Geography

UNIT 15: MINING IN THE WORLD 

Key unit competence: 

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain the impact of mining in the sustainable development of different countries in the world

15.1: World distribution of major minerals

Mining refers to all the processes by which minerals are obtained from the earth. Minerals may be in gaseous, liquid or solid form. The processes involved depend upon the mode of occurrence of the mineral. Three major mining areas may be distinguished based on the variety of mineral resources, amount of exploited minerals, and their production. These are: 

 – North America: From central Alaska and north-central Canada to southern Mexico. The central plains from the Gulf of Mexico to the Laurentian shield contribute more than half of the total value of minerals mined in the USA and about one-fourth that of Canada. Petroleum, natural gas, coal, Sulphur, potash, lead, zinc, and gold are found here.

 – Eurasia: From the United Kingdom and the Iberian Peninsula to east central Siberia. West Europe is rich in coal, iron ore, bauxite, salt, potash etc., but it lacks in copper, lead, zinc, tin and alloys etc. 

– South-east Asia: It includes India, China, Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia. This region has sufficient output of earth material to cater to the domestic needs of a large population. India and China have sufficient coal, iron ore and a variety of alloys. Malaysia and Indonesia have surplus tin. 

The table below shows the minerals, their uses and where they are found. The countries shown are just some among the many other ones. below there is a table showing major world minerals and their locations along with their major uses.

Application  Activity 15.1 1.  

1. Identify two areas outside Rwanda where tin and coltan are extracted in large quantities. 

2. Apart from Tin and Coltan, state other major world minerals. 

3. Draw a sketch of Rwanda and show the major areas where minerals are exploited or extracted.

 4. Using the world map locate the major mining areas of the world.

15.2: Methods of mining

Learning Activity 15.2

 Read the passage provided below and answer the question that follow:

 Mahoro is one of the prosperous investors who is interested in mining. She recently visited the DRC and the research findings included the following: 

(i) Some mineral ores are near the surface;

 (ii) Some minerals are deeply located below the surface area. 

1. Using the past studies, describe the mining method that can be used by Miss Mahoro in the exploitation of the mineral ores near the surface and mineral ores occurring deep into the crust.

 2. Identify and explain the effects of different mining methods on the physical environment and suggest the appropriate ways to deal with the negative effects of those mining methods.

When extracting mineral ores from underground/ground deposits, there are various methods that can be used. These methods depend greatly on the mode of occurrence of the mineral ore, of the value of the mineral, and the size of deposit. The most common mining methods include the following: 

15.2.1. Opencast or open pit mining 

This is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the surface. It simply involves the removal of the overburden that is the earth or other rock bands lying above the mineral-bearing strata. Then, the extraction of the ore in successive layers is done until the mineral content becomes exhausted or inaccessible/ too small for economic mining. 

Equipment like caterpillars and excavators are used to create exposure of the mineral ore bearing rocks. In most case when the overlying burden (soils and rocks covering the mineral bearing rocks) is soft, then digging is used. When the overlying burden is hard, explosives are used. The purpose of using explosives is to loosen the rocks for easy removal.  Open cast method can be carried out in two ways: Stripping and hill slope boring. 

(i)  Stripping method: This is the simplest and cheapest method of mining. It is used where minerals are very close to the surface of the earth.

Hill slope boring: This is used in the extraction of minerals such as coal which may outcrop from the hill side. A gently sloping shaft is dug into the hillside to reach the mineral. The augers are used to drill out large pieces of coal and haul them to the surface from where they are taken to the processing plants by trucks.

15.2.2. Underground mining

 When the ore lie deep below the surface, the overburden is too thick to be removed by mechanical shovels and underground mining methods have to be used. This mining method involves the creation of network of both vertical and horizontal tunnels. These follow the mineral bearing rocks. The vertical tunnels are called shafts. The mined ores are transported along the shafts using conveyor belts on which lifts, or cages are affixed. The cages move up and down the shaft. The cages also assist the miners to move along the vertical tunnels.

 There are circumstances where the mineral ore bearing rocks occur in a horizontal manner. In this case horizontal tunnels are created to have access to the mineral ore extraction. Such tunnels are called Adit or crosscut opening. There must be proper ventilation to allow the miners have clean and safe air, the roofs of the tunnels must be supported with strong pillars and strong wire mesh. This method is used in extraction of mineral ores in countries such as gold mining in South Africa, copper and cobalt in DRC and Zambia.

The following are the different underground mining methods:

 (i) Drift or Adit method: This is whereby the minerals are extracted from the sides of a hill or a valley. The mineral bearing veins or seams are found protruding on the side of the valley or hills.

 (ii) Shaft method: this is used to extract minerals found in deep or very steep inclined seams. Vertical shafts are sunk underground. From these, horizontal tunnels or galleries are dug to reach the mineral bearing rock.

(iii) Solution method: This is done from the surface of the earth. Shafts are sunk

down into the mineral deposits. Pipes are installed to link the deposits.

(iv) Drilling method: This method is used in the extraction of non-sold minerals

such as oil and natural gas from the ground. It involves the use of equipment known

as the derrick. This is used purposely to create deep holes into the ground up to

the depth of where the mineral to be extracted is situated. This equipment holds a

drill stem on which drilling pumps are attached. After the drill reaches the mineral,

pumps are inserted to transport the oil or gas to the collecting and refinery centers. 

15.2.3. Alluvial mining

When minerals occur in alluvial deposits, they are usually recovered by placer mining

methods. This is done by mixing the alluvium with great deal of water and tilting or

rotating the gravels until the lighter particles (sand, mud, dust, stones) are washed

off, leaving behind the heavier ores, e.g. gold, tin, chromium, platinum, which have

a higher specific gravity. The following are the main alluvial mining methods:

(i) Placer mining: This method is used in cases, where the original bearing rock

is broken down by natural processes and it is transported and redeposited by

running water. Placer mining involves excavating alluvial deposits such as sand,

gravel, silt and clay. Screens and sluices are used to separate the minerals from

alluvial materials. This method is used by gold and diamond miners in Ghana,

the Democratic Republic of Congo and Namibia. The gravel bank is loosened

by a high-pressure stream of water distributed through a large nozzle called a

hydraulic giant.

(iii) Dredging: In this method expensive equipment referred to as a dredger is used

to dig out the alluvium. The dredger floats on water and it has a series of traps

through which the alluvial deposit is channelled. The traps usually intercept the

heavier alluvial materials that bear the minerals.

(iv) Hydraulic mining: This is the use of water sprayed from powerful pumps on the

sides of valleys or slopes to bring down the alluvial deposits once the alluvial

deposits, have landed on the floor of the valleys, they are collected. 

The factors that influence or affect the mineral exploitation include the following:

– The value of the mineral: Minerals of high value such as diamond are exploited

at any cost. They can be mined without incurring losses.

– Size of deposits: This factor influences the nature and type of equipment to be

used. The bigger the mineral deposit, the wiser and economically rewarding

to invest in its exploitation. Small deposits are uneconomic to exploit because

mining involves huge investments and to reach payback period requires some

years of fully operational mining.

– Grade of the ore: When a given mineral has more ore is worth mining. The

lower the ore, the less the mineral ore is economically viable for exploitation.

This implies that only the minerals with high content of ore are exploited.

– Transport costs: This is a factor that determines whether the mineral is worth

mining. The less bulky mineral ores are, the more it becomes suitable to exploit

it and smelt or process it at hand’s reach. 

– Mode of occurrence of minerals: Minerals that are near the surface of the

earth are more profitable to exploit since less expensive mining methods and

equipment are involved. This means that, if the mineral is deep underground,

it becomes costlier to exploit it.

– Labour: Mining requires both skilled and semi-skilled labour. In developed

countries, it is easy to get the required labour unlike in developing countries.

– Capital: The presence of adequate capital will encourage the exploitation of

minerals. This because mining requires heavy equipment that is expensive to

purchase. When the capital is not enough, it means that the mineral deposits

can hardly be mined.

– Markets: Mining is majorly conducted for commercial reasons. Therefore, its

success depends entirely on the presence or availability of enough market. If

there is a high demand for a given mineral, such mineral will be exploited. It

would even influence many investors to put a lot of funds in its exploitation.

– Technology: Mining requires appropriate technology. Countries with advanced

levels of technology exploit their deposits better than developing countries

with low levels of technological advancements.

– Political climate: When the country is secure in terms of security and political

stability, minerals will be exploited. This is so because both foreign and local

investors will be interested in making business ventures in the sector of mining.

– Government policy: Minerals can only be exploited when there are favourable

and friendly governmental policies such as tax holidays, quick and on-line

registration of companies and affordable licensing procedures.

– Power: Mining requires adequate supply of power and energy because of

the heavy equipment used in the exploitation of minerals. Therefore, in areas

where power is unreliable, it is very hard to exploit minerals that are deep

underground. 

Application Activity 15.3

1. Account for the low levels of mineral exploitation in the developing world.

2. To what extent is the mode of occurrence of mineral ore responsible for its

exploitation in DRC.

15.4: The effects of mining to the economies of the world

Learning Activity 15.4

Use the Internet, Geography textbooks, previous knowledge acquired in Geography to;

1. Evaluate the effects of mining to the socio-economic development of the

world countries.

2. Analyse the effects of mining operations on the physical environment in

Rwanda.

The mining sector contributes a lot to the socio-economic development of countries.

Some of the contributions are positive while others are negative. Below is a detailed

explanation of the effects of mining to the economies of the world:

15.4.1: Positive effects of mining to the economies of the world

The mining industry has had an influence on the economy in a number of ways,

which may be summarized as follows:

– Employment opportunities: There are thousands of people employed by

the sector of mining either directly or indirectly. These have had their lives

improved because of the salaries they receive. For example, in 2014, 611,000

and 495,568 people were employed directly by the mining sector in USA. And

South Africa respectively.

– Development of transport and communication facilities: Mining has

influenced the establishment of varying forms of transport and communication

infrastructures. There are feeder roads radiating from mining centers to ports

and urban centers. These are also used by other economic sectors such as

trading, fishing, agriculture and Industrialization. For example, the Tazara

railway line was constructed because of copper mining in Zambian copper, St.

Lawrence sea way was developed because of supporting the mining of salt,

iron ore, limestone, lead, Zinc e.tc.

– Source of revenue: The companies involved in the mining sector pay taxes

to the government. They must attain license and such calls for payment of a

given fee. The revenue collected is thereafter used to develop the country.

– Source of foreign exchange: Mining sector contributes a lot to the earning of

foreign currencies of countries. Minerals are exported to other countries and

such enables them to have huge sums of foreign currencies. Such money is

used to purchase what is not locally produced and at the same time fill the

gaps within the national budget. Thus supporting the development and

growth of the countries’ economies. 

Urbanization of many areas:The mining operations have encouraged

the growth and development of the urban centers. That is, many people

flock to mining areas, increasing population numbers and attracting other

infrastructural development to the area which eventually, helps develop

towns and cities. The good examples are: Lubumbashi, Belfast, Johannesburg,

and Lagos.

– Growth and development of industries: Mining has led to the development

of large manufacturing industries. There are industries engaged in the smelting

of mineral ores, others in the processing of minerals to both semi-finished and

finished goods. On the other hand, there are other industries that are dealing

with the manufacturing of mining equipment.

– Diversification of the economy: Mining has assisted the countries to have

another alternative economic activity. This implies that the countries are

able not to depend on few economic activities.means that, on top of other

economic sectors such as agriculture, fishing, industrialization and tourism,

the country can utilize the mining sector too. This is helpful to the economic

growth because when one economic sector fails, at least mining or any other

sector can support the economy.

– Improved international relations: Exporting and importing countries always

tend to have a friendly relationship. It means that as one provides mineral ores

the other provides market. This interdependence results in having political

allies that can support one another in times of crisis.

– Improved standards of living: People earn income in the form of wages

and salaries which is used to better and improve their way of living, such as

sleeping well, dressing, good shelter, acquisition of education for their children

and meeting the domestic demands such as food, medical treatment among

others.

– Acquisition of skills: The people employed by the mining sector learn a lot of

skills through the staff development training. These skills acquired can be later

utilized by individuals to start up their own business projects.

– Exploitation of other resources such as generation of HEP: Mining has

influenced the tapping of other resources such as the use of water falls in power

generation like Hydro-electric power. This is so because of the high need for

power in running of the heavy machines. The examples of hydroelectric power

stations set up as a result of mining include Ntaruka, Inga Dam (on Inga falls

in the DRC), Kainji dam on River Niger in Nigeria(which was primary set up to

support oil refinery industries).

– Tourist attraction: The mining operations and installations entice many

people from various parts of the world. These people pay a fee to the concerned

countries and companies in concern. it therefore develops tourism which is

one of the sources of foreign exchange.

15.4.2: Negative effects of mining on the economic development of the

 countries of the world

The mining industry has played a positive role in the economic development of

the world. However, it may contribute negatively to the economic development

in several ways. The following are some of the negative effects of mining on the

country’s economic development:

– Mining has become the main cause of pollution in many countries of the

world. This is because of the impurities, fumes from the equipment used and

by the products associated with mining operations. Both air, water, land and

noise pollution are evident. It has lead to serious global warming as a result of

environmental degradation.

– The mining sector has caused the depletion of the resourcest in the areas

where it has taken place for many years. The exhaustion of minerals leaves a

handful of workers unemployed. Such bring a challenge to the government

and increases an overdependence ratio.

– There are sometimes great losses incurred by the mining companies. This is

because some minerals are of low demand. Such reduces the investment base

of the people.

– The prices of minerals are determined by the forces of demand and supply.

Therefore, the fluctuation of prices makes it hard for the economic planners to

have a reliable policy designing system that is workable and functional. Such

leaves a great gap within the economic development. To worsen the situation,

some companies fail because of registering losses.

– Mining has become one of the attractive sectors that employ thousands of

people. This has however, left other economic sectors with reduced productivity,

leaving mining as a chief supporter of the economic development.

– The land suitable for agriculture is wasted or removed when mining is taking

place using Open cast. This has left some areas faced with shortage of food.

Since only depleted scars of land characterized by deep pits and hanging walls

are left behind, such a land can hardly support the growth of crops.

– There is increased environmental degradation caused by the high demand for

timber which is used in the mining sector. At the same time, large chucks of

forested areas are cleared as minerals are being searched. Yet, deforestation

has many ill-effects.

– There is increased government expenditure as it tries to address the challenges

caused by the mining sector, Such as rehabilitating depleted areas and filling

up the deep pits left behind by the mining companies. The money spent would

otherwise be used to develop other sectors that directly benefit the citizens.

– Many homesteads are involuntarily displaced when mining operations are to

take place from a specific area. This breaks the social ties that families share.

Resettling them in other parts of the country too is costly.

– Most of the mining sectors are owned and managed by foreign companies.

These have always repatriated the profits and leaving little for reinvestment in

the country. This implies that, their mother countries’ economies are developed

at the expenses of the countries habiting their companies.

– Urbanization has partly come into existence because of mining operations in

some areas. This has come along with slum developed, organized crime, and

other ill-effects. All these put together affect the development of the economy.

Application Activity 15.4

1. Assess the contribution of mining on the economic development of

Rwanda.

2. Discuss the negative effects of mining to the physical environment of Rwanda.

15.5. Case studies of mining in selected countries

Learning Activity 15.5

Using the geographical documents, text books and internet research on the

following:

1. Describe the mining activities taking place in USA, RUSSIA and Middle

East.

2. Examine the factors that have favoured the development and growth of

mining sector in China and Nigeria.

3. Assess the contribution of mining sector to the socio-economic

development of South Africa and Zambia

15.5.1: Mining in the United States of America

The USA has for many years been the world’s leading mining nation. Its growth

and development trace its beginning even before the colonial era. The country is

naturally gifted with almost all types of minerals. These natural resources are fully

utilized in a sustainable manner; such has enabled the USA to develop her economy.

This explains why it has managed to have a leading highly developed economy in

the world. The major minerals exploited in USA include Coal, Lead, Uranium, Mica,

Sulphur, Copper, Silver, Gold, Iron ore, Zinc, Bauxite, among others. However, America

has the world’s largest coal reserve (25%).

It should be noted that, not all the minerals are in abundance in USA, some are also

imported to add on what is locally exploited; these include the following: tungsten,

oil, diamond, zinc, bauxite, copper, Aluminium and uranium. These imported

minerals are a result of high demand for thembecause of its increased industrial

growth and development.

The major mining centres of the USA include Mesabi Mountain Ranges of the Great

Lakes Region (the chief mining centre of the USA), New Mexico, Montana, Arkansas,

Wyoming, Utah, Appalachian Mountain Ranges of the Great Lakes region, Colorado,

Louisiana, Mississippi, California, Texas and Oklahoma.

Factors influencing the development of mining in the USA

– The presence of a wide variety of minerals such as zinc, lead, iron ore make

the region ideal for mining. These have enabled the mining companies to

have what to exploit in large quantities and at the same time meeting the

international demand for a variety of minerals.

– Adequate power supply from large sources of coal, natural gas and hydroelectric

power stations also facilitate the mining industry. This is a favourable factor

because mining is in most cases dependent on power. Power is used in the

running of machines in extraction and smelting of the ore.

– The presence of adequate capital from foreign earnings ( exports and other

financial institutions) favour the mining industry. This has contributed

abundantly to the mining sector in terms of being enabled to hire the required

labour as well as the purchasing of the modern equipment.

– The presence of skilled labour since the region has immigrants from France,

Germany and other regions where mining was practiced before. The human

labour is required in mining operations. Having a steady supply of workers

assists the mining companies to carry out their operations at a cheaper cost.

– The availability of well-developed transport networks like roads and railways,

especially the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes waterways. The mineral ore are

heavy and need to be transported to the market centres. This has also helped

in having access to the required mining in-puts from overseas.

– The presence of a ready market for the minerals both in the country and

outside. This is due to the prominent level of industrialization associated with

the country. Most of the industries are engaged in manufacturing. Therefore,

whatever is extracted is sold hence providing reinvestment opportunities to

the mining companies.

– The region is technologically advanced, making the mining operations easy to

handle. This has assisted the mining companies to have the ability of exploiting

the minerals whose mode of occurrence is deep. The technology available

eases the exploration of minerals and the processing operations.

– The political stability of the region plays a crucial role in the development of

the mining industry in the region. This is a factor that has earned international

investors who have had a convincing interest in mining operations.

15.5.2: Mining in Russia

The mining industry in Russia is among the highly developed sectors in the country

and the world at large. Russia is known for having almost all known minerals

resources in the world. Russia has the world’s largest proven iron ore reserves and

the world’s second largest coal reserves (20%). The mining industry of Russia is one

of the leading mining industries in the world. Russia having been naturally endowed

with a wide range of mineral resources, the country put them to better use and

became the world’s leading mineral resources producer. It contributes up 14% of the

world’s total mineral extraction. Russia possesses the following minerals reserve: Iron

ore, Manganese, Chromium, Nickel, Platinum, Titanium, Copper, Tin, Lead, Tungsten,

Diamonds, Gold, Oil, Natural gas, Coal.

The production of metals in Russia form 14% of its total exports. This is the second

foreign exchange earner, after Oil and natural gas industry. The country’s metal

exports are dominated by raw metals and aluminum. Even though Russia uses

metals in her industries, most of the metal production is exported. The chief metal

producing company is Bellwether private company.

Russia is known for being the largest world producer of Iron Ore, the second leading

producer of recoverable coal reserves. The country takes the third position of the

world’s producer of black coal.

There are four major mining regions in Russia:

– South European region which is known for coal mining and oil drilling.

– West Siberia also known for coal and oil

– Urals region which is important in copper, manganese, platinum and tungsten

mining.

– Murmansk region which is known for the exploitation of copper and lead.

 Factors that favour mining in Russia

– The presence of a wide variety of mineral reserves in the country. The country is

blessed naturally with a variety of minerals that have enabled a steady supply

of minerals on the international market. These minerals include among others

Oil, coal, copper, iron ore, to mention but a few.

– The availability of capital from the state and from the international mining

companies that exploit minerals in the area. The mining companies involved

in the Russian mining sector have all the necessary and require capital. This

explains why they are able to use modern equipment as well as hiring experts. 

– Supportive government policies that help stimulate the sector. These have

favoured the establishment of mining companies since they are offered tax

holidays and subsidization in times of economic hardships.

– The availability of both skilled and unskilled labour from the locals and

immigrants in the country. The mining sector requires labour force. Having it

at a hand’s reach provides the opportune moments of prosperity.

– Important levels of technology that is required in the mining sector. The

Russian mining companies have managed to exploit the deeply concealed

minerals and drilling of oil from off-shore oil deposits. This is all attributed to

the availability of technology.

– Adequate power supply that is required to power the sector. The nuclear

power production as well as other forms of power and energy in large levels,

have enabled the mining companies to operate at all time. This makes them

meet the high demands for the needed minerals.

– The presence of a well-developed transport and communications system

needed for the transportation of minerals and their products. Russia is one

of the countries of the world with well-developed means of transport. The

mining sector has benefitted from this, by transporting both the in-puts and

out-puts at a cheap cost hence assuring high economic returns.

The challenges faced by the mining sector in Russia

– Depletion of mineral reserves. The prolonged period of exploiting minerals

in Russia has left most of the mineral ore deposits exhausted. The exposed

coalfields are now depleted, and the country is forced to engage in the underground mining. This has come along with increased costs of mining.

– There is a low discovery rate of new reserves. This has put the mining sector

of Russia at a significant risk of having some minerals being expensive to get.

– The mining sector of Russia is still devoted to the traditional machinery used in

the reasonable years gone by. This has made it hard for some of the companies

not to access the concealed mineral ore deposits.

– The death toll in the mining sites of Russia is very high. This is because the soils

of Russia in places where mining is conducted are less consolidated such as in

coalfields. The underground tunnels collapse easily.

– There is stiff competition from other countries engaged in mining sector. These

have to some extent out competed Russia in its selling in the international

market. 

– The mining sector is challenged with prominent levels of pollution of all kinds.

The dusty nature of coal mining areas proves how environmentally the country

is challenged. The piles of metals leach and chemicals are transported by rain

water (Run-off), thus polluting both land and water resources.

– In many places Mining has led to the displacement of people from their

homes. In areas where mineral resources are found, in most cases people are

displaced and resettled in other places. This is costly and socially challenging.

– Mining has left scars of exhausted areas that are completely of less or

no importance in terms of production. Such depleted areas are usually

characterized by deep pits, open lands, piles of soils among many others.

15.5.3: Mining in China

China is one the countries blessed with a variety of mineral resources. In terms of

scale and magnitude, China’s mining industry ranks third in the world. Chinese

mining sector is greatly supported by high levels of technology and supportive

government policies. The country has several minerals such as: gold, cobalt, iron and

steel, nickel, vanadium, molybdenum and manganese. China is the second largest

world producer of Gold after South Africa and the second in copper production after

Chile. It also takes the firth world’s position as a producer of Iron ore. There are several

mining centers in china, but the most dominant and major ones are the following:

The oil producing countries in this region include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and

the United Arab Emirates . They are the major oil producing countries. Jordan has

established itself as a world leader in phosphates and potash mining, holding four

per cent of the global reserves.

Factors which have favoured oil production in the middle East

There are several factors that have supported mining in the middle East. These

include:

– The presence of massive quantities of oil and natural gas. The middle East

countries such as Saudi Arabia have contributed a lot to the oil exports because

of the vastness nature of her oil deposits.

– The region has managed to develop her mining because there is availability

of capital. This is provided by the companies that are associated with mining

especially Shell, Total, Agip among the others. Such has supported the use of

hired labour and modern technology.

– The availability of advanced technology. The oil drilling companies have come

along with the modern technology that has made it possible to tap the oil

and natural gas from the deepest level underground. The major equipment

includes the remote sensing (Sensors) that are used to determine the location

and the mode of occurrence of the oil deposits.

– The existence of generally flat landscape. This has favoured the establishment

of the required infrastructure such as roads and pipelines that are used in the

transportation of oil and the in-puts that are needed.

– Availability of large market for oil and petroleum products. There is a wide

range of market from outside the middle East region. This has enabled the

companies to sell what they produce.

– The Middle East region is associated with harsh climatic conditions that hardly

support other forms of economic activities such as agriculture. This influences

the governments to resort entirely to the drilling of oil.

Problems facing the oil industry in the Middle East

– Shortage of labour due to low population in countries such as Kuwait. This has

resulted in the costs of operations being high, hence registering relatively low

economic returns that it would be.

– The presence of alternative sources of energy like solar and nuclear energy

that compete with petroleum. This therefore has reduced the market for the

oil and oil products. This explains why some companies are now operating at

a low rate.

– The fluctuation of oil prices in the international market. There is too much crude

oil that is legally exported to other countries of the world. This influences the

forces of demand and supplies which results in unstable prices. It makes the

investors lose a lot.

– Conflicts between countries that often result in wars. This has become

a common characteristic associated with countries that produce Oil or

petroleum.It has made most of the foreign companies to relocated elsewhere

not in the middle East. Also, most of the infrastructures are destroyed by the

wars.

– Profit repatriation by international companies. The oil drilling is in the hands

of foreign companies. These reinvest the profits gained from mining in

their mother countries, thus leaving the local countries less developed and

benefiting relatively at lower levels.

– Lack of domestic markets in the region due to limited population. This leads to

overdependence on the foreign markets. This is because most of the middle

East countries are located in desert regions that discourage the settlement.

– Prominent levels of air, water and noise pollution. The drilling of petroleum

or oil is associated with both air, land and water pollution. This has made the

areas where it is carried out to have problems of environmental degradation.

– Stiff competition between the Middle East and other oil producing countries

like Nigeria, Algeria, and Russia. This has made the oil and oil products from

the Middle East lose their market. Such a situation also makes the engaged

companies get out of mining business.

15.5.5: Mining in Nigeria

Nigeria is a country in West Africa which has various deposits of minerals and large oil

deposits. It is the biggest producer of oil in Africa. The country is also endowed with

other minerals in addition to oil which is its major foreign exchange earner. These

minerals include tin, coal, iron ore and columbite. There are also other minerals that

occur in small quantities. Nigeria’s economy is greatly supported by the economic

returns from the exports of oil. There are several oilfields both in the interior and

along the coastal areas of the country. The mining industry of Nigeria has become

a centre of interest for both local and foreign companies. These companies include

Shell-BP, Mobil, Agip, SAFRAP, Texaco and Gulf.

Factors favouring the development of the mining industry in Nigeria

– There are several factors that have played a key role in the development of the

mining industry of Nigeria. They include the following:

– The mineral resources of Nigeria are of high quality. The presence of large oil

deposits and reserves in areas such as the Niger delta and iron ore in the Jos

Plateau.

– The availability of both skilled and unskilled labour which is provided by the

Nigerians and immigrants from other neighbouring countries.

– The availability of adequate capital provided by the rich foreign companies

such as Shell-Bp and Agip. The government of Nigeria has also invested a lot

of capitals in the sector and supports investors through the various national

agencies.

– The high population of Nigeria has created a large market for the products of

the mining industry.

– The high level of Industrialisation that helps in the value addition of the mining

products.

– Nigeria is strategically positioned at a point that enables the country to easily

access the Western and European markets.

– The presence of well-developed forms of transport such as railways, road and

pipe lines.

– The presence of cheap and affordable power that supports the mining

operations.

– The presence of foreign companies with advanced technology that is important

in the extraction of minerals.

15.5.6: Mining in South Africa

Mining in South Africa has been the main driving force behind the history and

development of Africa’s most advanced and richest economy, after Nigeria. Large

scale and profitable mining started with the discovery of a diamond on the banks

of the Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and

exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. This was followed by the

discovery of Gold especially in the Witwatersrand Gold in 1886 and the subsequent

rapid development of the gold field there.

Diamond and gold production may now be well down from their peaks, though

South Africa is still number 5 in gold, it remains a cornucopia of mineral riches. It is the

world’s largest producer of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium, vermiculite. It

is the second largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile, and zirconium. It is also

the world’s third largest coal exporter. South Africa is also a huge producer of iron

ore; in 2012, it overtook India to become the world third biggest iron ore supplier to

China, who are the world’s largest consumers of iron ore.

The country is endowed with a variety of natural resources. It has large mineral

reserves.

It is the world’s largest producer of manganese ore, platinum group metals and gold.

Other minerals found in South Africa include; diamond, coal, copper, uranium, iron

ore, asbestos and silver. 

15.4.7. Mining in Zambia

The production of copper in Zambia is a dominant economic activity that is

associated with the mining industry. Zambia is the 7th world’s largest producer

of copper. Copper is mined in the Zambian copper belt that is made up of various

mining centres that include; Bwana Mkubwa, Chibuluma, Chililabombwe, Nchanga,

Baluba, Ndola, Chambishi, Mufulira and Chingola.

Factors that favour the development of mining in Zambia

There are several factors that have favoured the development of the mining industry

in Zambia. They include the following.

– Zambia is endowed with large deposits of copper. This is supplemented by

other mineral ores. This gives the allowance to the mining companies to serve

the international market in relation to copper and other minerals. This again

makes mining to operate throughout the year.

– There is a steady supply of labour that is provided by the immigrants from

the neighbouring countries. The Zambian mining sector is supported by

immigrates from southern Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

These come with all the needed skills that have enabled the sector to flourish.

– The presence of hydro-electric power from the Kariba dam and other power

stations that support the various operations of mining sector. The mining

sector depends on power for smelting copper and extracting it. Therefore,

having it in enormous quantities is an advantage.

– The high demand of copper in the international market. The mining sector of

Zambia has in recent years benefitted from the increasing usage of copper in

manufacturing various products. This has enlarged the market hence enabling

the investors to gain more and more. Such has given them the capacity of

modernizing the mining sector.

– The presence of foreign investors who put in huge sums of capital and provided

skilled labour. They have developed the mining sector since they know what is

needed to be done. This again has supported the transformation of the mining

sector into a highly mechanized one.

– There is a wide network of roads and railway lines in Zambia. The most notable

one is the Tanzara railway that transports both the mineral ore and the mining

equipment needed in the mining operations.

– Favourable government policies such as the privatization policy that has

attracted local, regional and international investors in the sector. This has

supported the mining sector because of the advantages associated with the

policy. Furthermore, the investors are given tax holidays and where need be,

given soft loans by the government.

Application Activity 15.5

1. For either USA or China, account for the successful mining sector.

2. Note down the lessons you have learnt from the study on mining in USA and

show how you can use them to improve the mining sector in your country.