but which did not qualify to be considered as such because this text was neither published in the Official
Gazette of Ruanda- Urundi, nor was it published in Rwanda’s Official Journal. To avoid a constitutional vacuum, a constitution project was proposed by PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA parliamentary groups. The vote took place during the meeting of November 23rd, 1962; 33 votes for, no vote against and 4 abstentions (3 from UNAR and 1 from APROSOMA). The final text was signed on the following day, i.e. on 24th November 1962- by 40 Members of Parliament.
Grégoire Kayibanda, President of Rwanda from October 1961 to July 1973.
Source:https://www.facebook.com/pg/GregoireKayibanda/about/
The government
By independence, Rwanda had also a government headed by a President of the Republic and a Parliament. According to the constitution, the power of the government is allocated to the President of the Republic who is at the same time Head of State and to the Ministers whom he himself had appointed. At the beginning of every term, the President was elected directly by simple majority through adult universal suffrage.
In addition, according to the Constitution, the President was supposed to appoint and disappoint any of the Cabinet Ministers and later inform the National Assembly about the matter. In practice, the President communicated the composition of government to the National Assembly which took note of the decision without subjecting the matter to vote.
Under the First Republic, eight governments succeeded one another. The first one, formed after independence in May 1962, consisted of a coalition government which was composed of the UNAR party (2 ministers), PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. On 6th February 1963, there was a ministerial reorganization and all cabinet ministers from UNAR were dismissed, ostensibly owing to budgetary constraints according to Grégoire Kayibanda.
However, in actual fact, the reason behind was to expel opposition political parties which later ceased to be part of government from 1963.
The National Assembly
The Parliament supervises the action of the President of the Republic and his government. Under the 1st Republic, there were three legislatures elected respectively in 1961, 1965 and 1969 until the dissolution of the Parliament following the July 5th, 1973 Coup d’état.
During the first legislative mandate, MDR-PAPMEHUTU was a dominant party (with 35 seats), but there were also UNAR MPs (7) as well as Members of Parliament from APROSOMA (2). In the Assembly that was constituted after the elections of 3rd October 1965, all opposition parties were no longer represented. All MPs originated from MDR-PAPMEHUTU.
The Supreme Court
The Supreme Court was instituted in the first Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda. However, the Supreme Court was nonexistent in fact because it could not refuse a law which the President wished to pass. Thus, in 1973, when President Kayibanda wanted to stand for another term, he modified some articles of the constitution. Since the latter did not confer any independence to the judges, the latter were fearful of being dismissed. This led to the paralysis of the judicial system through intrigue and arbitrary decisions by the judges.
Economic evolution under the First Government
Just after the independence, the First Republic faced many economic problems. The main Rwanda offices were still in Bujumbura which had been the colonial capital of Ruanda-Urundi. Rwanda was under equipped. There were few economic infrastructures, in the capital of Kigali. It had no airport; the country did not have a radio, any tarmac road, any telephone line and there were university or any other institution of high education. Everything had to come through Bujumbura or through Belgian Congo.
In addition to the lack of infrastructure and the under equipment of Rwanda, the food security was also another crucial problem.
In fact, this problem was due to land overexploitation in the regions anciently populated, high population density and erosion.
To solve this poverty and shortage of land, the First Republic resorted to the policy of the creation of farms in the former prefectures of Gitarama, Kibungo and Rural Kigali and committed to sensitize people of the prefectures of Ruhengeri, Gikongoro, and especially Butare to go to settle there.
Moreover, Rwanda lacked the financial means to undertake developmental projects. The country had only one donor, Belgium which created financial dependence on its donors in all domains.
Another economic problem faced by Rwanda was the poor functioning of the monetary and customs union between Rwanda and Burundi. Moreover, the two countries did not have good relations because they had two different political systems; Rwanda was a Republic while Burundi was a Constitutional Monarchy.
The country was going through an extremely difficult crisis including deficits in the balance of payments, because in 1962 inflation began to reach 50 percent and by 1964, inflation had risen to 300 percent. The Rwandan currency depreciated and agricultural and mineral production went down; this created a big fall in exports, which brought about a big gap in foreign exchange and the incapacity of Rwanda to serve its imports.
Despite the economic problems above mentioned, the regime of the First Republic managed to make some achievements. The First Republic inaugurated some financial institutions like banks which helped to finance a few factories and industrial companies. The National Bank was established in January 1964, the commercial Bank in 1962, and the Rwanda Development Bank in 1968
Image of the Commercial bank of Rwanda. Source:https://twitter.com/ClaudeKabenger/status/1026801081823752193
This last bank had a mission to solve the problem of financing industrial companies. In fulfillment of this mission, la Banque Rwandaise de Développement (Rwanda Development Bank) financed several industries.
Image of Rwanda Development bank
Source:http://rwanda-corporate-review.blogspot.com/
In the sector of infrastructure, some projects had been conceived to macadamize all the road axes linking the country to the outside world in the frame-work of the five-year development plan (1966-1971). In order of priority, the following roads were to be macadamized:
• Kigali- Gatuna; Kigali-Rusumo;
• Kigali- Butare and Ruhengeri- Cyanika
It is essential to note that before the coup d’état that put an end to the First Republic in 1973, only one of the above mentioned roads had been started to be macadamized: the Kigali- Gatuna road from 1971. But the construction of this road will be completed during the second Republic in 1977. In addition to this achievement, there was the construction of the Rusumo Bridge at the Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania and that of the Bridge over Nyabarongo River.
In the sector of rural development, the emphasis was placed on the reclamation of marshlands in order to improve agricultural production and the distribution of improved seeds and plants in some parts of the country. Besides, there was introduction of new crops like rice. In terms of animal production, some cattle dips were put in place to fight ticks which attack cows.
Socio-cultural evolution
Education system
In the sector of education and health, the First Republic managed to make some but very few achievements. Since its existence the regime of the First Republic strived to give free education services.
In the 1962 Constitution, and according to the education policy of 1966, the general basic principle was to make primary education compulsory and free for all children up to the age of 15 in order to “benefit as many children possible with basic education that was solid and sustainable”.Following this arrangement, new orientations were introduced in the organization of primary education for boys and girls, as well as in secondary and higher learning institutions.
A “double-intake” system was introduced in primary schools during the academic year of 1969 - 1970. This system meant that every teacher had two groups of pupils to teach: one group in the morning and the other in the afternoon.
However, the increase in intake for pupils resulting from the double-session program had problems. These included inadequate teaching staff who were not well qualified, poor teaching content which was not appropriate to the realities on the ground and finally, there was lack of school materials such as books, chalk, dusters. Even the state of school buildings was appalling.
In order to overcome the above problems, the government took the following actions:
• As early as 1963, more qualified teachers were urgently trained by putting in place a training period of two years for trainers of trainers;
• A “pedagogic training center” was set up in order to improve the quality of head teachers who were destined to become inspectors after six months of internship. This was done in the perspective of reorganized primary education at provincial level in various sectors;
• Opening of 12 audio–visual centers by the Gitarama Radio School in favor of radio teaching programs for uneducated rural children ina 4 years program.
• Creation of a special post- primary cycle for girls to replace the 8 former post primary domestic training colleges (3 years in boarding school) for “privileged” young girls.
• Training of headmistresses and female teachers in women technical schools (2 years’ terminal cycle after ordinary level) in Nyanza, Mubuga and Remera;
• In 1971 - 72, the number of secondary schools increased from 24 to 63;
• For boys, some of those schools offered ordinary level orientation, diversified upper levels, technical secondary studies in agriculture, veterinary, medical training, etc. lower teacher – training education and finally professional education;
• As for girls, who had been marginalized for a long time in terms of education, a common cycle of orientation, diversified upper levels, lower teacher–training education, middle education and social, medical and domestic training were introduced.
It should be reminded that at the time of independence, the country of Rwanda was not well equipped in terms of secondary schools. It possessed few secondary schools such as Groupe Scolaire of Astrida in Butare, Kicukiro Government Technical School in Kigali, Saint Andrew College in Kigali, Christ the King College, etc.
During this period, there was not any for higher education. In fact, the first university was opened on November 3rd 1963 in Rwanda. The initiative to establish higher education finally was born during the First Republic. This University was launched in Butare (Huye District today) with the assistanceof two countries: Switzerland and Canada. It was started by a Canadian priest called Levesque as Rector with 50 students distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and sciences. It also operated a school called Ecole Pratique des Langues Modernes (Practical School of Modern Languages) and a Higher School for Nursing.
Image of National University of Rwanda
Source:https://talloiresnetwork.tufts.edu/national-university-of-rwanda-rwanda/
By 1971-1972, the number of students had reached 470. The Higher Institute of Education (Institut Pédagogique National (IPN) started in 1966.
Health
In health sector, the First Republic also tried to make some efforts. The focus was put on the construction of new dispensaries whose number increased from 67 to 142 in 1972. Moreover, the other accent was placed on finding the solution to the problem of malnutrition and poor conditions of hygiene. As remedy, some social medical centers were constructed to provide sanitary or health education in order to give some trainings on how to avoid and prevent certain diseases. At this occasion, the breastfeeding mothers were provided with some skills in maternal health care and the government also set up nutritional centers for malnourished children.
To take care of disabled children, a center for physically handicapped children was built at Gatagara and another Psychiatry Centre for the people with mental disability was built at Ndera. This center known as CARAES Ndera is run by the Gand Brothers of Charity. Regarding preventive medicine, vaccination campaigns were initiated between 1965 and 1970.
Application activity 4.1
1. Assess the political changes undertaken under the First Republic.
2. Examine the economic achievements recorded by the First Republic, from 1962 up to 1973.
4.2 Failures and downfall of the First Republic
Learning activity 4.2
By 1973, the First Republic reached to its end by a coup d’état of the 5th July 1973. Discus the failures and factors that led to this decline.
Through the coup d’état of the 4th – 5th July 1973, the First Republic was at its downfall. This was caused by long standing failures that even dated from its beginning. Many factors were responsible for this downfall.
Institutionalization of discrimination against Tutsi
From 1959 onwards, the population of Tutsi was targeted, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths, and a population of almost two million Rwandan people left the country and living in the exile for almost four decades.
The First Republic, under President Grégoire Kayibanda, institutionalized discrimination against Tutsi and periodically used massacres against the Tutsi as a means of maintaining the status quo.
In 1965 Rwanda was declared a one-party State under MDR-PARMEHUTU, which was the architect of the racist ideology. The regime of Kayibanda did not manifest a good will to repatriate the Rwandan refugees. Instead, it used to kill the Tutsi at a very attack of Inyenzi.
In 1972, President Kayibanda met his closest friends in order to revive his sinister plan. This plan consisted of chasing Tutsi from schools and higher institutions as well as from all public and private establishments. In February 1973, the massacre of the Tutsi was organized and coordinated by Kayibanda’s government.
Regionalism
Since 1963, the leading political party PARMEHUTU was experiencing considerable internal tensions. Some concerned inter-personal rivalries and the distribution of jobs as the party organs and State structures came closer and closer.
There was increasing discontent among emerging cadres, students and individuals with primary and secondary education. Very fierce local political competition was combined with rivalries on the national level. Later on, regional rivalry appeared fully during the exercise of power when ubukonde was debated. This form of real estate clientelism practiced in the north of the country had been weakened by the assertion of central authority during the colonial period.
Several hypotheses have been put forward about the source of this chaos. Though orders were transmitted through the administration, they may have originated from the entourage of Grégoire Kayibanda. According to other hypotheses, they may also have come from Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of Police, who was from Ruhengeri.
Another cause of the rivalry between the north and the south was that PARMEHUTU members of the South especially in Gitarama, the home area of President Kayibanda tended to systematically monopolize PARMEHUTU and Government power in a form of nepotism at the expense of the Northern region.
In addition, there was a failed coup attempted by a certain Nyatanyi Pierre who was then chief cabinet of President Kayibanda and a certain Muramutsa Joachim, commandant of the Kanombe unit.
These two officers were from the North then the coup was interpreted as being coup of the North against the South. The two officers were imprisoned only to be pardoned later by President Habyarimana when he took over power in the coup d’état of 1973.
Need for constitutional amendment
Another factor that contributed to the fall of the First Republic was the need for constitutional amendment which was voted on May 18th, 1973 by the National Assembly. This amendment increased the duration of presidential terms of office from five to seven years and allowed Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a third term.
When it came the time of voting this report, Members of parliament were not unanimous. On the contrary, they were divided into two camps. There were those who sympathized or supported that report and these who were against it. The supporters of the report were punished by being suspended from decision making organs of the Party and were even prevented from contesting the legislative elections of 1969. To safeguard the Constitution, the senior officers of the National Army carried out a coup d’état that put an end to the regime of the First Republic.
The 5th July 1973 Coup d’Etat
The last blow for the downfall of the First Republic was the Coup d’Etat of 1973 carried out by 11 senior officers of the national army commanded by Major General Juvenal Habyarimana. The government of President Kayibanda was deposed and replaced by a “committee for peace and national unity” composed of 11 officers and presided over by Major General Juvénal Habyarimana, until total re-establishment of peace in the country.
Application activity 4.2
After the establishment of the Second Republic in 1973, it achieved in many fields. Evaluate the political, economic and socio-cultural evolution under the First Republic.
4.3 Achievements of the Second Republic
Learning activity 4.3
After the establishment of the Second Republic in 1973, it achieved in many fields. Evaluate the political, economic and socio-cultural evolution under the First Republic.
Political evolution under the Second Republic
After the coup d’état of 1963, Rwanda underwent different political changes.
Creation and institutionalization of MRND
The “Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement” (MRND) or National Revolutionary Movement for Development was created two years after the coup by the President Juvénal Habyarimana. It was set up in order to fill the vacuum created by the dissolution of PARMEHUTU government on 5th July 1975.
It was “Party State” whose objective was to unify, stimulate and intensify all efforts of all Rwandan people with a view to enhancing economic, social and cultural development in an atmosphere of national peace and unity.
On the 20th of December 1978, the new Constitution was adopted by the population in a referendum with a reported 89% of the casted votes. At the same time, Habyarimana was elected in a universal suffrage as President of Rwanda at an alleged 99% majority.
Article 7 of the Constitution made Rwanda a single party State under the MRND and made each citizen a member of it from birth. In reality, this was the establishment of a One-Party political system.
The new Constitution abolished the National Assembly and replaced it with Conseil National de Développement (CND) or National Development Council (NDC).
Constitution of 1978
On accession to power, the President announced that constitutional order would be re-established within five years. The constitution was approved during the December 1978 referendum. The text provided for a presidential term of five years with a possibility of re-election without exceeding two successive terms. In order to avoid duplication of power between the President and that the MRND president, the 1978 constitution proposed the MRND President as the sole candidate to the presidency of the country.
In addition, the President of the Republic was not directly accountable to CND; contrary, the ministers and permanent secretaries were answerable to the Parliament. In other words, the Members of Parliament could not question the President. Incidentally, the President could dissolve the CND.
The legislature was linked to the executive. The judiciary was undermined in favor of the executive with the suppression of the Supreme Court.
Institutionalization of community work (Umuganda) and Facilitation by MRND
In order to consolidate its power and its grip on the country, the MRND
regime resorted to two methods of rural mass mobilization and recruitment of supporters in the entire country. These were community work (Umuganda) and facilitation (gushyushya Urugamba) both of which were inspired by the Salongo and Sakayonsa bands from Zaire’s MPR (Movement Populaire de la Révolution). Community work and facilitation were political instruments aimed at controlling the population and ensuring its support to the regime.
That politics of controlling the population in order to ensure its allegiance only brought about rivalry. In 1980, a conspiracy against the regime led by Major Lizinde and his associates flopped. The coup plotters were tried by a tribunal which sat in Ruhengeri; they were condemned to death on 14thJuly, 1982. President Habyarimana pardoned them by changing their capital punishment to life imprisonment. Lizinde and many of his associates remained in prison up to 23rdJanuary, 1991, the day they were set free by an attack on their prison by the Inkontanyi. Lizinde and Biseruka joined their liberators.
Ethnic and Regional balance
Although the First Republic was established along lines of ethnic discrimination against the Tutsi, the Second Republic was basically made of Hutu who originated from the central and southern parts of the country. This policy established regional quotas according to ethnic groups. These quotas were based on the criterion of proportional representation according to population as far as education and employment in the public service and private sector were concerned. MRND radicalized this process.
The so-called policy of “Equilibre ethnique et regional dans le service et dans l’enseignement” or “ethnic and regional balance” prevented the best performers to join the education field, the army, the police and other posts which they deserved or wished to join.
The policy marginalized the Tutsi as well as the Hutu from other prefectures apart from Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.
Economic evolution
In social and economic matters, MRND has opted for “a system which neither favored frantic capitalism and without limitations nor extreme communism which suffocated the liberty and initiative of the individual”. Committed to a denial of both capitalist and communist extremes, the MRND regime used the methodology of rhetoric on development as its main ideological pillar. The government under the Second Republic conceived development as the best means of overcoming ethnic and regional contradictions.
The 1974 – 1982 period was a very important phase of economic growth because of favorable rates of exports. On the one hand, there was an increase in coffee exports, and on the other hand foreign aid also increased.
In order to stimulate the economic evolution in Rwanda, there was establishment and implementation of the “Second Five-year period of the economic, social and cultural development plan” which covered the period from 1977 up to 1981.
The objective of this second Five-year development plan was the creation of many jobs especially in the secondary sector in order to provide young people in rural areas with opportunities to participate in the social and economic life of the country.
From 1982 to 1986, the “third Five-year period of the economic, social and cultural development plan” was also adopted with the following aims at improving food security for the population in terms of both quality and quantity; promoting jobs at sustainable wage; improving the population’s health conditions and developing external relations.
Concerning infrastructure development, the five following infrastructures were put in place by the Second Republic:
• Asphalting of several roads which reached a distance of 888.5 Km by 1989;
• Construction of several buildings to serve as offices for different Ministries and hospitals as King Faisal Hospital;
• Extension of electricity network;
• Construction of Kanombe Airport;
• Construction of Amahoro National Stadium.
Image of Kigali international airport
Source:https://paliagnes-rwanda.skyrock.com/1875726937-L-aeroport-de-Kanombe.html
Socio - cultural evolution
Health
Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made like the expansion of the health sector, the dispensaries were transformed into health centers and more medical personnel were trained. Health centers increased from 32 in 1974 to 50 in 1975.
The government of Rwanda had also put in place a policy which aimed at creating nutritional centers in order to educate parents of nutritional diets and hygiene as well as to find a solution to hygiene related-problems. Such nutritional centres within the Health centres had simultaneously achieved in provision of curative care and preventive education, including vaccination, nutrition, maternal and child protection.
Image of Kigali King Faisal
Source:https://twitter.com/easteco_org/status/997186271570223104
In1987, the Rwandan Government established the National Programme for the Fight against AIDS (PNLS) whose objective was to control, prevent, reduce and conduct research on AIDS. In the same year, the Government launched the National Programme for Fighting against Malaria (PNLP = Programme National pour le Lutte contre le Paludisme) and in 1989, the Programme for Acceleration of Primary Health Care (PASSP = Programme d’Accélération des Soins de Santé Primaire) was put in place. This programme aimed at encouraging the participation of the population in self-sponsorship and management of health services in their health centers.
Education
In this sector, some achievements were attained such as:
• The construction of new primary and secondary schools and many reforms have been made at all levels of education in Rwanda;
• In 1978 – 1979, the system of primary education teaching was revised. The primary cycle changed from 6 years to 8 years. Training in professional skills was introduced in Primary 7 and P8, and Kinyarwanda became a language of instruction from P1 up to P8.
• At the secondary education level, the Ordinary Level was reduced and specializations sections now started in the Second year of secondary education. However, in 1991, there was the revision of this reform where the primary education cycle was brought back to 6 years.
At University level, the national Institute of Education for Teacher Training was fused with certain department of the National University of Rwanda. The creation of the new campus at Nyakinama in the 1980 – 1981 was a result of this fusion.
Application activity 4.3
1. Analyze the political changes that were undertaken under the Second Republic.
2. Evaluate the socio – cultural evolution of Rwanda under the Second Republic
4.4 Failures and downfall of the Second Republic
Learning activity 4.4
Discuss the different factors that demonstrate the failures of the Second Republic; which later on led to its downfall.
Lack of freedom of speech and press
The Second Republic was against the freedom of speech and press. This was justified by intimidation and imprisonment suffered by anyone who attempted to criticize this Regime of the Second Republic.
Economic crisis
The economic improvement was fragile towards the end of the 1970-1980. This was due to an economic crisis which became worse during 1980-1990. It was especially from 1984-1986 that the crisis exacerbated and reached its highest point during 1990-1993. For instance, In January 1990, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was affected by a famine. In 1991, Rwanda signed an agreement with the World Bank to implement a Structural Adjustment Plan (SAP) which led to the devaluation of the Rwandan franc on two occasions: its value fell by 40 percent in November 1990, then again by 15 percent in June 1992.
The imprisonment and killing of the politicians of the First Republic
Nevertheless, during the two years that followed, the former ‘barons’ of the First Republic were assassinated or imprisoned. During the following years (between 1974 and 1977), 58 people; individuals who were close to Grégoire Kayibanda and public figures of the First Republic; were assassinated upon orders from Théoneste Lizinde, Chief of Security at the Interior Ministry. According to some sources, the repression affected up to 700 people.
Institutionalization of ethnic and regional balance or quota system
The regime of Habyarimana coerced and aligned people behind political option within a single party system and partisan politics based on ethnic and regional segregation. The regime had created the Rukiga-Nduga conflicts which were characterized by the exclusion of Tutsi and Hutu of Nduga from schools and main posts of the direction of the country.
This deplorable exclusion highly institutionalized by the Second Republic right from 1981 was known as “ethnic and regional balance or quota system”. This policy was in fact applied in all sectors of the National life and it constituted a serious violation of human rights. It has undermined the regime of the Second Republic significantly as it was seriously contested by the democratic forces which militated for change and it ended up by leading the MRND regime to its downfall in 1994.
Centralization of the power in the hands of a small group of people“Akazu”
After ten years of economic growth, the economic crisis and regional favoritism destabilized the government. Rivalry for posts increased, power struggles became fiercer, and mafia-type behavior and structures thrived. One of the main power centers was known as the Akazu and was organized around Agathe Kanziga – Juvénal Habyarimana’s wife, and her brothers.
The division of the northerners began in 1980s when two highly regarded senior military officers, colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe and Major Théoneste Lizinde were accused of plotting a Coup d’Etat to overthrow Habyalimana. Lizinde was accused of having killed some politicians who had served in the First Republic from the Southern part of Rwanda. This misunderstanding brought about divisions among the politicians and people from the North of Rwanda. The result was that political power was now being monopolized by a small part of Northerners from Bushiru in the ex-commune of Karago. Finally, power came to be concentrated in the hands of President Habyalimana and his immediate family and the family of his in-laws. This came to be termed “AKAZU” meaning “from one single household”.
Increasing of dictatorship
In addition to this personality cult, President Habyarimana set up a dictatorship regime. Before the outbreak of the liberation war, the Habyarimana regime had already become a totalitarian regime. There was a single political party, the Revolutionary National Democratic Movement (MRND) and all the powers were concentrated in the hands of a small group of family members of President Habyarimana. No single decision could be made whatsoever without prior approval and/or blessings of the dictator’s consent.
Mismanagement of refugees’ problem /Refusal of their return
The problem of refugees in Rwanda dated from 1959 with the mass killing which was organized against the Tutsi. This problem was differently managed by the two Republics.
In 1973, the Second Republic put in place a joint ministerial commission of Rwanda – Uganda for the repatriation of Rwandese refugees living in Uganda.
By a circular issued on 25th October 1973, the refugees had to express in writing their desire to return. The request had to be addressed to the country of origin through the High Commission for refugees and the hosting government. The refugee whose request was rejected stayed in the country of exile or looked for another.
In 1982, the regime of the Second Republic reversed decision that refugees had to settle in their countries of asylum because Rwanda was occupied to full capacity and that it did not have any more land.
This position of President Habyarimana and his Government prompted the refugees to call for an International Conference in Washington in August 1988 in which they rejected this position and reaffirmed their inalienable right to return to their homeland, and this led to the National Liberation War on October 1st, 1990. Then it is this war which put an end to the Second Republic.
Application activity 4.4
1. Analyze the political changes that were undertaken under the Second Republic.
2. Evaluate the socio – cultural evolution of Rwanda under the Second Republic
Skills lab
Using different textbooks or internet, discuss how divisionism policy initiated by Belgian colonizers had been perpetuated by the leaders of the First and Second Republics. Then after, show how the same policy led to the perpetration of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi and at the same time suggest how the present-day leaders have to behave in order to avoid such errors.
End unit assessment
1. Explain the achievements of the First Republic from 1962 – up to 1973.
2. Assess the factors which led to downfall of the First Republic by a Coup d’Etat of 1973.
3. After the 5th 1973 Coup d’Etat, the leaders of the Second Republic have promised to the Rwandans the better political, economic and social situation. Examine the achievements scored by the Second Republic.
4. By 1994, the Second Republic collapsed and different factors are considered as responsible for this collapse. Discuss such
factors.