English TMP LE & ECLPE

INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY

Effective principles, methods and working techniques are key for any success in life. Observe the figure below and answer the questions that follow:

a. Relate the above figure with language learning and teaching.

b. Discuss the relationship among three elements presented in the above figure.

c. Why do you think the elements in colours are not at the same line?

Notes

3.1. Defining different concepts:

Pedagogical principles, approaches, methods and techniques Learning principles are fundamental laws of learning. They provide aresearch-based and conceptual foundation on how people learn. Learning principles add insight into what makes people learn most effectively. These learning principles should consistently guide teachers in their teaching instructions and other decisions.

Approach is a general overview of the way a teacher tackles a discipline. It is an idea or a theory that is being applied to a language teaching.

Method, on the other hand, is a collection of techniques used in a systematic way which is expected to result in an efficient learning. In this context, we consider teaching and learning as a research from the beginning up to the end. *Roger Pinto and Madeleine Grawitz define a method as “a set of intellectual operations by which a study proceeds in order to reach and explain truths. They added that a method is “a compressed set of operations evolved to achieve either one or several objectives; a unit of principles prominent to every organized research and, a set of norms enhancing techniques selection and coordination.” Methods are ways used to achieve goals; here, teaching and learning goals.

To achieve teaching and learning objectives, both teachers and student teachers should use appropriate methods and techniques. Thus, in a language study, the notion of method derives from the assumptions and beliefs one has about how a language is taught, and the principles drawn from observations and experiments regulate different steps and procedures of language teaching and learning. In fact, language teaching principles are guiding forces that preside over the choice of teaching techniques and procedures.

Regarding Techniques, Pinto and Grawitz declare that these are“ tools of the research. It implies the procedures of collecting data applicable to the topic being investigated, as well as the method of analysis, and above all, in a point of view that guides the research.” Techniques are the means a researcher (here, a teacher) deploys to achieve a goal. Out of the class and within it, techniques consist of the personal means ways or procedures used while conducting a method in a classroom situation. Its purpose is to bring about an expected outcome in learners. In any method, different techniques could be used and the same techniques could be found in different methods

In summary, in any method, different techniques could be used and the same techniques could be found in different methods. A set of procedures or techniques can make up a method while a series of methods can be viewed under one approach.\

3.2. General language teaching principles

3.2.a. Learning activity

Read the scenario below and answer the questions that follow:

Uwimana is a primary English teacher, she loves her profession. With her experience of language teaching, she reported that she has learned a lot so far. We visited her at her school and shared what she knows about language learning and teaching. She said that Language learning is a process.

For instance, when children learn their first language they begin by listening and then experimenting with the sounds and language patterns. When they make errors parents accept their attempts to use the language, but repeating the correct language in a positive manner. And therefore, professional language teachers adopt a similar attitude towards their learners.

In addition, any language is learnt from habit formation and speech should be taught before writing but also reading should be practiced simultaneously with oral skills rather than delayed indefinitely to a later stage. However, any language has its own structure and L1 habits often interfere with those of L2 and handicap the acquisition of those of L2, finally, she said.

a. Explain how parents and professional language teachers help children when they make errors.

b. Discuss the standards or set theories of teaching a language shared by Uwimana

Notes

3.2.1. Principles of language learning

H.E Palmer (1974) presented a set of principles which are basic to most language teaching methods. These principles have been exploited in almost all language teaching methodologies (Palmer: 38f)

1. Initial preparation

During this period, the teachers awaken and develop by means of provision of appropriate exercises, the pupil’s natural capacities for language study. In the initial preparation, teachers should train pupils in all sorts of skills: ear training exercises, pattern practice drills, silent listening, etc.

2. Learner age and language level appropriateness

In language teaching and learning, the teacher should adapt the language to the age and language level of pupils.

3. Gradation

Teaching materials should be arranged in such a way that pupils can start from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the easy to the difficult, from the familiar to unfamiliar and from the common to uncommon

4. Proportion of different aspects of a course

This principle postulates that different aspects of language (understanding, speaking, reading and writing), as well as different branch of study (i.e.phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, etc.), should be given equal importance and appropriate amount of attention. The teacher should not teach only the aspects he/she is interested in and forget the others. Language is made up of different components and cannot be studied well unless a fair amount of time is given to each component.

5. Concreteness

Teachers of English should see it in that pupils proceed from concrete to the abstract and receive many examples that illustrate study points. This principle has been a source of inspiration for most language teaching methods that tend to use realia for teaching purposes (audio-visual method)

6. Interest

Motivation in a language teaching course is a very important factor for language learning. Example, variety in language lesson presentation, sense of progress and competition, game like exercise as well as understanding between the teacher and the pupils are the factors that can equally sustain pupils’ interest in lessons.

7. Multiple line of principle

This principle refers to the idea of eclecticism in the use of methods and the choice of materials to be taught. No one approach alone can be the answer to all the problems encountered in a language teaching course. Thus, in varying our approaches and methods, we use different means to achieve definite objectives in a more effective way. Therefore, a study of teaching methods is useful as it can enable us to know what has been codified from the experience of competent language teachers the world over. We need to know the major useful language teaching methods and procedures that have been devised for conducting different language teaching activities.

3.2.2. Importance of principles and procedures of language teaching methods

Knowledge of principles and procedures of language teaching methods can help in conducting all lessons properly and economically. The following are eight ways in which language teaching methods can be useful as stated by Larsen Freeman (2001: 1x ff):

a. Language teaching methods inform teachers of the rationale which lies behind their actions. Before starting teaching practice, interns hold several ideas about teaching methods. They finally realize that the aim of undergoing some training on methods is to make their knowledge and intuitions explicit, and concrete.

b. Armed with awareness of new different methods, interns can thus teachin a different way from the usual way they normally carry out theirteaching tasks. Concurrently, they can act freely and in a discriminatingway instead of following ideas that have been imposed to them without a reason.

c. Knowledge of LT methods can encourage teachers to participate actively in a community of practice with other English language teachers in this country or abroad. They can for example attend seminars, conferencesand debates about language teaching with colleagues the world over.

d. Knowledge of methods can help to expand techniques repertoire and thus allow teaching and learning to take place in a better way.

e. Knowledge of methods can help in the selection and use of specific techniques that would suit situations.

a. Give and explain four principles of teaching and learning language.

b. Discuss the importance of the knowledge of principles and procedures of language teaching methods.

c. Explain the relationship between approach, method and technique.

3.3. Approaches of teaching languages

3.3.a. Learning activity

Read the following summary about English teaching and learning approaches, identify and explain different approaches of teaching and learning English.

Natural Approach

The natural approach takes its cues from how the first language is naturally learned by children. That process is then simulated for teaching adults a second language.

Just as there is a “silent period” when babies do not utter a single comprehensible word, the natural approach gives time for learners to simply listen and absorb the language. Producing correctly pronounced words and phrases comes later in the learning curve. The emergence of speech is not a priority. Listening comprehension is the priority. So, early in the process, pupils do not need to speak at all. They must observe, to read the situation, to guess the meanings of words, to make mistakes and self-correct, just like babies!

Functional-notional approach

The functional-notional approach recognizes language as purposeful communication. That is, we talk because we need to communicate something. There is purpose and meaning behind the sounds that come out of our mouths. We have verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and so on in order to express language functions and notions. When we speak, we do it to inform, persuade, insinuate, agree, question, request, evaluate and perform other “functions.” We do it to talk about concepts (“notions”) like time, events, action, place, technology, process, emotion, etc. So, a teacher’s first step when using this approach is to evaluate how the pupils are using the language. For example, when teaching very young kids, you might want to teach them language skills that would help them communicate with mummy and daddy, or with their friends. So, you can teach them key social phrases like “thank you,” “please” or “may I borrow.”

Communicative approach

What good would it do any of your pupils if they know all the different ways of conjugating a verb but fail to communicate a coherent message? Communication is essentially the rationale for language and the communicative approach seeks to develop those skills that enable pupils to meaningfully engage with each other. Interactive activities are the hallmark of this approach. The responsibility of the teacher is to give the pupils as much opportunity to give and receive meaningful communication as possible. For example, pupils should be allowed to introduce themselves, share their hobbies using the target language. Instead of just presenting the language, the teacher gives learners tasks that can only be accomplished by using the target language.

Cognitive approach

The cognitive perspective in learning a language puts the learner in the centre of everything. Cognitive approaches look to answer questions like: How can a language be effectively learned? How does one make a set of vocabulary words memorable and get them embedded in long-term memory? According to this kind of approach, the techniques, strategies and even the sequence of lessons are learner-led and cannot be predetermined. Learning a language is a conscious, rational, information-processing event.

Structural approach

Structural approaches believe that language can be reduced to a learnable set of building blocks. There are rules, known as grammar and syntax that govern how to combine these basic elements. These rules can be memorized to achieve a high level of proficiency in a language. Some proponents would even go so far as saying that there is a predetermined sequence in which a language should be learned. Grammar textbooks are the most commonly used material in this category.

Total Physical Response (TPR)Approach

Total physical response is an approach to language teaching where gestures, actions and movements play a vital role in language acquisition. Remember when you were a kid and adults would tell you to do all kinds of things, like “catch the ball,” “pick up your doll” or “open your mouth”? Well, TPR is going back to those good old days. TPR believes that when your pupils see movement and when they themselves move; their brains create more neural connections that make for more efficient language acquisition. Another pillar of this approach is that learning a language should be stress free. Pop quizzes and exams are dropped in exchange for fun activities like“Simon Says” where you ask pupils to perform actions like “close your eyes,” “raise your left arm” or “pick up the red ball.”

3.4. Methods of teaching and learning second languages

3.4.a. Learning activity

Which methods do you think are more appropriate for specifically teaching and learning English?

3.4.1. Direct method

The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners’ native language and uses only the target

language. It was established in England around 1900 and contrasts with the grammar translation method & Bilingual method of teaching and other traditional approaches. In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills. Characteristic features of the direct method are:

• Teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
•  Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language) centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation) focus on question-answer patterns

Advantages

• Facilitates understanding of language understanding of the target language becomes easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences from the mother tongue, it establishes a direct bond between contexts and helps in understanding directly what is heard and read

• Improves fluency of speech fluency of speech results in easier writing, it tends to improve expression, expression in writing, and it is a quick way of learning and expanding vocabulary

• Aids reading becomes easier and more pleasant, and it also promotes a habit of critical studying

• Improves the development of language sense

• Full of activities, which make it interesting and exciting

• Emphasizes the target language by helping the pupil express their thoughts and feelings directly in target language without using their mother tongue

• Develops listening, speaking, reading and writing

• Increased employment opportunities

• Helps in bringing words from passive vocabulary into active vocabulary

• Helps in proceeding the English language from particular to general, it bridges the gap between practice and theory

• Makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilitates reading and writing

• Facilitates alertness and participation of students

Disadvantages

• Ignores systematic written work and reading activities

• May not hold well in higher-level classes where the translation method is more suitable

• Supports only limited vocabulary: it restricts the scope of vocabulary as not all words can be directly associated with their meanings

• Lacks application: the method aims at active command of a language, only the clever child can be profited by this method.

• Does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes

• Inconvenient in a huge class

• Ignores reading and writing aspects of language learning

• Does not teach grammar systematically

• Time-consuming in creating real-life situations

• Less suitable for slow learners, who struggle with this method

Techniques used in direct method

• Question/answer exercise the teacher asks questions of any type and the student answers.

• Dictation the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate passage and reads it aloud.

• Reading aloud the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud.

• Student self-correction when a student makes a mistake the teacher offers him/her a second chance by giving a choice.

• Conversation practice the students are given an opportunity to ask their own questions to the other students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-learner interaction as well as a learner-learner interaction.

• Paragraph writing the students are asked to write a passage in their own words.

Principles and goals

There are two main goals to grammar translation classes. One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level whereby they can read literature in the target language. The other is to develop students’ general mental discipline. The users of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in the literature of foreign languages.

Therefore, this method focuses on reading and writing and has developed techniques which facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked. Grammar translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the translation of classical texts. There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.

Audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. This method lays the emphasis on listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, in this order. Language teaching theorists of this method hold the following views about language in line with teaching and learning.

• Language is speech, not writing.

• A language is a set of habits.

• Language is what native speakers say. 

• Languages are different.

The behaviorist stipulates that learning a language is acquiring habits through reward and reinforcement (stimulus and response). So, repetition of words through correct pronunciation and intonation of utterances at normal speed, with the usual elisions and liaisons of the native speakers lead to reinforcement of habits, and then to the acquisition of the TL. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner was forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learned through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. This method develops communicative capacity through dialogues as a way of instruction. Through dialogues, “students learn segments of language which can be of immediate use for communication, and acceptable sound patterns, and at a normal speed of delivery.”(cfr Rivers, 1981:46)

Main features