Religious Studies for ECLPE ,LE,...

Key Unit competence: Describe the growth and expansion of
Christianity and Islam teachings, and their contribution
to social life.
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY 2
1. Based on the knowledge acquired from year one Religious Education,
write a short summary on the possible answers about the historical

background of Christianity and Islam.

Characteristics of the Early Christian Church

The first Christian church also called the Early/Primitive/First Community of
believers in Christ during the centuries immediately after the resurrection of
Christ and Pentecost. The Bible narrates both the spiritual life and the social life

of the First Christian community.

The characteristics of the spiritual life (Acts 2: 42-47)
1. They devoted themselves to the apostles teaching
The early church was founded on the testimony of the apostles. They listened as
Peter, James and John and others repeated to them the teachings of Jesus. They 
heard these great leaders expounding upon those teachings and explaining the
meaning of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The apostles also taught
the early church the meaning of the Old Testament and how Jesus fulfilled its

promises and prophecies. 

2. They were devoted to fellowship

The Greek word used in Acts 2:42 for “fellowship” is Koinonia. A helpful way
to translate this word is, “Christian community”. In other words, these first
Christians devoted themselves to each other. In fact, this was their way of living

out in a practical what Jesus said in John 13:24-25.

3. They were devoted to the “breaking of bread”

This phrase, “the breaking of bread” refers to the Celebration of the Lord’s
Supper. Paul uses it in 1 Corinthians to describe Holy Communion, and the
language parallels that of the gospels as well. The Lord’s Supper tells this basic
message of Christianity every time it is celebrated. Their devotion to the Lord’s
Supper was evidence of an ongoing hunger and thirst for more of God in their
lives. The central meaning of the Lord’s Supper is the Presence of Jesus. More

explicitly the Great love of Jesus who gave his life for those he loved.

4. They were devoted to prayer

Prayer, both together and alone, was central to the experience of the first

Christian community. They met every day in the temple for prayer.

Characteristics of the social life of Early/First Christian Church (Acts 4:
32-37)

5. They had all things in common (Acts 4:32)

The first Christians lived in community, and had all things in common. They
sold their possessions and goods, and distributed them to all, according to
their needs. Their common ownership was not imposed on them by Church
leadership, but had its roots in their unity of heart and mind. These Christian

brothers and sisters loved each other, and so they supported each other.

They had all grown up in a society where the family was the social unit on which

they could rely when they experienced tough times. 

6. Great grace was on them all (Acts 4:33 )

In the New Testament, charisma most often refers to the grace or the undeserved
favor of God. That is certainly part of what is meant here. God showered these

new Christians with blessings.

However, the word charisma can also refer to the loveliness of harmonious
relationships, and that is also involved here. These new Christians were living as
brothers and sisters, as a family. They are taking care of each other and making 
personal sacrifices to help each other considering the well-being of Christian

brothers and sisters above their own personal welfare in many cases.

7. There was none among them who lacked (Acts 4:34-35)

The miracle that these early Christians experienced is not one of God opening
the heavens and filling their purses with money. It is a miracle of community
of brotherhood and sisterhood of one minded people sharing both wealth and
poverty so that none might be truly poor. It is a miracle of generosity human
generosity inspired by divine generosity. It is a miracle of agape, love that

focuses on the needs of the other person rather than one’s own needs.

As noted above, this does not mean that every Christian sold every piece of
real estate to contribute to the common good and wellbeing of everyone. Some
Christians probably did sell everything but Peter’s comments to Ananias and
Sapphira make it clear that Christians retain the right to own property. What is
celebrated here is not total communal living in the sense that every possession

belongs equally to every person, but compassionate living within community.

2.1.1 Mission of Apostles ( Matthew 10: 1-42 )

The Twelve Apostles

Apostles were the twelve men chosen and sent by Jesus. Disciples are all
followers or believers in Jesus Christ. These are the names of the twelve
apostles: first, Simon, also known as Peter, and his brother Andrew; James
son of Zebedee, and his brother John; Philip and Bartholomew; Thomas and
Matthew the tax-collector; James son of Alphaeus, and Thaddeus; Simon the

Canaanean, and Judas Iscariot, the one who betrayed him.

The Mission of the Twelve Apostles

Jesus now formally summons and names the twelve disciples and sends them
out in mission with authority to preach the good news of the kingdom and to

heal every disease and sickness.

He accompanies their disciples’ instruction with warnings about the need for
endurance and the promise of reward for those who take up the cross and

follow him.

According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus summons the twelve disciples and
formally hands over to them his same authority to preach the Good News of
the kingdom and to heal “every” disease ( Matthew 10:1,7-8), but not, telling,
the authority to teach! That will come only at the end of the Gospel after the

resurrection ( Matthew 28:18-20). 

In so doing, key themes of discipleship and mission are noted. The call for the 

decision to acknowledge the Son of Man will bring not peace but a sword (
Matthew 10:34). Worthy discipleship will mean to take up the cross and
discover what it means that those who lose their lives for Jesus’ sake will find
it (Matthew 10:37-39). Finally, disciples are given to realize that whoever
welcomes them is actually welcoming the Messiah and, in turn, “the one who
sent me.” The Messiah’s identity is constituted in the mission of his disciples. So
it is significant that such welcoming is linked here to the theme of righteousness.
Three times righteousness is specifically mentioned in connection with the
disciple mission (Matthew10:41) and even a cup of water for these “little ones”

in the name of a disciple merits reward ( Matthew 10:42). 

2.1.2 Saint Paul’s Conversion and mission (Act 9: 1-19)

St. Paul the Apostle, original name Saul of Tarsus, was born 4 BCE (before
Christian era or before common era), Tarsus in Cilicia (now in Turkey). He was

a pharisee who had come to Jerusalem as a student of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel. 

Saul was a strong Judaism adherent and persecuted the primitive Church. He
was the one who plotted the martrydom of Saint Stephen, the first martyr (Acts
8:1a). Paul died during the first Church persecution under Roman empire
(under Nero 62-64, in Rome).

One day while on his mission to Damascus to persecute Christians, he 
experienced a more dramatic conversion after meeting with the Risen Christ.
He later became one of the leaders of the first generation of Christians,
and he is often considered to be the most important person after Jesus in

the history of Christianity.

After his conversion, Saul (renamed Paul) became passionate in spreading
Christianity as he was persecuting Christians before his conversion. Paul
describes his own conversion as a sudden reception of grace in contrast to the
gradual transformation over time because as he suddenly was in the midst of

sin, his heart was perfectly moved by God.

Paul briefly refers to his own conversion’s experience in three places in two of

his letters. In first Corinthians 9:1, Paul asks a rhetoric question, 

“Have I not seen Jesus our Lord?” In first Corinthians 15:8-9, he relates, “last of all,
as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me. For I am the least of the apostles,
unfit to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the Church of God.” he writes
in Galatians 1:11-12 that “The gospel preached by me is not of human origin, for
I did not receive it from a human being, nor was I taught it, but it came through a
revelation of Jesus Christ.” He adds in Galatians 1:15-16, “When He, who had set
me apart before I was born, and had called me through his grace, was pleased
to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach him among the gentiles.”
In the Acts of the Apostles, St. Luke the Evangelist’s description of Paul’s
conversion is the most extensive because he was Paul’s companion in his last
three missionary journeys. Paul’s conversion is first recorded in Acts 9:1-28,
secondly to the Jews of Jerusalem in Acts 22:1-21, and finally to King Agrippa at

Caesarea (Acts 26:4-23).

 In the first encounter between Jesus and Saul, we notice that Jesus identifies
himself with his Church! In Damascus, Jesus appeared to Ananias and told him
that Saul is His own chosen instrument to carry His Name before gentiles,
kings, and Israelites” (Acts 9:15). Here the mission of Paul is clearly defined by

Jesus himself that, he called Paul to be an Apostle of the Gentile world.

Ananias then laid his hands on Saul, restored his vision, and baptized him. Saul
began proclaiming in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of God (Acts 9:20) and
that he is the Christ (Acts 9:22). Saul is called Paul on his first missionary journey
to Cyprus (Acts 13:9). However, Paul was disapproved by Christian Jews and
remained throughout his career a controversial figure. He gained recognition
for the converts of the Gentile mission by the Christian community in Jerusalem.
He saw clearly that the coming of the Messiah was to bring salvation to all
humanity not only the Jews. He preached the message of repentance that called
all humanity to repent and turn to God and demonstrate their repentance by
their deeds (Acts 26:20). His letters are an eye opener that should move people
from darkness to light, from the power of Satan to God, to receive forgiveness 

of sins, and thus attain salvation.

2.2 Persecution and Doctrinal issues in Christianity
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2
Brainstorm some fundamental beliefs and teachings of Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion, meaning all believing in one God,

Generally, Christians believe that there is only one God (Holy Trinity). 

The fundamental beliefs and teachings of Christianity are summarized in a creed
(Credo, “I believe”) which are statements of beliefs. These beliefs originated
from the testimonies of the Apostles, i.e. the men who lived with Jesus, directly
experienced his resurrection and were associated by him to his revealing and

saving mission. 

There are two main Christian Creeds used by Christian churches. They include
the Apostles Creed and the Nicene Creed. The Apostles’ Creed was an early
statement of Christian doctrine and is still in widespread use. The Nicene Creed
is more definitive and was first formulated by the First Council of Nicaea (325
AD: Anno Domini) and then subsequently refined by the second Ecumenical
Council in 381 AD. The Nicene Creed is the most widely accepted in mainstream

churches and is a concise statement of fundamental Christian belief.

Apostles’ Creed

This appears to have been formulated in order to refute Gnosticism (the belief
that matter is evil and that the revealed knowledge of God rather than faith is a
means to attain redemption for the spiritual element in man). It is shorter than
the Nicene Creed and it is also the oldest fashion of Creed. The Creed therefore
emphasizes the suffering, death and resurrection of Christ for the forgiveness

of sin.

Today the Apostles’ Creed is used by many Western churches, including the
Anglican Communion, Methodists, Congregationalists and some Baptists, but
it is not used by the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is sometimes used during the

Sacrament of baptism. It is summarized as follows:

I believe in God, the Father almighty,
creator of heaven and earth.

I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.
He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit
and born of the Virgin Mary.

He suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried.

He descended to the dead.
On the third day he rose again.
He ascended into heaven,
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit,
the holy catholic Church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,

and the life everlasting

Amen

Nicene Creed
The Nicene Creed is very explicit on three Persons of the Holy Trinity. In particular
it uses the statement “God from God” to describe Christ. This countered the
Arian controversy that declared that Jesus Christ is not truly divine in the sense

that He is created.

The Creed is widely accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholics,
Anglicans, Lutherans, Calvinists, and almost all branches of Protestantism. Many
groups that do not have a tradition of using it in their services nevertheless
are committed to the doctrines it teaches. The Nicene creed is summarized as

follows:

I believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty,
maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.

I believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God,
eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light,

true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father.

Through him all things were made.

For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven: by the power of the
Holy Spirit, he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man.
For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was

buried.

On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended

into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of the Father.

He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom

will have no end.

I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the
Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified.
He has spoken through the Prophets.
I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism
for the forgiveness of sins. I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life

of the world to come.

Amen.

2.2.1 Persecution of Christians 

Persecution refers to the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by
another individual or group, in a cruel and unfair manner. The most common

forms of persecution are religious, ethnic and political persecutions. 

Persecution of Christians can be traced historically from the time of Jesus in
the first century to the present time. The accounts of Christian persecution
are found in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. According to the book
of Acts, one of the first Christian martyrs was Stephen, a member of the
Early Church who was brought before the Sanhedrin, the assembly of Jewish
religious leaders, on charges of blasphemy. Stephen was subsequently stoned;
touching off a mass persecution of Christians led by Saul of Tarsus. When Paul
was converted to Christian faith, he too suffered various imprisonments and

beatings, some of which he recounted in New Testament writings.

 Early Christians were persecuted for their faith at the hands of both Jews from
whose Christianity arose and the Roman Empire which controlled much of the
land where Christianity was born. Early in the fourth century, the religion was
legalized by the Edict of Milan (313 AD:Anno Domini), and it eventually became

the State church of the Roman Empire, through Emperor Constantine.

2.2.2 Causes of persecution by the Roman Empire

This was the first organized Roman persecution of Christians which was
ordered by Emperor Nero in 64 A.D. Nero blamed Christians for the Great
Fire of Rome, although it is speculated by some historians that Nero was
responsible for setting the fire in the first place. It was during this time that the
Apostle Peter, according to tradition, was crucified upside down because he felt
himself not worthy to die exactly like his Master. Also Paul, as a Roman citizen,
was beheaded under Nero’s reign. For the burning of Rome, Christians were

arrested and terribly persecuted. 

Many Christians were crucified. Some were sewn up in the skins of wild beasts;
then big dogs were let loose on them, and they were torn to pieces. Women were
tied to mad bulls and dragged to death. After nightfall Christians were burned
at the stake in Nero’s garden. The Roman people who hated the Christians were
free to come into the garden, and Nero drove around in his chariot wickedly

enjoying the horrible scene.

b. Persecution under Domitian ( 68-96 AD:Anno Domini )

This persecution appeared because Jews had refused to pay taxes to the state.
Rome still considered Christianity which was considered as part of Judaism,
so persecutors punished Jews and Christians alike. Some Christians were
martyred, some dispossessed of property, and others were banished. It was
at this time that the apostle John was exiled to the Isle of Patmos, where he

received the vision of the Revelation.

c. Persecution under Trajan (98-117 AD:Anno Domini)

Until this time no official policy was set by the state on the handling of Christians.
Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, wrote the Emperor Trajan his policy on
state discipline for Christians. Pliny said that when someone informed upon a
Christian, he brought the Christian before his tribunal and asked him if he were
a Christian. If he still admitted the charge after three such questions, he was
sentenced to death. In his answer Trajan assured Pliny that he was following
the correct procedure. No Christians were to be sought out, but if someone
reported that a certain individual was a Christian, the Christian was to be
punished unless he denounced and worshiped the gods of the Romans. This
became official procedure, and governors throughout the empire followed the
principles Trajan had approved. It was during this time (about A.D. 115) that
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was thrown to the wild beasts in the Colosseum. 

d. Persecutions under Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD:Anno Domini)

Marcus Aurelius had no love in his heart for Christians. He thought all this
martyrdom by Christians was silly nonsense. He was the first to introduce a spy
system against Christians, and promised that the property of Christians would
be given to their accusers. With such rewards for the informers, many Christians
were turned over to authorities and persecution became almost universal. This
persecution was cruel. What happened to the Church in Lyons and Vienna in
southern Gaul (modern France) can give us some idea of the severity of the
persecution. By the most horrible tortures, they sought to make the Christians
deny their faith. When at last the persecutors became convinced that no
amount of torture would make the Christians deny their faith, they beheaded
those Christians who were Roman citizens, and the others they threw to the
wild beasts. The bodies of the martyrs were burned, and the ashes were thrown
into the river Rhone. It was during this time that Justin Martyr (166 AD:Anno
Domini) was scourged and beheaded in Rome with six other Christians. 

e. Persecution under Decius (249-251 AD:Anno Domini):

Decius took the imperial throne about the time Rome was reaching the end
of the first millennium of her history, and at a time when the Empire was
facing natural calamities, and internal and external attacks upon its stability.
Christianity, because of its rapid growth, was picked out as the major cause of
all the Empire’s troubles. Decius issued an edict in A.D. 250 that demanded an
annual offering of sacrifice on the Roman altars to the gods and the genius of

the emperor. 

Those who offered the sacrifice were given a certificate. Christians were
demanded to give up their faith or suffer loss of property, torture and death. The
persecution was very cruel and empire-wide. Multitudes perished. During this
time, many also denied the Christian Faith, but many true Christians persevered

to the end. Fortunately for the church, the persecution lasted only several years.

f. Persecution under Valerian (253-260 AD:Anno Domini):

Valerian was more sympathetic to Christians at first but later he continued the

persecution. 

Many saints and important men lost their lives for Christ during this time.
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was beheaded as a Christian martyr (258 AD:Anno

Domini).

g. Persecution under Diocletian (303-305 AD:Anno Domini):

Diocletian was a strong military leader who came to the imperial throne at the
end of a century that was marked by political disorder in the Roman Empire.
He decided that only a strong monarchy could save the Empire and its classical
culture. A strong monarchy offered the only alternative to chaos. In such an
empire there was no place for the toleration of faith hostile to the state religion.

The first edict in A.D. 303 ordered the cessation of meetings of Christians,
the destruction of church buildings, the imprisonment of bishops, elders and
deacons, the torture of all who persisted in their testimony to Christ, and the

destruction of all Scriptures by fire. 

The second edict ordered Christians to sacrifice to pagan gods upon pain of
death if they refused to do so. As a result, prisons became so crowded with
Christian leaders and their congregations that there was not even enough room
for criminals.Christians were punished by loss of property, exile, imprisonment,
or execution by the sword or wild beasts. Some were sent to the Roman labor
camp where they were worked to death in the mines or starved to death. It
was the most violent persecution of all persecutions that Christians underwent

under Roman Empire.

2.2.4 Christian responses on persecutions

1. In the face of persecution, many Christians chose to die than to renounce
their faith in Jesus Christ. Those who did so came to be called martyrs,
which means, witnesses of faith in Jesus through the shedding of their
own blood. “Tertulian said that the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the
church.” Indeed, it was through persecution that the Christianity spread
and faith in Jesus was strengthened.

2. A second response of the church to Roman persecution was that some
Bishops and leaders( were called apologist) wrote to write apologies,
or defenses, of the Christian faith. This was done in the 2nd century AD.
The Apologists’ primary goal was to defend Christianity against pagan
accusations and misconceptions in an effort to stop the persecution.

Though this did not help much to stop the persecution.

2.3 Heresies in the Early Church

A heresy is a teaching that deviates from some standard, official belief. It can
also be defined as formal denial or doubt of a core doctrine of the Christian faith.
The heresies were mainly corrected through Church Councils which were
convoked by both the Pope and the the Roman emperor ruling at any given
time. A Church council refers to a group of bishops, cardinals, theologians
and Pope who gather to discuss and make decisions about major issues in the

church. 

Major Heresies in the Christianity

a. Marcionism (2^nd Century)

This heresy was named after Marcion, 85-160 AD:Anno Domini). He explained
that the wrathful and war-like God of the Old Testament is a different god from
the just and forgiving God of the New Testament, who, on discovering human
suffering, appeared as Jesus Christ to bring salvation; the Old Testament is
irrelevant; in the New Testament only parts of Luke and parts of the Pauline

letters are authentic.

This is partially heresy because; it denied the unity of God, it misunderstands
the humanity of Christ and it rejected accepted scriptures. The council of

Nicene Creed (325 AD:Anno Domini) officially rejected this heresy.

b. Manichaeism (3^rd century)

This was named after Mani, (216-276 AD Anno Domini). Mani explained that
the world is caught in a conflict between the forces of good and evil, led by two
gods. A conflict which has existed since the beginning of time. This is partially
heretical because: it postulates more than one god. In the beginning there was

only God and evil therefore could have entered the world only afterward.

Manichaeism was not really a Christian sect, and its doctrines therefore should
be classified as paganism rather than heresy. But it was an important force in
the third and forth centuries when it was illegal to apply such a teaching, and

competed with Christianity, with which some people tried to combine it.

c. Arianism (4^th century)
This was named after Arius, 256-336 AD: Anno Domini). Arius taught that
Jesus was different from God and was only a human being. This is heretical
because: Christ was truly divine, and truly human, and, being wholly divine,
could in no way be only a human being. This heresy was condemned at the

Second Ecumenical Council (Constantinople, 381)

d. Nestorianism (5^th Century)

This is named after Nestorius, (386–451 AD:Anno Domini). He taught that
Christ had two natures, human (Jesus) and divine (Christ), quite distinct from
each other, but united in the historical Jesus Christ. Thus Mary was the mother
of Jesus, his human nature, but was not the “Mother of God,” since God was his

divine nature.

This heresy was condemned at the Third Ecumenical Council ( Council of
Ephesus, 431). This is heretical in part because: Christ was both wholly human
and truly divine, and these two natures were united in a single entity: the Christ.
To speak of them being distinct implies that he was not wholly either of them.
Then the council also clarified that Mary was Mother of God, she is ‘Theotokos’

meaning the God’s bearer.

e. Pelagianism (5th century)

This heresy was named after Pelagius, ( 420 – 440AD: Anno Domini). Pelagius
taught that, the sin of Adam affected only Adam, not all humanity. Every
individual is born innocent, but is free to choose to perform good or evil deeds.
Thus, choosing to behave virtuously will earn one spiritual salvation. This is
heretical because: First, people are saved only by God’s grace through their faith
in Christ, not by the works they perform, which may have many motivations,
including bad ones. Secondly, it is illogical so speak of complete free will, since
even free will is a gift of God, and therefore contingent upon God’s agency.
Thirdly, it denies the contamination of all humans by original sin and allows for
the possibility of sinless humans without the need of salvation through Christ,

or of sinful humans able to gain merit on their own without reference to Christ.

f. Monophysitism (5^th century)

This heresy taught that ,Christ had a single, divine nature, not separate human
and divine natures. This is heretical because: Christ was both wholly human
and therefore suffered as we suffer, and also wholly divine, and therefore able
to forgive sins and redeem us. To argue that he has only a divine nature is to
deny that he had a human nature able to suffer as a human suffers.

It was condemned twice, first time at the Fourth Ecumenical Council (Chalcedon,

451) and second time, at the Third Council of Constantinople (680).

2.4 Christian Pluralism
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4
1. Brainstorm the major Christian groups that are found in the
world.

2. Find out the causes of the rise of the different Christian groups.

Pluralism refers to a social organization in which diversity of religious or racial
or cultural groups is tolerated. Christianity is comprised of various religious
groups and subgroups within itself. These vary according to differences in
beliefs, teachings and practices. However, the history of Christianity allows to
distinguish three main Christian branches: The Catholicism, the Orthodoxy and

the Protestantism. 

The Roman Catholic Church is a community of believers who have been
incorporated into Christ through Baptism. It has a twofold dimension: the
spiritual one since it has Jesus Christ as its Head and the visible one since it is
composed of men and women. The latter consider themselves as the People
of God; they share the same faith in Jesus Christ and they are governed by the
successors of Peter (Popes) in communion with bishops. The Roman Catholic
Church is in communion with the Eastern-rite Catholic churches such as

Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian, etc. 

The fundamental catholic beliefs are contained in the Apostle’s Creed (See the

previous lesson) and the Church councils (e.g.: Nicea, Trent, Vatican II, etc.).

These beliefs imply liturgical actions, doctrines, and ethics which constitute
together the Catholic Tradition. Catholic Tradition may be defined as the Word
of God, given to the Apostles by Christ and the Holy Spirit, and handed down to
their successors through the Church. Scripture and Apostolic or Sacred Tradition
are the two sources of God’s revelation. The Sacred Scripture is the Word of God
put down into writing under the breath of the Holy Spirit. The Sacred Tradition

is the living transmission of the message of Gospel in the Church.

The Catholic community usually gathers to celebrate sacraments (actions and
words of Jesus, through which God sanctify his people). The Roman Catholic
Church has seven sacraments: Baptism (John 3:5), Confirmation (Acts 1:8),
Eucharist (Matthew 26: 26-28), Penance and Reconciliation (John 20:23),
Anointing of the Sick (James 5:14-15), Matrimony (John 2:1-10) and the Holy

Orders (Luke 22:19). 

The Eastern orthodox Church resulted from the 1054 schism (separation) that

split the Western (Rome) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches. 

The Orthodox church is a family of self-governing Churches; it is not headed by
a pope. The unity of the Church is manifested in a common faith, communion in

liturgical actions and in Jesus, the one and real Head of the Church. 

Orthodoxy is the life which strives to be in union with God. This union begins
with the faith in the dogmas (e.g.: Holy Trinity, Incarnation, Redemption by
Jesus, etc.). This faith is manifested in the life of each believer through liturgy
(rituals) which includes the sacraments (the same seven sacraments as the

Catholic Roman Church). 

The sources of the Orthodox faith are the Church Tradition that includes the
Holy Bible, the teachings of the Ecumenical councils (e.g.: Nicea, Constantinople,

etc.), the Book of prayers, the lives of the saints and Oral tradition of the Church.

 Protestantism

Schism is part of the history of Christianity. In 1054 the Great Schism (or
Eastern Schism) divided the Roman Catholic Church of the West from the
Orthodox Church of the East. Another separation occurred with the Protestant
Reformation in 1540. The great figures of reformation are: Martin Luther and
John Calvin. Both believed in the sufficiency of the Scriptures as a rule of faith

and practice (Sola Scriptura). 

Those who embraced the separation were referred to as “Protestants.”
Protestants believed they were professing the pure teachings of the early
church, which had been viewed as obscured through the Catholicism of that
time. Several “groups were formed from Rformation” including the Lutherans,
Calvinists, Anglicans, Presbyterians, etc. In the 17th and 18th centuries, these
churches further divided and produced denominations including Baptists,

Methodists, Episcopalians, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, etc.

Causes of Pluralism in Christianity
1. Denominations are made up of churches and members who often just
do not get along. Like everyone else, Christians struggle with pride,
selfishness, stubbornness, the desire to wield power, and hypocrisy. So,
they sometimes respond to the disagreements poorly. This has often led
to debates and divisions within churches and denominations, which in
turn lead to the creation of new churches and denominations.
2. Christians have sometimes legitimate disagreements about beliefs or

practices. Eg. what does baptism mean and who should be baptized? 

How should believers structure their local churches? Who should
fill leadership roles? How often should the faithful practice Holy

Communion? 

How should Christians interpret certain passages of Scripture?

3. Disparity in personality, passions, and talents. Some people connect
with God best through the exercise of their minds or while in nature.
Others experience spirituality through creative or artistic expression.
Still others feel a sacred or divine connection when they serve others or
help those who are hurting.
4. The role of tradition. Some people appreciate the structure and heritage
of worshiping God according to traditions passed down over many
centuries. Thus they might be more comfortable in Eastern Orthodox,
Roman Catholic, Episcopal, or Lutheran churches. Others, however,
prefer to explore new and different ways of worshiping God or practicing
their faith; they might feel boxed in by rituals or traditions. Therefore a
nondenominational church might suit them best.

5. Culture plays a critical role as well; people from different cultures practice
their faith in distinctive ways. It should not surprise us if churches in a
middle-class English town are extremely different from those in a wartorn,
poverty-stricken village in Africa. Consequently, churches and
denominations vary greatly depending upon the geographical location
and cultural values of the people themselves.

6. Churches may be divided according to people. The group that Mr. John
Wesley started eventually became the Methodist Church. It has its
independent organization and administration and has branches all over
the world. Then there is the Lutheran denomination, which was formed
after the death of Martin Luther. Now Lutheran churches appear all over
the world also. There are many other organizations that denominate
themselves in this way.

7. Emphasis of truths. Those who emphasize justification by faith set up the
Lutheran Church. Those who look to Pentecostal experiences started the
Pentecostal churches. Some groups emphasize church administration.
Those who believe in the independence of jurisdiction formed the
Congregational churches.

Those who proposed the order of eldership started the Presbyterian
Church. Those who emphasize apostolic succession began the Apostolic

Church.

2.5 Birth and expansion of Islam in the World
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.5
Using various available resources, identify the main Islamic territories

today in the world, founded from its beginning.

The beginning of Islam is marked in the year 610 AD: Anno Domini, following
the first revelation to the prophet Muhammad. Muhammad and his followers
spread the teachings of Islam throughout the Arabian peninsula. Soon after
the death of the prophet Muhammad, there were military expeditions, called
“futuhat,” or literally “openings,” into what is now Egypt and other parts of North
Africa. In other parts of the world, Islam spread through trade and commerce.
The following is a brief timeline that highlights some of the major occurrences
in Islam’s development, as well as the geographical spread of Islam to some of

the countries. The following are important dates in Islamic history.

570 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muhammad is born in Mecca. 

610 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) According to Muslim belief, at the age
of 40, Muhammad is visited by the angel Gabriel while on retreat in a cave near
Mecca. The angel recites to him the first revelations of the Quran and informs
him that he is God›s prophet. Later, Muhammad is told to call his people to the
worship of the one God, but they react with hostility and begin to persecute him

and his followers.

622 C.E(Common Era or Christian Era) After enduring persecution in Mecca,
Muhammad and his followers migrate to the nearby town of Yathrib (later to
be known as Medina), where the people there accepted Islam. This marks the

«Hijrah» or «emigration,» and the beginning of the Islamic calendar. 

In Medina, Muhammad establishes an Islamic state based on the laws revealed
in the Quran and the inspired guidance coming to him from God. Eventually he

begins to invite other tribes and nations to Islam.

630 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muhammad returns to Mecca with a
large number of his followers. He enters the city peacefully, and eventually all 
its citizens accept Islam. The prophet clears the idols and images out of the

Kabah and rededicates it to the worship of God alone.

633 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muhammad dies after a prolonged
illness. The Muslim community elects his father-in-law and close associate, Abu

Bakr, as caliph, or successor.

638 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muslims enter the area north of Arabia,

known as «Sham,» including Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Iraq.

641 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muslims enter Egypt and defeat the
Byzantine army. Muslims consider their conquest as the liberation of dominated

people, since in most instances they were under oppressive rule.

655 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Islam begins to spread throughout

North Africa.

661 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Imam Ali is killed, bringing to an end
the rule of the four «righteous caliphs»: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. This

also marks the beginning of the Umayyad rule.

711 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muslims enter Spain in the west and
India in the east. Eventually almost the entire Iberian Peninsula is under Islamic

control.

732 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muslims are defeated at Potiers in

France by Charles Martel.

750 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) The Abbasids take over rule from the

Umayyads, shifting the seat of power to Baghdad.

1000 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era)Islam continues to spread through the
continent of Africa, including Nigeria, which served as a trading liaison between

the northern and central regions of Africa.

1099 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) European Crusaders take Jerusalem
from the Muslims. Eventually Muslims defeat the Crusaders and regain control

of the Holy land.

1120 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Islam continues to spread throughout
Asia. Malaysian traders interact with Muslims who teach them about Islam.

1299 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era)

The earliest Ottoman state is formed in Anatolia, Turkey.

1453 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Ottomans conquer the Byzantine seat

of Constantinople and change its name to Istanbul.

Circa 1800 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Approximately 30 percent of

Africans forced into slavery in the United States were Muslims.

1870-1924 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Muslim immigrants from the
Arab world voluntarily come to the United States until the Asian Exclusion Act

is passed in 1924.

World War I ends with the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which
was the last of the Islamic empires. Many regions populated by Muslims in
Africa and Asia are colonized by Europeans. Traditional religious ways of life

are threatened and, in some cases, destroyed.

1930 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) The Nation of Islam is created in the
U.S. by W. D. Fard. It is based on some Islamic ideas, but contains innovations,

such as the appointment or declaration of Elijah Muhammad as a prophet.

1948 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) The state of Israel is created. Some
Palestinian and Lebanese refugees flee to the United States, among them,

Muslims and Christians.

1952 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) The McCarran-Walter Act relaxes the
U.S. ban on Asian immigration. Muslim students come to the U.S. from many

nations.

1965 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Revisions of immigration law further

open the doors for Muslim immigration.

1975 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) Wallace D. Muhammad, the son of
Elijah Muhammad, takes over leadership of the Nation of Islam after his father›s
death and brings most of his followers into mainstream Islam. He later creates
the Muslim American Society, which attracts many members, most of whom are

African-American.

1979 C.E (Common Era or Christian Era) The Iranian Revolution results in the
establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the first attempt at an Islamic

state in the modern era. 

Islam in Rwanda

Islam was first introduced into Rwanda by Muslim traders from the East Coast
of Africa. Since its introduction, Muslims have been a minority in Rwanda in

comparison to Catholics and Protestant adherents. 

Muslims built their first mosque in 1913. This mosque is known as the al-Fatah

mosque. During its history, many efforts were made to impede the spread of