English TMP LE & ECLPE

a. Select different topics related to language structure (grammar).

b. Among the selected topics, which ones do you find challenging to you?

c. Make a self-study on the challenging topics. You can ask for help from a

classmate or your tutor.

Notes

Grammar is a part of the language system. People sometimes describe grammar as the “rules” of a language; but in fact, no language has permanent rules. It even has exceptions. If we focus on the word “rules”, we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases, and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call “grammar” is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.

• Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allow humans to form and interpret the words and sentences of their language.

• Grammar adds meanings that are not easily inferable from the immediate context.

• One of the kinds of meanings realised by grammar is for example the fact that it is representational, meaning that grammar enables us to use language to describe the world in terms of how, when and where things happen.

e.g. Example: The sun sets at 7:30pm. The children are playing in the garden.

In this regard, student teachers should recall different rules used in English to prepare them teach what they understand. The following paragraphs show what student teachers should recall from primary school. 

Lower primary

 Recall on the parts of speech (-nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, possessives, plural, articles) and some tenses, such as Present simple tense and present continuous that can be identified from different contexts/situation announced in different units (P1 to P3).

Upper primary

Student teachers need to remember different parts of speech such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, verbs, conjunctions, interjections, and articles which can be identified from different contexts/ situations announced in each unit from P4 to P5. They should also recall all the tenses taught in different levels (from present simple tense to conditional tense that can be identified from different contexts/situations announced in different units (P4 to P6).

7.2. Rationale of teaching and learning grammar

7.2.a. Read the text below and answer questions that follow:

Languages make no sense without using grammatical rules. If everyone uses language without any grammar, the language would have too many variations and would be ambiguous and full of contradiction, e.g. using of wrong tense or punctuation can change the meaning of whole sentence, which causes problems in mutual communication. Enhanced communication skills call for a high degree of grammatical competence. Communicative proficiency involves knowledge and application of grammar and use of appropriate vocabulary of the language to convey meanings in a socially acceptable way. This is also the reason why grammar teaching is meaningful. It can have the effect that the speaker is not understood. In that case the whole point of communication is lost. Grammar is the base of English language. English especially as a second or a foreign language is not acquired naturally; instruction and structured learning are important. Through grammar, an ESL learner masters how to operate at the sentence level and studies the governance of the syntax or word orders that are the rule of the game in language. Knowing about grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear, interesting and precise. Grammar can be part of literature discussions especially when we and our students closely read the sentences in poetry and stories. Knowing about grammar means finding out that all languages and all dialects follow grammatical patterns. (Brock Haussamen, “Guideline on Some Questions and Answers about Grammar”, 2002)

a. Why do we teach grammar?

b. Discuss the consequences of misusing language rules.

Notes:

It is necessary to put grammar in the forefront in second language teaching, because knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is the base of the English language. Grammatical competence is one of the communicative competences. Communicative competence involves knowing how to use the grammar and vocabulary of a language to achieve communicative goals and knowing how to do this in a socially appropriate way. Communicative goals are the goals of learners’ studying English language. Therefore, teaching grammar is necessary to achieve the goals. 

The primary English syllabus explains the language structure that comes in each unit lessons and the teacher must remember to bring it in and make sure students practice it through a wide range of activities that relate to the key unit competence. To give illustration in unit 1 of p6 (leisure and sports), the language structure that is introduced is - --Like, prefer +/-ing and the activity is to find out from a student’s friend about the hobbies and leisure activities he or she prefers and sharing with the class a friend’s preferences.

There are thousands of words in the English language. Different combinations of these words in sentences can produce almost as many different meanings as there are stars in the sky. On the other hand, every word in the English language can be assigned to at least one of eight categories called the parts of speech namely nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The meaning of a word and the way it is used in a sentence determines its parts of speech.

7.3. Principles and rules of teaching grammar

7.3.a. Learning activity

Read the text below and answer questions that follow:

In teaching grammar, the teacher does not provide grammar rules. There is a text where new grammatical structure is introduced. Pupils read the text and find out the new structure.

Pupils’ attention is not focused on the new structure, but on the text. Pupils work with the text, they practice new language and the focus does not have to be on the grammar. Pupils play with words and sentences and they can take in new grammar subconsciously. For instance, Lessons can be built around topics or themes, such as animals, friends, food or family, for very young learners; and for older learners, themes can be drawn from subjects in their other classes and the community, such as; transport, country life, travel and famous people. Theme-based lessons provide continuity across activities and enable English learning to be connected to the children’s lives.

Finally, apart from clear guidelines or principles that may help the teacher effectively teach grammar, some rules as well should be respected where the teacher needs to teach grammar in order to facilitate the learners’ comprehension and production of real language, rather than as an end in itself and always provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some communicative use and provide the right conditions for learning grammar as it is presented in the above picture. 

a. Explain how lessons of English are built and identify the principle of teaching grammar.

b. Provide some rules of teaching grammar in an English language class. Closely refer to the description in the text.

Notes

7.3.1. The principles of teaching and learning grammar

Since the approach used in teaching grammar should be integrative and communicative, it is appropriate that the teacher starts by giving grammar structures in meaningful sentences. This practice adds concreteness to what is presented. Starting with explanations of rules would make language practice more abstract. In the same vein, it would be logical to start practice with what pupils can understand and end up with generalizations, rather than having it the other way round.

Other principles require that what is regular and common should be taught before what is irregular and exceptional, what is marginal. For instance, it is agreed that regular verbs should be taught before irregular ones, positive forms of adjectives before comparatives and superlatives. Thus, after the practice of basic structural patterns, marginal structures could be taught.  After practicing structures in sentences, a short table illustrating grammatical patterns and the application of rules would be enough.

7.3.2. The rules of teaching and learning grammar

The following are guiding rules for teaching and learning grammar (parts of the speech)

• The Rule of Context:

Teach grammar in context. If you have to take an item out of context inorder to draw attention to it, ensure that it is re-contextualized as soon as possible. Similarly, teach grammatical forms in association with their meanings. The choice of one grammatical form over another is always determined by the meaning the speaker or writer wishes to convey.

• The Rule of use:

Teach grammar in order to facilitate the learners’ comprehension and production of real language, rather than as an end in it. Always provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some communicative use.

• The Rule of economy:

To fulfil the rule of use, be economical. This means economising on presentation time in order to provide maximum practice time. With grammar, a little can go a long way.

• The Rule of Relevance:

Teach only the grammar that students have problems with. This means, start off by finding out what they already know. And don’t assume that the grammar of English is a wholly different system from the learner’s mother tongue. Exploit the common ground.

• The Rule of Nurture:

Teaching doesn’t necessarily cause learning - not in any direct way. Instead of teaching grammar, try to provide the right conditions for learning grammar.

• The Rule of appropriateness:

Interpret all the above rules according to the level, needs, interests, expectations and learning styles of the students. This may mean giving a lot of prominence to grammar, or it may mean never actually teaching grammar at all - in any up-front way. But either way, it is your responsibility as a teacher to know your grammar inside out.

7.4.a. Learning activity

Observe and interpret the diagram below and answer these questions:

a. What are the approaches of teaching English language?

b. Explain the approaches identified using examples.

Notes:

7.4.1. The deductive approach rule driven learning

A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied. The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it through the study and manipulation of

examples.

Advantages of the deductive approach:

• It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving. Many rules especially rules of form can be more simply and quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow more time for practice and application.

• It respects the intelligence and maturity of many especially adult students and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition.

• It confirms many students› expectations about classroom learning particularly for those learners who learn analytically.

• It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather than having to anticipate and deal with them later.

Disadvantages of deductive approach:

• Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not have enough met language (i.e. language used to talk about language such as grammar terminology). Or they may not be able to understand the concepts involved.

• Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission style in the classroom; the teacher’s explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction.

• Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation such as demonstration.

• Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply a case of knowing the rules.

7.4.2. The inductive approach- the rule discovery path

What are the advantages of encouraging learners to work out rules for themselves?

• Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.

• The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater recalling of information.

• Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more attentive and more motivated.

• It is an approach which favours pattern recognition and problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.

• If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language, learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.

• Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater selfreliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy. 

The disadvantages of an inductive approach include:

• The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a means.

• The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.

• Students may hypothesize the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application: this is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.

• It can place heavy demands on teachers while planning a lesson. They need to select and organise the data carefully to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule while also ensuring that the data is intelligible.

• However carefully organised the data is, many language areas such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.

• An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer simply to be told the rule.

7.5. Techniques of teaching grammar

7.5.a. Learning activity:

Picture observation and interpretation

Referring to the above images, carry out the following tasks

a. What is the importance of the first image in teaching English?

b. Discuss the relationship between the first image and the second.

c. Identify the techniques of teaching grammar.

Notes

7.5.1. Teaching grammar through texts.

If learners are to achieve a functional command of English as a second language, they should be helped to understand and produce not just isolated sentences, but whole texts in English language.

Language is context-sensitive; which is to say, an utterance becomes fully intelligible only when it is placed in its context. Book texts tend to be specially tailored for ease of understanding to display specific features of grammar. This often gives them a slightly unreal air, as illustrated in the example below:

Authentic texts or classroom texts?

Advocates of authentic texts argue that not only are such specially written texts uninteresting and therefore not motivating but they misrepresent the way the language is used in real-life contexts. On the other hand, the problems associated with authentic texts cannot be washed away, either, as any teacher who has attempted to use a dense newspaper article with low level students will have discovered. The linguistic load of unfamiliar vocabulary and syntactic complexity can make such texts impenetrable, and ultimately very de-motivating.

A compromising position is to take authentic texts, and to simplify them in ways which retains their genuine flavour. Another alternative is to write classroom texts, but to make them more engaging than the example quoted above. In fact, with only the slightest change, the text about Mr West could be made somewhat more attention-grabbing:

This is Mr West. He has a bag in his left hand. Where is he standing? He is standing at the door of his house. What is Mr West going to do? He is going to put his hand into his pocket. He is going to take a gun out of his pocket. He is going to point the gun at...

The implications of this context-sensitive view of language on grammar teaching are that:

• Grammar is best taught and practiced in context.

• This means using whole texts as contexts for grammar teaching.

Advantages of using texts:

• They provide co-textual information, allowing learners to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar grammatical items from the co-text.

• If the texts are authentic, they can show how the item is used in real communication.

• Texts provide vocabulary input, skills practice and exposure to features of text organisation as well as grammar input.

• The use of texts in the classroom is good preparation for independent study.

• If the texts come from the students themselves, they may be more engaging and their language features therefore more noticeable and memorable.

Disadvantages

• The difficulty of the text, especially an authentic one, may mean that some of the above advantages are lost.

• The alternative - to use simplified texts - may give a misleading impression as to how the language item is naturally used, again defeating the purpose of using texts.

• Not all texts will be of equal interest to students.

• Students who want quick answers to simple questions may consider the use of texts to be the ‘scenic route’ to language awareness and would prefer a quicker, more direct route instead.

7.5.2. Teaching Grammar through stories.

Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and illustrating grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning, while the latter requires deductive thought, and it is useful to include both approaches in lesson planning. In addition, a well-told story is a perfect context for a structure-discourse match, but the technique can also be used effectively for a structure-social factor match. Storytelling is one of these extremely versatile techniques, and once you get the hang of it, it can be a convenient and natural grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it is the technique that holds students’ attention best, as well as the one they enjoy most.

Grammar points can be contextualized in stories that are absorbing and just plain fun if they are selected with the interest of the class in mind, are told with a high degree of energy, and involve the students. Students can help create stories and impersonate characters in them.

Students will certainly appreciate and respond to your efforts to include them in the storytelling process, but will also enjoy learning about you through your stories. Stories should last from one to five minutes and the more exaggerated and bizarre they are, the more likely students will remember the teaching points they illustrate.

7.5.3. Teaching grammar through songs and rhymes.

Songs

Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities.

They are precious resources to develop pupils’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and adverbs. Learning English through songs also provides a non-threatening atmosphere for students who usually are tense when speaking English in a formal classroom setting. Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are motivating.

Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are presented through songs.Therefore, through using them, the language which is cut up into a series of structural points becomes a whole again.

Example:

7.5.4. Teaching grammar through Poems

Poems, like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since poetry is often spoken, repeated, dealt with and considered, it acts as an effective tool for practicing a specific grammatical structure. Through repeating and considering the poem, the grammatical structures become more deeply internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides a rewarding resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for review. If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us; this polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many pupils.

Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language. Thus, it is an important aspect to be taught since English is a syllable timed language with stressed syllables being spoken at roughly equal time pauses even in everyday speech. Like songs, poems have an enormous linguistic value as they provide unique language concepts and sounds.

Examples showing how a situation, or a context can be used in grammar lessons.

7.6 Steps for teaching grammar lessons

7.6.a. Learning activity:

Observe and interpret the diagram.

Referring to the above diagram, carry out the following activity

After observing the above diagram, identify and interpret the steps for teaching language structure (grammar).

Describe and identify the main steps for teaching language structure.

Notes

Steps for teaching grammar

Step 1. Free observation

The pupils observe different sentences, phrases containing the new pattern to be taught, they do freely on their own (at least three minutes)

Step 2. Guided observation

The pupils guided by the teacher work together to point out different elements which they underline, distinguish and analyse through different sentences, examples and questions. They should also answer questions asked about the new pattern being taught.

Step 3 Comparison

Using different colours of chalk, the teacher and the learners compare the known and the unknown elements by underlining, categorizing different elements: feminine, masculine, plural, singular, type of conjunction, words showing relationships, interaction, etc…

Step 4 Generalization

• Both the teacher and learners set out, identify a rule concerning a new topic(pattern being taught).

• The teacher reads the rule while the learners listen careful.

• The learners repeat the rule after the teacher individually and in small groups.

Step 5 Application

Some exercises concerning the taught pattern are given to the learners to be done in their exercise books. This is done to assess or verify whether they are capable of applying the rule.

NB: the teacher in setting out the rule, will write it out on the chalkboard.

Briefly, grammar lessons follow these steps:

1. Contextualization: grammatical structure in sentence or in situation.

2. The teacher isolates the item to be taught in a model.

3. Learners repeat the model sentences, the teacher writes it on the chalkboard.

4. Visualization of grammatical structure by underlining it or putting it in colour using a piece of chalk.

5. Pupils read the model sentences written on the chalkboard.

6. Generalization: Application generally consists of different drills.

Drills are exercises often oral about a grammatical structure.

The above steps for teaching grammar are summarized into three stages as described below:

Teachers of English usually divide grammar lessons into three phases:

Presentation, Practice and Production. One of the best ways of helping pupils to reach the objectives of the lesson is to introduce the new language well in the first phase of the lesson: the presentation phase. Pupils need to have plenty of activities to help them practice the new language. This is the practice phase. Lastly, the students need time to use the new language they have learned in order to communicate with each other. This is the production phase.

1. Presentation

Jeremy Harmer says that the first phase which is presentation, is the stage at which students are introduced to the form, meaning and issue of a new piece of language. Students learning new grammar should apply this new rule to themselves. This experience is known as personalization. Presentation should be clear, efficient, lively, interesting, captivating, appropriate and productive. To achieve all these characteristics, the teacher can use various teaching aids e.g. such as charts, dialogues, mini-situations, text for contrast or for grammar explanation etc.

According to Claudia Riemer and Gert Henrici, the German linguists and authors of books about teaching of foreign languages, teachers can choose 3 different ways of grammar presentation.

• The inductive method: Students must first meet with a specific example from which they derive a new grammatical rule. The benefit of this method is the fact that students must think actively about the language, it is motivating, and this way of presentation leads to independence and self-activity of learners. But on the other hand, it takes a long time and sometimes difficult for students to derive a new rule without any help.

• The deductive method: The teacher formulates at first a grammatical rule that students practice with examples. This approach is faster than inductive method. It is more systematic and therefore easier to implement.

• The analytic-deductive method: At first, students work with sample sentences and then formulate and analyse the grammatical rule together with their teacher. This rule is then practiced in different exercises. The analytic-deductive method is very creative, interesting and effective for pupils, but it requires very careful preparation of teachers. for fresh teachers, it can be difficult.

The first and third method use the so-called discovery techniques. Jeremy Harmer explains them as methods where students are given examples of language and told to find out how it works. They discover grammar rules on their own and are not. Students can be asked to look at some sentences and say how the meaning is expressed and what the differences between the sentences are. The teacher can use preview, matching techniques, text study, problem-solving etc. as a discovery technique. Whether the teacher chooses any method, his presentation should include the following structure.

• Building up an appropriate context in which the grammar rule can be better understood.

• Explaining target structure in a marker sentence,

• Drilling target structure.

• Focusing on form, demonstrating how the structure is formed, know its meaning, check learners’ understanding of meaning by asking them questions.

• Providing a written model on board.

1. Practice of grammar

After the presentation, the teacher needs to plan for the second or the practice phase of the lesson. The aim of this stage is to give pupils thorough practice of target items to ensure that they can use them correctly and fluently. The practice stage usually starts with fully teacher-controlled activities and continues with less controlled ones to relatively free communicative tasks. The activities can be divided into two groups. The following types of exercises are borrowed from Adrian Doff, an experienced teacher trainer.

Mechanical Practice: At this stage of the lesson, the teacher gives students practice on forming the structure. It should be a controlled kind of practice that will be done very quickly. The teacher can use e. g.:

• Repetition: The teacher presents different examples and the students repeat them.

Teacher: I am sitting.

Pupils: I am sitting.

• Substitution – Students repeat what the teacher said, but they replace some specific elements in each sentence.

Teacher: I am sitting.

Pupils: I am speaking. I am learning....

• Single word prompt: Teacher gives a word as a prompt and the students give examples. 

Teacher: playing

Pupils: We are playing.

Teacher: sitting

Pupils: We are sitting.

 • Picture prompt: The teacher shows pictures and pupils create sentences about what are they see, e.g. the teacher shows a picture of a man sitting and pupils make sentences. “He is sitting.”

• Free substitution: Pupils create their own sentences based on the model presented by the teacher.

• Meaningful Practice: It is the second stage of practice following the mechanical type of activities. At this stage pupils not only create the form, but they also must work with content. Learners must think and understand what they are saying. At this stage, teachers can use for example, the activities below borrowed from Adrian Doff again:

• True sentences: The teacher asks students to say real information about themselves by using specific structure, e. g.:

Teacher: I like chocolate, but I don’t like vegetables. What about you?

Pupil: I like music and movies, but I don’t like sport....

• Situation: The teacher creates a specific situation in which the pupils have to use the new grammar structure, e.g.:

Teacher: You are a stranger asking about places in a town.

Pupil: Is there a café near here?

Teacher: You want to watch a film.

Pupil: Is there a cinema near here? ...

• Adding something: The teacher can ask questions and let the students add something of their own, e. g.:

Teacher: Where are you going?

Pupil: I am going to the petrol station.

Teacher: Why? ...

• Choosing the best sentence: The teacher describes a situation and gives pupils an opportunity to choose from two or more forms of sentences and which is the most suitable for the context. The contrast between two options may help pupils to see the difference. e.g.

Teacher: I am in the middle of teaching, what should I say? I am teaching English or I teach English.

• Imaginary situations: The teacher asks pupils to imagine a situation

that is not real, the pupils talk about it, e. g.:

Teacher: Imagine you are at home doing something. Tell me about your activity.

• Talking about real life – It works as the previous activity, but the pupil talks about real life.

Teacher: Tell me what you are doing.

Pupil: I am sitting and learning English. I am listening. I am taking notes.

2. Production of grammar It is the communicative phase which aims at using grammar structures pupils have been practicing in a natural way. Communicative activities which are possible to use include:

• A reply to a letter

• Report

• Discussion

• Role-play

• Guessing game

• Interview

Conclusion

It is important to remember that in the actual classroom teaching, compromise is often the best approach. Use of an eclectic approach where there is a mixture of teaching methods and techniques, is recommended. Remember, lessons incorporating real life communication are always more meaningful and therefore more motivating to pupils. Lessons should be more learner-centred rather than teacher centred. The teacher should also remember that making errors is a normal process in language learning. Therefore, in applying all the techniques presented above, he/she should not be surprised to see errors of all sorts being made by pupils. These errors could serve as the starting points for designing other techniques for teaching grammar or reinforcing those already used. It would be useful for the teacher at both levels of primary education not to forget the main principles such as:

• Practice of structures should always be contextualized for them to be more meaningful and interesting to learners.

• Many examples should be given in sentences, illustrating the use of grammatical structures to be learned.

A scenario

For the last two lessons, I decided to teach present continuous tense. Based on agreement with a colleague, an English teacher, who found out that this grammar is for P5 pupils. For presenting it, I chose “The monkey song”. Here, I made the most of the activities from the perspective that children really love songs. This song is also very cheerful and funny, which attracted pupils’ attention maximally. In the beginning of the lesson, I familiarized pupils with the fact that we were going to learn something new that was going to surely be very amazing. I told them that I was going to play a song about animals, and they would have to guess what animals they were, and I mimed it.

As I am a very good pretender, pupils immediately knew, that it was going to be a song about monkeys. I played the song, while pupils watched and listened with noticeable interest. Then I asked them to say some words that they could hear in the song. Pupils named the words monkey, doctor, bed, mother, jumping. Then pupils read the questions on the board (with my help), we explained their meaning. I played the song again and the task was to find answers for the questions. All the responses were available on the board. After listening, the first pupil with his hand up went to the board and pulled the first answer to the question. His action was immediately checked since the correct options were on the board. And yes, he made it. I praised the pupil and allowed him choose one of his classmates to answer the next question.

The pupils answered all the questions correctly. I then wrote all the answers on the board and asked pupils to underline all verbs in sentences formulated on the board. They quickly discovered that there were more verbs in each sentence. They marked the verb “to be” with a red colour and we reviewed all the forms of the verb “to be”. While I was mentioning various nouns and pronouns pupils were responding with the proper forms of the verb “to be”. Then we marked the verbs in –ing form with a green colour. We deduced the rule of making sentences with verbs in present continuous tense and I pointed out that we use it when we want to say that something is happening right now.

After reading the above scenario, carry out the following tasks:

a. What subject and topics were being taught?

b. Explain the techniques that were used by the teacher in the scenario.

c. Briefly discuss the steps used in the lesson as described in the scenario.