Foundation of Education

Topic outline

• 

  General

  • Announcements Forum
  • Y3: Foundementals of Education SB File
  • Y3: Fundamentals of Education TG File
• UNIT 1 CREATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ECD CENTRES AND PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Key Unit Competence:

  Apply management skills for effective functioning of ECD centre and a preprimary school.

  Introductory activity
  

  The government of Rwanda considers education as the best way of the

  quick development of its population. This is because education changes

  people’s mindset, reduces illiteracy, fights against poverty and improves the

  well-being of Rwandans. However, public educational institutions cannot

  accommodate all Rwandan children at the age of schooling.

  1. What do you think the government shall do to have enough schools

  to accommodate all children at the schooling age?

  2. Which categories of schools that are needed?

  3. Suggest the characteristics a required school in Rwanda.

  1.1: Types (forms) of ECD centres and pre-primary schools in Rwanda

  Activity 1.1

  From which settings young children between 0-6 years can acquire any skills? ECD centre is defined as a centre, which offers day care program for children less than (under) six years. It promotes the growth and development of children through provision of healthcare, nutrition,child protection, education, stimulation and training services. The following as types/forms of ECD centres and preprimary schools organised in Rwanda:

  • Crèche/child-day-care centers: These are care and education centers

  catering for children below 3 years. These centers provide child care services like:

  - Caring for children whose mothers are working

  - Providing balanced diet for children

  - Providing play opportunities for early stimulation

  • Play group: This is an organized group of young children and their parents

  that meet regularly so that children can play (learn) together. It can also be

  a school where children younger than five years old go to play and learn.

  • Nursery schools: They refer to pre-primary programmes for young children

  from age of three through six, intentend to prepare them to easily follow

  primary school. Nursery schools or pre-primary schools have different

  therminologies depending on countries they are also called kindergarden

  (Wilhelm Froebel, 1837) or Montessori schools (Maria Montessori). It was

  originated by Margaret Mc Milan.

  • Cented-Based ECD: An early learning and development center where

  children from 3 to 6 years are sent to undergo sensory motor, social

  emotional and cognitive development support as well as training on school

  readiness by experienced caregives.

  • Home-based ECD: An informal arrangement where a group of neighboring

  households designate one home to host children aged between 0 and 6

  years, to benefit from ECD services. Parents take turns to care for the

  children which allow them/to do their daily work.

  Application activity 1.1

  1. Advise some parents especially in rural areas who hesitated to enrol their young children (0-6 years old) in ECD centres and pre-primary schools arguing that it is wasting time because they are not ready to learn.

  2. Differentiate Crèche from Nursery school.

  1.2. Norms and standards of ECD centres and pre-primary schools according to Rwandan/law and policy

  Activity 1.2

  The officials from Ministry of Education, Rwanda Education Board, partners and stakeholders usually visit different schools to check the implementation of Competence Based Curriculum leading to the achieving quality education. In their visit exercise, they focus on different aspects of the school life and after they provide pieces of advice to the school administration, teaching staff and sometimes to the students. 

  Propose any five aspects that they observe in the school.

  
  

  
  

  The National Pre-Primary Education Minimum Standards and Guidelines for Rwanda, 2018 describe the standards of a pre-primary school in relation to physical environment, facilities, equipment, special needs education, children health and safety, teaching, learning and assessment, administration and management. The following sections give more information about these standards.

  1.2.1. Standards for physical environment, facilities and equipment

  .   Pre-school/primary school location
  

  The pre-school has access to the road, is free from excessive noise (workshop, industrial parks, and markets and the maximum walking distance from home to pre-school does not exceed 2 kilometers. Children should be accompanied by an adult to school.

  • School environment
  

  The preschool compound and surrounding areas are free from rubbish and have proper disposal for trash, is safe and secure, free from harmful objects such as sharp objects, poisonous plants. The play area has plants, flowers, and trees to provide shade in the compound. No footpaths cross the school grounds. A sign prohibits smoking and alcohol consumption within the premises by staff members and visitors. Children should participate in the maintenance of school garden and other properties to promote a sense of ownership.

  • Infrastructures

  An ECD centre and primary school should have appropriate, sufficient and secure buildings/infrastructures. These are for example enough classes, enough toilets separately for boys and girls, a clean kitchen, a staffroom for head teacher, a store for keeping items(materials) like food, construction materials…, sleeping room for rest especially for sick children. Classroom has at least two rubbish bins. It is child friendly (age appropriate, attractive, engaging, and culturally appropriate). Classroom dimensions are equivalent to at least 2 sqm for each child. The capacity for each classroom does not exceed 25 children with one teacher and an assistant teacher. The floor of the classroom is cemented and the walls are constructed with durable materials and are painted. Each classroom has two doors, four glassed windows of at least 1m x 1m. The school has a reading area/library for children’s books. Water container and clean water for drinking are available at the school. The preschool is fenced with durable materials. Buildings and walkways are inclusive (ramps are used as needed), the pre-school has electricity, has at least three classrooms for a complete cycle (Grade one; Grade two and Grade three) and eligible children to enroll in grade one are of 3 years old.

  • Play equipment

  There are child friendly and fixed equipment that include rubber, ladders, swings, tunnels, slides and logs to walk on. There are also movable play materials that include ropes, balls, tyres, hoops, small riding vehicles, tree branches, and boards. There is water play area with many recycled containers, hoses, and other research tools. All surfaces of play materials are smooth, with no sharp edges, no protruding surfaces, and no damage. The end of climbing and sliding areas is covered with soft ground or grass. The materials also like ropes, small size balls, toys of different types are used in various games.

  • Furniture

  Tables and benches/chairs are child-sized, durable and are painted in stimulating colors, Teacher’s chair and tables with drawers to keep their documents are available.

  Open shelves are provided to keep learning materials, each class has a coat hanger with a wooden hook for each child and the cupboards are available to keep children’s snacks.

  1.2.2. Inclusive and special needs education considerations

  Teachers are equipped with basic knowledge and skills to identify and handle observed cases for children with special educational needs and demonstrate positive attitudes towards children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). These children are referred to specialists accordingly. The preschool has an agreement with a multidisciplinary team of experts to provide technical support for learners with various special educational needs and teachers have skills required to work with children with SEN. The school’s schedule, teaching strategies, learning environment, equipment, and play/learning materials are adapted to be inclusive for children with differing abilities. The facilities for Children with Special Educational Needs are available and the admission of children and recruitment of staff are inclusive.

  1.2.3. Standards for children’s health

  The standards for children’s health include the following components:

  • Health practices and procedures

  Children’s registration forms include medical history, up-to-date immunizations, emergency contact information, and any parent’s concerns. The preschool has a nurse to provide health services for children on daily basis. A record of services offered by a nurse is available. Medicines brought to school are kept out of reach of the children. Teachers administer the medicines as directed. Containers with safe drinking water are available in each classroom and cups for all children. Assistant takes the child to the nearest health centre/hospital. Children’s health cards are current. These cards record regular health inspection. De-worming is regularly done. The school has information about children with medical insurance. Guidelines with pictures are posted on how to manage communicable disease outbreaks.

  • Hygiene and sanitation

  Availability of the staff responsible for school hygiene and sanitation. The entire compound and equipment are clean including classrooms, toilets (modern), kitchen, and playground. All children are clean, have school uniform that bears a badge, and wear shoes. Three hand washing stations with clean water and soap: one for boys, one for girls and another for teachers. Adequate facilities for disposal of waste (rubbish pit, waste bin) are available and enclosed and regularly collected for the safety of children.

  • Healthy eating

  Children are provided with a healthy snack, such as porridge and lunch is provided as part of a balanced diet. Snacks and meal times are supervised by teachers. Cooks and food handlers have certificates of good health and good conduct. There should be safe drinking water (safe and clean drinking water must always be available in a school). Where piped water is not available, water should be made safe and treated according to the approved national health guidelines for treating water. Water storage containers should be covered at all times.

  • Physical activities

  Daily schedule provides time for physical play periods. The weekly plan and scheme of work indicates time for outdoor activities to develop gross motor skills through football, jumping, running, climbing, dancing, skittle, and throwing. The weekly scheme of work indicates activities to develop fine motor skills through: writing, painting, decorating, drawing, shading, threading, cutting, collage, mosaic, clay work, and fitting in, construction using locally available materials.

  1.2.4. Standards for safety and security of children in the preschool compound

  • Safety

  Knives and other sharp objects are kept out of reach of children. A fire extinguisher is available to protect children and teachers and teachers are trained on how to use it. Guidelines to prevent accidents and how to deal with emergencies

  are posted with pictures. Health centre telephone numbers are available to call in emergency cases. A first aid kit is accessible to adults but out of reach of children. Its contents are regularly checked and updated. Teachers are trained on how to use first aid kit.

  • Social and emotional security

  Teachers are knowledgeable and skilled about practices that establish a joyful school culture and encourage children to love learning. These strategies include:

  - Warmly greet children by name

  - Offer children real choices and respect their work

  - Sit on the child’s bench level when talking with them

  - Be consistent with children

  - Play with children and enjoy their ideas

  - Ask questions and make encouraging comments, but do not interfere with their activity.

  - Tell children it is natural to feel sad, angry, or hurt

  - Talk with children in a soft voice using familiar vocabulary

  - Spend time one-to -one with each child every day

  - Talk about children’s experiences and preferences in informal, friendly conversations.

  - Ask children to sit where they can see, such as in a semi-circle

  - Seat children in groups to develop collaboration and cooperation

  - Children are free to choose where to sit.

  1.2.5. Standards for effective partnership and networking

  The effective partnership and networking is shown by the following practices:

  - Parents are trained through seminars and workshops.

  - All parents meet in a general assembly at least once a term.

  - They are advisors/counsellors in supporting their children’s education.

  - The school organizes meeting with parents on different issues that are of interest to their children.

  - The school welcomes all parents to visit the school for different purposes.

  - Parents are active volunteers at the school, sharing their expertise with staff or children.

  - There is a parents’ committee to assist in the preschool administration.

  - Committees meet as needed.

  - Parents contribute to the feeding of children.

  - Parents are trained in topics related to education, nutrition, health, child protection, hygiene and sanitation through meetings, community work (umuganda).

  - The school has established good collaboration with partners and stakeholders.

  1.2.6. Standards for teaching and learning in a pre-school and primary school setting

  • Teaching and learning resources

  Room set up also includes space for playing on mats and on the floor, shelves for children to access learning materials. Learning and play materials for indoors and outdoors are intended to engage children’s senses: see, hear, touch, smell, and taste. Availability of appropriate learning materials for all learning areas: numeracy, language and literacy, creative art and culture, discovery of the world, social and emotional development, physical development and health. Use of ICTs and internet in lesson preparation, making materials, searching the content. Availability and use of textbooks, reading books and other approved teaching documents.

  • Organization of teaching-learning activities

  There is one teacher and one assistant in each classroom. Learners develop basic and generic competences in the learning areas through daily play and experiences (Discovery of the world, Numeracy, Physical development and Health, Creative art and culture, Language and literacy, Social and Emotional development).

  • Teaching and learning strategies
  

  Teachers apply thematic-integrated, holistic and contextualized approaches: Daily and weekly plans are based on themes integrating all CBC learning areas. Teachers use multi-sensory approach: activities that engage children’s senses such as sight, smell, hearing, tasting and sense of touch. . Teachers tell/read stories to children. Teachers use various songs/rhymes/poems to develop different skills connected to themes.

  • Organization of field visits
  

  Children make at least three trips per year beyond their community to explore their country more fully.

  1.2.7. Standards for assessment

  • Assessment tools and principles

  There is no period for exam, assessment is done progressively, and assessment is holistic and qualitative rather than quantitative. Children are compared to developmental standards/milestones rather than to one another (criterion-based assessment). At least two dated, objective observations per term are entered into children’s files, Photos of children’s constructions and other projects are kept in their files which are kept electronically.

  • Content for assessment
  

  The assessment covers the six learning areas based on specific expectations according to the curriculum such as Discovery of the world, Numeracy, Language: Kinyarwanda, & English, Creative Art and Culture, Physical development and Health, Social and Emotional Development.

  • Analysis and sharing of children’s progress
  

  Teachers meet every day for reflection and analysis. Children’s progress reports contain detailed developmental information and positive narrative comments about the child’s success in school.

  1.2.8. Standards for administration and management of ECD centre and pre-primary schools

  • Admission and enrollment of pupils

  There is inclusive recruitment of pupils. All children are eligible for admission to grade one if they are 3 years old or if they become 3 years old in the first trimester of the school years.

  • Teacher recruitment

  The recruitment is done by Rwanda Education Board in public ECD centre and pre-primary schools and by an appointed recruitment committee in private schools. The recruitment process follows procedures.

  • Qualifications and competences

  Entry-level qualifications: at least Secondary Certificate (S6) in Early Childhood Education or the equivalent from Teacher Training College or other accredited institutions.

  • Working conditions

  Pre-primary school teachers are entitled to salary and other related benefits, are provided with teaching materials to successfully accomplish their task and are provided an assistant teacher.

  • Continuing professional development (CPD)

  CPD is annually provided by a reputable organization or institution for teachers and assistants in areas such as: implementation of the Curriculum, using Rwandan resources as learning materials. Teachers are regularly mentored in their classrooms to improve their teaching skills, knowledge and competences.

  1.2.9. Standards for stakeholders’ roles in ECD centre and pre-primary education

  At national level the Ministry of Education has the following responsibilities:

  - Disseminating and raising awareness of pre-primary education standards to the public at different levels.

  - Distributing of the standards to public and private pre-primary schools.

  - Monitoring and supervising the implementation of these pre-primary education minimum standards.

  - Capacity building of users about these standards.

  - Approval and accreditation of public, government aided, and private preprimary schools.

  - Provide professional advice and technical assistance to other stakeholders in pre-primary education.

  - Make comprehensive annual report on educational matters in pre-primary education.

  - Close collaboration with other key Ministries to ensure full implementation of these standards.

  - Mobilize development partners and other stakeholders to ensure effective implementation of these standards.

  The district has the following responsibilities:

  - Oversee the management of pre-primary schools;

  - Conduct inspection and provide technical advice to the service providers to ensure compliance with these standards;

  - Temporary closure of schools in emergency situations;

  - Placement of teachers and school managers in pre-primary schools based on pre-primary education minimum standards.

  Application activity 1.2
  

  At the beginning of the school year, a team of inspectors of education visited a pre-primary school in one of the districts of Rwanda. After the visit, they recommended the school to close its doors and transfer children to the nearest school.

  What do you think are the reasons that led the inspectors to recommend the closure of that school?

  1.3. ECD centre and pre-primary school management committee structure

  Activity 1.3
  

  1. Describe how your TTC is managed from the highest level to lowest level.

  2. Do you have some committees in your TTC? Which ones?

  ECD and pre-primary management committee or board has ultimate responsibility for directing the activity of the ECD centre or pre-primary school, ensuring it is well run and delivering the outcomes for which it has been set up.

  It should provide leadership to the ECD centre by:

  - Setting the strategic direction to guide and direct the activities of the ECD centre;

  - Ensuring the effective management of the ECD centre and its activities; and monitoring the activities of the ECD centre to ensure they are in keeping with the founding principles, objects and values. At national level, the management of pre-primary education for 3-6 year-olds is under the Ministry of Education. According to MIGEPROF, Early Childhood Development Policy, (2016) , at school level, the ECD centre and pre-primary school is managed by the following:

  - School General Assembly (SGA),

  - Parents’ committee,

  - School leaders,

  - Local leaders,

  - Community stakeholders and

  - Owners of the school

  Structure of ECD or Pre-primary school management committee
  

  
  

  Source: Adapted from MINEDUC, (2018): National Pre-primary Education Minimum standards and Guidelines for Rwanda.

  Application activity 1.3
  

  It has been realized that education is not only for teachers, parents also should play a big role in education of their children not only at home but also at school. It is in this context parents’ involvement in education increases as the time goes on.

  1. Identify any three indicators of parents’ involvement in education.

  2. Who is the coordinator of all school activities?

  3. In the structure of ECD centre and/or a pre-primary school management, which among the committees discussed above does take fine decisions of increasing school fees and teachers’ salary?

  4. What are the advantages of having management committee that works effectively in a pre-primary school?

  1.4. Steps/procedures of ECD centre and primary school licensing

  Activity 1.4
  

  Suppose you are investor in education and you want to establish a private

  ECD centre or a primary school. What will you do before?

  The Ministry of Education (MINEDUC)is responsible for ECD center or preprimary schools established to provide services to 3-6 year olds.

  The licensing authority for services provided to children below 3 years belongs to the Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion (MIGEPROF).

  ECD centre and pre-primary school can be public or private. When one wants to establish an ECD centre and pre-primary school, he/she should go through different steps to get license/authorization to run it. The National Pre-Primary Education Minimum Standards and Guidelines for Rwanda (MINEDUC, 2018) provide the steps/procedures of ECD centre and primary school licensing:

  - The applicant should apply to the Ministry of Education through the District for full registration. An inspection report from the district and the project proposal indicating the source of funding as well as activities to be performed during the period of three years are attached to the application letter.

  - If all required documents are in order, the Minister of State for primary and secondary education provides the acceptance letter.

  - If not accepted, the service provider is communicated in written the reasons for rejection. 

  The district authorities may be advised to drop their decision. The applicant is then informed of the decision taken and is availed the inspection report which  clearly stipulates the requirements that were not fulfilled in order for school to open.

  Application activity 1.4
  

  Ten years ago, two investors (Bwenge and Mutubuzi) opened pre-primary schools. The school of Bwenge run well until now and it is one of the excellent school in the East African Community region, but the school of Mutubuzi closed the doors just after only 2 months and children were transferred in Bwenge’s school.

  1. Why do you think Bwenge’s school is excellent?

  2. Explain the reasons why Mutubuzi’s school closed its doors.

  1.5. Childcare (Early Childhood Development) services

  Activity 1.5
  

  When a child is born in the family, family members and neighbours are happy and wish him/her to grow and develop holistically. To realize this wish, child’s family does many things. Propose actions that child’s family particularly parents do to ensure better development of the child.

  A. Meaning of childcare /ECD services:

  Childcare/ECD services are defined as a range of services provided to facilitate the emotional, intellectual, spiritual, moral, physical and social development and growth (holistic development) of children from conception to six year for effective ECD program implementation, 5 pillars have to be considered.These include: education, sanitation, nutrition, health and child protectio. All ECD services are interconnected and shall be offered in an integrated manner.

  B. Services to be provided to young children (0-3 years)
  

  - Proper nutrition/balanced diet: for instance, morning or mid-morning porridge, fostering health eating habits…should be provided adequately.

  - Health care (health checks): developmental health checks or growth monitoring and immunization/vaccination…should be provided adequately.

  - Services that support acquiring motor, language, socio-emotional, and cognitive skills should be given.

  - Child birth registration.

  - Children should be given opportunities to explore their environment. Exploration allows children to learn about objects and solve problems. Children should be listened to and allowed to explore in a safe environment. Common ways of how children explore their world include; climbing furniture, playing with water, opening things, approaching and touching animals.

  - Appropriate language stimulation should be provided.

  - Children should be given opportunities to begin to learn to care for  themselves.

  - Provide daily opportunities to play with a variety of objects.

  - Help children learn how to control their own behavior. Caregivers should help the child understand that their unacceptable behavior has a logical consequence; acknowledge the child’s feelings but let him/her know that the behavior was unacceptable.

  - There should be regular and trained caregiver who understands and responds to their signals.

  - Socialization and character development.

  - Early identification of disabilities and other special educational needs through assessment.

  - Provision of protective environment for safeguarding the rights of children.

  C. Services to be provided to pre-school children (3-6 years)

  - Services that encourage creativity for example reading and imaginative plays. Imaginative play is when children are role-playing and are acting out various experiences they may have had.

  - Activities that develop fine motor skills. These include, writing, painting, drawing…

  - Experimentation with pre-literacy, and pre-numeracy.

  - Activities that encourage language development for example, talking, being read to, singing.

  - Children should be given opportunities to express themselves and listened to.

  - Parenting education: this includes breastfeeding and nutrition advice, prenatal and post-natal care, hygiene and sanitation, positive discipline and awareness of child’s rights, child development, health awareness and advice.

  D. Importance of providing quality early childhood development services

  Providing quality childcare or ECD services is very important to children in the following ways:

  • Childcare services provide education and care to children in temporary absence of their parents or adult caregivers. These services should be holistic and demonstrate the appreciation of the importance of considering the child’s health, nutrition, education, psychosocial and other needs within the context of the family and the community.

  • Disadvantaged children and children with disabilities and other SEN are often marginalized and their development ignored. These children should be accommodated in ECD services to meet their specific needs.

  • Early learning experiences/early education. For example, play and child appropriate learning activities, school readiness skills, stimulation for future development.

  • Early Childhood Development services have a responsibility to educate children about their rights and responsibilities as part of their developmental programs. Children have the right to be listened to, respected, protected, educated and cared for. Children also have responsibilities towards others. They have to listen to others, care for and respect their peers, siblings, parents and other members of the community. This will ensure that the  child develops into a confident, well-balanced, and secure person.

  • The childcare service is important support system within the community, parents, families and the communities have a responsibility to complement the services provided at early childhood development centers. In order to address the child’s needs holistically, it is important that there should be close collaboration between the families and the ECD practitioner.

  • A practitioner should have a positive attitude towards children. A practitioner should be sensitive to the needs of children and therefore needs more training. These training needs to be of an ongoing nature and practitioners must be prepared to expand their knowledge (MINEDUC, National Pre-primary Education Standards and guidelines for Rwanda, November,2018).

  Application activity 1.5
  

  Researchers have shown that early experiences for children between 0-6 years are very crucial and have a great influence on children’ future life. As a prospective teacher, suggest the impacts of services that children benefit from ECD centre and pre-primary schools.

  1.6. Resource management in ECD centre and pre-primary school

  Activity 1.6
  

  Suppose that you are a teacher in a given pre-primary school, what do you think are the things you shall manage in your classroom?

  Resource management is the process of ensuring that resources are sufficient and efficient for a task. Resources may include anything an organization like a school possesses that is used in the process of creating or maintaining school operations.

  1.6.1. Types of Resources in an ECD/E centre or pre-primary school

  A. Human resource (workforce resource) management

  Human resources can be managed through the following techniques:

  - Providing on the job training in terms of continuous professional development

  - Monitoring and guiding employees

  - Motivating employees to be more productive

  - Giving support to employees for healthy interpersonal relationship for

  example during grievances, success like weeding, graduations…

  B. Financial resource management

  Financial resources can be managed through the following techniques:

  - Planning future budgets in advance

  - Making realistic budgets

  
  

  - Managing day-to-day financial tasks like tracking every day’s income and expenditure

  - Reporting financial activities quickly and clearly as possible either to parents, teachers, ECD/E or primary school committees, 

  C. Physical resource management

  The physical resources in ECD centre and pre-primary school can be managed

  through the following techniques:

  - Identifying physical resources which are more needed in school and budget for it.

  - Identifying the best ways of acquiring the physical resources, for instance buying, collecting from local environment, borrowing…

  - Registering all physical resources in school. For example how many classes, books, furniture…

  - Developing plans to ensure appropriate use of physical resources like chalks, pencils , play materials…

  - Implementing an appropriate maintenance plan. For example timetable showing for example how often should classes be cleaned, how often should play equipment be maintained.

  D. Social emotional resource management

  The following are the strategies of managing the social emotional resources in an ECD/E centre or a primary school:

  - Recognizing emotions in self and others

  - Regulating and managing strong emotions(positive and negative emotions)

  - Listening and communicating accurately and clearly

  - Taking others’ perspectives and sensing their emotions

  - Respecting others and self and appreciating differences

  - Approaching others and building positive relationships

  - Resisting negative peer pressure

  - Cooperating, negotiating and managing conflicts non violently

  - Showing ethical and social responsibility

  1.6.2. Records and registers resource management

  To run an ECD/E centre or a school efficiently, some records and registers have to be maintained. Those are for example:

  - Attendance register: this will include the names of all children who come to the centre/school and daily attendance.

  - Attendance register for employees: this helps to check their absence and presence.

  - Stock register: it helps to maintain records of durable and consumable  equipment in the centre.

  - Food stock register: this will include records of food items purchased and consumed.

   - Health and growth chart register: particularly in the case of crèche to record the weight and the height of the child every month (immunization given to the child should also be recorded as well as his/her illness. If a child has been referred to a doctor, this should also be recorded).

  - Records for progress made by the children: these will be like a life where records on the child’s progress are kept every month.

  - A cash book: this is for making daily entrees of money received and spent.

  - A salary register: this for writing down salaries paid to employees.

  - A fee register

  1.6.3. Importance of resource management in ECD centre and pre-primary school

  - It helps an ECD centre and pre-primary school to reduce costs of expenditure for instance taking care of physical resources like textbooks, chalks; furniture…will reduce the cost of buying new ones.

  - It helps an ECD centre a primary school activities to be carried out smoothly.

  - It helps to ensure that holistic needs of children are met.

  - It helps an ECD centre and a pre-primary school to meet learning objectives.

  - It helps to improve productivity, for example management of teachers,  children, parents, cooks…(human resource management) motivates them to work smoothly and hence, good performance at the end.

  Application activity 1.6

  Match the type of resources with its corresponding strategy that can be used to manage it.

  
  

  End of unit assessment
  

  1) Suppose you are appointed as a leader of a given ECD centre or a pre-primary school in one of the districts in Rwanda. What do you think should be your qualities for its effective functioning?

  2) As an ECD/E centre or a pre-primary school leader, what can you do to motivate the employees?

  3) Differentiate a well-managed ECD/E from a school poorly managed

  4) According to the Rwandan law and policy, how an ECD centre and a pre-primary school should look like?

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 2 STAKEHOLDERS IN EDUCATION

  Key Unit Competence:

  Judge whether the stakeholders at national, district, sector and school level are effectively playing their roles to support education.

  Introductory activity
  

  In our TTC, there are different facilities: library, laboratory, classes, smart classroom, dormitory for boys and girls, dining room, etc. One day the Minister of Education together with the Director General of REB came to visit our school and said that the materials in library, smart classroom and science laboratory are not enough. They decided to provide us with additional books, computers and some materials for science purposes. They requested the principal to ensure the effective use and management of the available materials and wait until the other ones come. The materials were sent through the district office of education where the director of education called the sector education inspector and told him to make sure that the materials are deposited to our school. After some weeks the principal invited the School General Assembly Committee (SGAC) together with Help a Child (NGO) as stakeholder that support some of the school activities and discuss the school issues. In the meeting the School General Assembly Committee agreed to hire the professional security guard to ensure the security of students. Help a Child agreed to provide a mentor for ECLPE option who will be working with tutors as well as students to ensure the quality of early childhood and lower primary education in our TTC.

  Read the scenario and answer related questions.

  1. Who decided to provide for the TTC books, computers and some materials for science purposes?

  2. Who agreed to hire the professional security guard to ensure the security of students?

  3. What was the role of Help a Child in the meeting?

  2.1. Stakeholders and their roles in education at the school level

  Activity 2.1
  

  Look at the organizational chart and answer related questions.
  

  
  

  
  

  1. Using the organizational chart, identify stakeholders in education who play role at school level.

  2. Referring to the experience of your TTC, who are the members of student’s council?

  3. Suggest responsibilities of student’s council in the management of a school.

  4. What do you think about the responsibilities of head teachers and his subordinates (discipline master, deputy head teacher in charge of studies)? Explain your opinion.

  5. In the school, there are different people who work together to ensure the welfare of students and effective teaching and learning at school. Among those people, include students, parents’ students, teachers, head teachers and other administrative staff members. How do they manage to work together to ensure each members’ participation in the school management?

  A stakeholder in education is anyone who has an interest in the success of a school or school system. They are the parties that are either directly or indirectly affected by the success of an education system. The stakeholders of education at school level are described below.

  2.1.1. Teacher’s council

  The Teachers’ Council should be composed of all school teachers. Its responsibilities are described below:

  - to provide views regarding learning, teaching, school management, planning and teacher’s development plan;

  - to provide views on the discipline and behaviour of teachers and students as well as other issues proposed by the school management;

  - to provide views on the preparation of the school budget and use of the school property;

  - to prevent and fight against the genocide ideology;

  - to promote civic education.

  2.1.2. Teacher as an individual

  A teacher is also known as an educator. This is a person who helps students to acquire knowledge, competence or virtue. His/her roles and responsibilities are described here below:

  - The role of the teacher is to instruct students, manage behavior, encourage student learning and assess progress. The teacher is the leader in the classroom and maintains responsibility for the students’ learning and safety throughout the school day.

  - The teacher sets the quality in the classroom. He/She is responsible for creating an environment that allows students to learn and grow. Teachers achieve this by setting up a stimulating, appealing classroom with procedures and routines.

  - Before students get to the classroom, the teacher needs lesson plans. These plans break down the steps for every lesson the teacher uses for instruction to ensure all learning objectives are met. Lesson plans also help the teacher stay organized while teaching. The lessons a teacher creates provide the framework for instructing students and giving them practice on the new skills they learn.

  - Classroom management is another key duty of a teacher. If student behavior is out of control, learning is a challenge. Student safety is also threatened when the children don’t follow guidelines or misbehave. Teachers use behaviour-management plans to encourage expected behaviours in the classroom.

  - Teachers also serve as role models for their students. A teacher encourages learning by showing that she is still learning. She encourages students to use creativity and use learning tools to expand knowledge.

  - Mentoring: Mentoring is a natural role taken on by teachers, whether it is intentional or not. This again can have positive or negative effects on children. Mentoring is a way a teacher encourages students to strive to be the best they can. This also includes encouraging students to enjoy learning. Part of mentoring consists of listening to students. By taking time to listen to what students say, teachers impart to students a sense of ownership in the classroom. This helps build their confidence and helps them want to be successful.

  - Another role played by teachers is a protector role. Teachers are taught to look for signs of trouble in the students. When students’ behaviours change or physical signs of abuse are noticed, teachers are required to look into the problem. Teachers must follow faculty procedures when it comes to following up on all signs of trouble.

  2.1.3. Head teacher
  

  The head teacher of the school serves both as an administrator and a member of the teaching staff. The head teacher, as the school’s chief executive, has the following roles and responsibilities:

  - Recommend programs to the board that are consistent with the national goals and objectives of education,

  - I Initiate and conduct educational courses, conferences, seminars, and workshops,

  - Oversee the preparation of timetable, the scheme of work and other professional documents in the school,

  - I Interpret and implement policies and regulations of Ministry of education with regard to the school’s program

  - Organize, coordinate and supervise all school activities,

  - Promote the welfare of all staff and learners in the school,

  - Guide and counsel learners, teachers, non-teaching staff and teacher trainees on teaching practice,

  - Ensure that current lows, rules and regulations are respected,

  - Supervise the preparation of an action plan for the school,

  - Coordinate school activities,

  - Ensure order and discipline in the school,

  - Sign “mission order” for personnel on official missions,

  - Sign students reports forms and other official documents,

  - Give permission to a member of staff or pupils wishing to be absent from work or study in accordance with laws,

  - Authorize leave for school staff members,

  - Provide replacement for the teacher who is absent from duty,

  - Provide motivation for personnel and pupils,

  - Identify mistakes committed at school and give punishment based on his/ her level of authority,

  - Supervise ceremonies taking place at school,

  - Inform authorities on time about any major incident taking place at school and write a report on such an incident,

  - Welcome new teachers, explain to them the structure and organization of the school,

  - Ensure that teaching/learning processes are curried out properly,

  - Organize and pay class visits,

  - Ensure the availabilities of teaching materials,

  - Organize pedagogical meeting for the teachers,

  - Ensure proper coverage of syllabus for each lesson,

  - Organize continuous training for teachers,

  - Organize pupils’ evaluation,

  - Prepare budget proposal for the school and seek its approval,

  - Manage school property,

  - Promote income generating activities,

  - Hand in required report on time,

  - Representing the school in its relationship with educational stakeholders and authorities at all levels and participate in meeting,

  - Serve as mediator between teachers, pupils, parents and surrounding community,

  - Defend the interest of the school,

  - Promote extra-curricular activities (sport),

  - Provide parental guides for all the pupils,

  - Inform the mayor of the district about vacancy posts,

  - Receive application letters addressed to the school,

  - Participate in the selection of candidates (organize interview),

  - To acknowledge the voluntary resignation or the death of an employee and inform the mayor of the district about it,

  - Propose the mayor of the district the dismissal from office or employment termination of an employee,

  - Sign letters written by employee through him/her when they want to retire.

  2.1.4. Deputy Head teacher in charge of studies

  The main role of the dean of studies/deputy head teacher in charge of studies is

  to examine details of all examination board, subject availability, their syllabuses

  and the availability of support materials. Some of their duties are listed below:

  - Teaching,

  - Being in charge of aspects of school administration when the head teacher is not in school,

  - Guiding and counselling teachers and learners,

  - Coordinating the making of the master timetable for the school,

  - Ensuring that examination and assessment are carried out as planned,

  - Working in collaboration with the head teacher in the supervision of

  teaching staff and other school employee,

  - Check recommended lists of textbooks and resources materials,

  - Supervise and collect syllabus plans, schemes of work, and check daily

  lesson plan and examination papers,

  - Collect and files past test papers and external examination papers,

  - Being in charge of maintaining cleanliness and general repairs in the school.

  2.1.5. School General Assembly

  A. Members of the School General Assembly

  The School General Assembly shall be composed of the following:

  - Parents with children enrolled in the school, who elect among themselves a Chairperson and a Deputy Chairperson;

  - The headmaster of the school who serves as non-voting rapporteur;

  - School teachers;

  - Members of the school administrative staff.

  - Two (2) representatives of students, one boy and one girl where possible, elected by their peers, except in nursery schools.

  - The school owner or his/her representative for Government- subsidized schools and private schools;

  - Any other person approved by the School General Assembly.

  - The District Vice Mayor in charge of nursery, primary and secondary schools or his/her representative shall attend the School General Assembly meeting on an ex officio non-voting basis.

  B. Responsibilities of the School General Assembly

  The School General Assembly shall be the supreme organ in terms of learning, teaching and school welfare. It monitors the overall operation of the school and take a keen interest in the school development. In particular, it shall be responsible for the following:

  - to formulate the specific vision of the school in accordance with its mission;

  - to provide views and suggestions in relation to the school overall development;

  - to appoint and remove members of the School General Assembly Committee;

  - to appoint and remove Audit Committee members;

  - to submit meeting reports to the Sector authorities with a copy thereof to the Executive Secretary of the Cell in which the school is located;

  - to approve internal rules and regulations of the school;

  - to approve the annual budget of the school;

  - to approve the contribution of parents if necessary.

  C. Functioning of the School General Assembly

  The School General Assembly shall get assistance from the School General Assembly Committee to implement its decisions and from the Audit Committee to audit the functioning of the school and the School General Assembly Committee.

  D. School General Assembly Committee (SGAC)

  • Members of the School General Assembly Committee

  The School General Assembly Committee shall be composed of the following

  - Four (4) parents including the Chairperson and the Deputy Chairperson of the School General Assembly;

  - The school owner or his/her representative;

  - The head teacher of the school who serves as ex officio non-voting rapporteur;

  - Two (2) teachers representing their peers;

  - Two (2) students who are members of the School General Assembly.

  - N.B: At least thirty per cent (30%) of members of the School General

  Assembly Committee must be females.

  • Responsibilities of the School General Assembly Committee The School General Assembly Committee shall have the following responsibilities:

  - To convene and preside over the School General Assembly;

  - To monitor the implementation of the decisions taken by the School General Assembly;

  - To monitor compliance with laws, orders and instructions governing the school;

  - To take part in the management of the school assets;

  - To analyse the school action plan;

  - To follow up the discipline and conduct of school authorities, teachers and students;

  - To analyse major problems facing the school and propose solutions;

  - To perform such other tasks as assigned by the School General Assembly;

  - To submit a report to the School General Assembly.

  E. The school audit committee

  • Members of the School Audit Committee

  The Chairperson and Deputy Chairperson elected from among parents who are

  not members of the School General Assembly Committee;

  - One teacher elected by his/her peers and who serves as rapporteur;

  - The inspector of education at the Sector level;

  - The Executive Secretary of the Cell in which the school is located;

  - The school owner in case of private schools and Government-subsidized  schools.

  • Term of office for members of the school audit committee

  The president and the vice-president of the school audit committee together with the teachers’ representatives to the school audit committee shall be elected for a term of office of two (2) years renewable only once.

  • Meeting of the school audit committee

  The school audit committee shall meet twice a quarter and whenever necessary it shall be organized by its president and vice –president if the president is absent or at the request of one third of its members. The invitations for the school audit committee meeting should be delivered to each member of the school audit committee at least five days’ prior the meeting and at least two days for extraordinary meetings. The invitation letter should indicate the venue, the date, time and the agenda of the meeting.

  • Decision making of the school audit committee

  The decisions of the school audit committee shall be taken by voting with absolute majority votes. All present members shall sign the decision of the school audit committee, after the completion of the meeting. A copy shall be sent to the president of the school general assembly in a period not exceeding two days.

  Application activity 2.1
  

  1. Matayo is the deputy head teacher in charge of studies at certain  secondary school, he always conflicts with head teacher as well as teachers due to the confusion of his duties, and he wants you to advise him about his roles. What will you tell him?

  2. Discuss the role of teacher in the implementation of the national educational policies.

  3. Suppose you are appointed as head teacher at a given school,  discuss your role to the betterment of that school?

  4. Discuss the responsibilities of the school general assembly  committee and its functioning in the management of the school.

  5. School general assembly has two subsidiary organs. Which are they? Examine their responsibilities in the management of the school.

  2.2. Stakeholders and their roles in education at sector level
  

  Activity 2.2

  In our sector, there is a Sector education council composed of:

  - The executive secretary of the sector,

  - Each chairperson of the general assembly committee at the level of nursery, primary and secondary located in the sector,

  - Head teachers of nursery, primary and secondary in the sector,

  - Teacher representing their peers from nursery, primary and secondary  levels,

  - Owners of the schools located in the sector as well as the sector education officer,

  - Executive secretaries of the cells which make up the sector,

  - The coordinator of the national youth council at sector level,

  - The Coordinator of the National Council of Persons with Disabilities  at the sector level.

  Questions

  1. What do you think are the responsibilities of the Sector Education  council?

  2. What do you think are particular responsibilities of Sector Education Inspector?

  2.2.1. Sector Education Council

  Sector education council is composed of the following people:

  - The Executive Secretary of the Sector who serves as its chairperson;

  - Each Chairperson of the School General Assembly Committee at the

  level of nursery, primary, secondary and specialized schools located in the Sector;

  - Head teachers of nursery, primary, secondary and specialized schools located in the Sectors;

  - Teachers representing their peers, with each level of school such as nursery, primary, secondary and specialized schools, if any, being represented by one teacher;

  - Owners of schools located in the Sector;

  -  The inspector in charge of education at the sector level.

  -  Executive Secretaries of Cells which make up the Sector;

  - The Coordinator of the National Youth Council at the Sector level;

  - The Coordinator of the National Women’s Council at the Sector level;

  - The Coordinator of the National Council of Persons with Disabilities at the Sector level.

  The Sector Education Council shall be responsible of the following:

  - To participate in the promotion of education in nursery, primary and secondary schools in the Sector;

  - To ensure that all children receive basic education;

  - To provide views regarding the construction, maintenance and equipment of schools;

  - To advise the District as to the placement of teachers in public and

  Government-subsidized nursery, primary and secondary schools;

  - To prepare and submit to the District a draft mapping of nursery, primary and secondary schools in the sector;

  - To consider reports of the General Assemblies of nursery, primary and secondary schools and render advisory opinion thereon;

  - To prepare the action plan and submit the activity report to the Sector Council.

  2.2.2. Sector Education Inspector as an individual

  Sector Education Inspector (SEI) is a person who is in charge of education at  sector level. His/her roles and responsibilities are the following:

  - To prepare and follow up teacher’s recruitment in all levels of schools in the sector,

  - To prepare administrative documents required for teachers’ promotion in the sector,

  - To manage and advice on teacher’s career development in the sector,

  - To prepare educational statistics in the sector,

  - To receive and handle specific requests submitted by the teachers in the sector,

  - To help all levels of schools in the sector making school development plan,

  - Strive to improve the quality of education and access,

  - To ensure the transmission of schools in materials, textbooks, etc. in all levels of schools in the sector,

  - To make a follow up on head teachers and teachers performance as well as their rewards in the sector,

  - To carry out teacher’s trainings needs assessment, develop their training plan and ensure the execution in the sector,

  - To organize and maintain teachers’ training records in the sector,

  - To make inspection at all levels of school’s environment and teaching and learning of all subjects taught in schools in the sector,

  - To respect the inspection standards of all levels of schools in the sector,

  - To make a follow up on everything that is in relation to the teaching and learning of all subjects taught in all levels of schools in the sector,

  - To raise and analyse problems relating to the programs, textbooks and other materials as well as the examinations relating to all subjects taught in all levels of schools in the sector,

  - To inspect school administration and make a report of each school  inspected in the sector,

  - To inspect teachers of all subjects taught in all levels of schools in the sector and make a report of each teacher inspected,

  - To provide advice and suggestions to teachers of innovations in the learning and teaching of subjects taught in all levels of schools in the sector,

  - Make quarterly and annual reports on the situation of the teaching and school administration of all subjects taught in all levels of education in the sector.

  Application activity 2.2

  1. Suppose that you are one member of the sector education council,  what would be your contributions to fulfil its responsibilities?

  2. If you are the Sector Education Inspector, what will you do to ensure  the quality of education in the sector?

  2.3. Stakeholders and their roles in education at district level
  

  Activity 2.3
  

  There is a district education council at district level; this council is made up  by different members representing the public in the district to find out the solutions that arise in education.

  1. Suggest the members from school level, sector level and district level who should be in this council.

  2. According to you, what are the responsibilities of the district education council?

  3. You earlier learnt about the responsibilities of the sector education inspector as an individual, referring to them suggest the responsibilities of the director of district education.

  2.3.1. District Education Council
  

  It shall be composed of the following people:

  -- The District Mayor who serves as its chairperson;

  - The District Vice Mayor in charge of social affairs who serves as its deputy  chairperson;

  - The Director in charge of education in the District who serves as its rapporteur;

  - A representative of headmasters of nursery schools in each Sector;

  - Headmasters of primary, secondary and specialized schools located in the District;

  - The chairperson of the School General Assembly Committee at the level of nursery, primary, and secondary schools elected by his/her peers in each Sector;

  - Teachers representing their peers in each sector, with each level of school such as nursery, primary and secondary, if any, being represented by one teacher;

  - Executive Secretaries of sectors that make up the District;

  - Owners of schools located in the District;

  - The in charge of education at the sector level;

  - The coordinator of the National Youth Council at the District level;

  - The Coordinator of the National Women’s Council at the District level;

  - The Coordinator of the National Council of Persons with Disabilities at the  District level.

  The responsibilities of the District Education Council shall be the following:

  - To participate in the promotion of education in the nursery, primary and  secondary schools in the District;

  - To participate in the construction of new schools in the District in accordance with the school mapping;

  - To provide views on issues related to welfare, hygiene and diseases prevention in schools, as well as teacher placement and collaboration between school authorities and all education stakeholders;

  - to examine any other education-related issue in the District;

  - To analyze reports of meetings of the sectors related to education;

  2.3.2. Director of district education as an individual

  Director of district education is a person in charge of education at district level. His/her roles and responsibilities are the following:

  - Supervision of all schools in the district.

  - Supervision of the work of head teachers of schools,

  - He/she has the power to give final decisions in connection with the  problem of transfer certificate of primary school students,

  - He/she has duties to explain the parents, guardians of pupils the necessity for regular and punctual attendance and to induce people to be interested in education,

   - He must check the diaries of SEI which contains information about  schools in each head teacher locality,

  - He has the power to transfer teacher from one school to another,

  - Planning the establishment of new schools including expansion/upgrading of exciting schools to ensure adequate provision of educational facilities,

  - Planning the human resources and ensuring equitable deployment of staff/teachers across schools,

  - Planning and coordinating non-formal education program and co-curricular activities such as scouting/school parenting programs, etc.

  - Preparing an annual budget based on the annual plan in his district,

  - Monitoring all educational programs implemented in the district and  providing timely feedback and support where necessary,

  - Monitoring and evaluating the performance of teachers/school heads and recommending promotions and trainings,

  - Assessing quality of education in the district,

  - As a representative of the ministry of education in the district, DDE is responsible for ensuring that the national goals and objectives for education are translated down to the school level and understood and implemented by all stakeholders in the district,

  - DDE, must identify problems and priorities within the district and the  schools and communicate them to the ministry of education,

  - Any issues that cannot be resolved at the district level must be  communicated by DDE to the Ministry of Education. Any new proposal, personnel requests etc… must be communicated to the Ministry of  Education through DDE’s office,

  - He/she must manage all matters related to administration and planning of  education in the district,

  - He/she must set the education calendar for the district based on the overall national calendar,

  - He/she must ensure that all education related activities including academic  and school based activities are carried out on time,

  - He/she must ensure that all budgeted activities are implemented on time,

  - He/she must visit the schools and help to solve textbook shortage issues,

  - He/she must maintain a profile of each and every staff in schools in district, this will help in making good and logical decisions while recommending trainings, transfers, promotion or dealing with any personnel matters,

  - He/she must recommend teachers and staff within district for training  based on their needs,

  - In the case there are any training informed to the DDE’s, he/she is responsible to ensure that the teachers receive the information on time and are able to respond in time,

  - Ensure that there is adequate monitoring and support mechanism within the school to provide quality of education,

  - Advising SEI on matters related to the development of education in the sector.

  Application activity 2.3

  KADEGE is a new member of the district education council in one of the districts of Rwanda. He was invited in the meeting to discuss about how the  district education council is working and how it can improve its functioning  but unfortunately, KADEGE is not even aware of the responsibilities of the district education council. He is reluctant to attend the meeting.  Fortunately, he found you as TTC leaver who has a full information about district education council.

  Questions
  

  1. What will you tell him about the responsibilities of district education  council?

  2. If KADEGE is appointed as District Director of Education what will be his responsibilities to ensure the quality education in his district?

  2.4. Stakeholders and their roles in education at national level

  Activity 2.4
  

  By the end of primary six ordinary and advanced levels, the students have to sit for national examination,

  a. Name the government institution, which is responsible for setting national examinations at all level. What are other responsibilities of that institution?

  b. What is the other overall institution at national level, which set and ensure implementation of educational policies? What are the  responsibilities of that institution?

  c. There are different NGOs that support education in Rwanda. Identify  any NGO that support education in your district and explain the ways in which they support it?

  2.4.1. Ministry of Education (MINEDUC)
  

  MINEDUC is one of the Rwanda government ministerial departments. Its vision is to provide the citizens of Rwanda with equal opportunities to a high quality education through world-class learning facilities and renowned learning  institutions. Its mission is to transform Rwandan citizens into skilled human capital for socio-economic development of the country by ensuring equitable access to quality education focusing on combating illiteracy, promotion of science and technology, critical thinking, positive values.

  To ensure that it works towards achievement of its vision and mission, it has the following core functions:

  - Developing, reviewing and guiding the implementation of education sector policies and strategies geared towards achieving national and international goals;

  - Enacting laws and adopting regulations and guidelines for the promotion of education in line with national education policy;

  - Developing and managing Education Monitoring and Evaluation systems;

  - Developing strategies for resource mobilization and efficient utilization;

  - Promoting the teaching, learning, and the good use of Information and Communication in Education;

  - Developing, reviewing and guiding education sector for institutional development and capacity building.

  2.4.2. Rwanda Education Board (REB)
  

  The vision of REB is to improve the quality of Basic Education through curriculum development, development and management of teachers, assessment, and promote the use of information and communication technology in education.

  The mission of REB is to fast tracking basic education development in Rwanda  by designing and delivering high quality free 12 years of basic education for all  children of school going age. Therefore, to achieve its vision and mission it has to fulfil the following responsibilities:

  - To contribute to determining education policy;

  - To coordinate and fast track education programmes and activities aimed at providing to all categories of Rwandans a qualitative education;

  - To design and distribute curricula, teaching materials, guides,  methodologies and establish teaching methods for nursery, primary secondary, specialized schools and adult literacy education in accordance with the current educational development;

  - To promote the use of information and communication technology in education;

  - To coordinate programs and activities aimed at developing teachers, building their capacities and improving their management;

  - To establish regulations determining how national examinations are conducted in various levels of education, except in vocational and technical training and in higher learning institutions;

  - To cooperate and collaborate with other regional and international institutions having similar responsibilities;

  - To advise Government on all activities which can fast track education development in Rwanda.

  2.4.3. NGOs in promoting education

  NGOs in full stands for Non-Governmental Organization. Due to the needs of the education sector, the government engage with NGOs in meeting their needs. NGOs plays role in the following ways:

  - By training teachers, NGOs help the government to cut down on its expenditure of either building more training facilities.

  - Another way through which NGOs take part in promoting education is by constructing extra schools especially in marginalized areas.

  - Moreover, governments wish to get NGOs because of financial support. Since resources are always scarce against unlimited needs, governments hardly have enough to take care of the education sector. Thus, they engage

  NGOs to help in meeting the financial expenditures in the sector. For  instance, an NGO can offer to build classes or buy textbooks in schools.

  - Additionally, NGOs promote education through objective research. In understanding the needs of the education sector and required resources, you need thorough research. By so doing, you will identify areas that are  underfunded in order to provide quality education in schools and colleges.  Research may also recommend certain changes like change syllabus for students to meet the ever-changing needs of the job market.

  - The role of NGOs in promoting education is through advocacy. This occurs when there are unfair practices within the education docket. For example, if the registration of male students is double than of their  female counterparts, then something has to be done. NGOs could offer  to sponsor the disadvantaged lot of students regardless of their gender.

  Application activity 2.4

  In which ways NGOs contribute to the education system in Rwanda?

  Discuss the roles and responsibilities of MINEDUC to ensure quality education for all citizens.

  Examine the role and responsibilities of REB for the quality education in Rwanda.

  End unit assesment
  

  The mission of education in Rwanda is to transform Rwandan citizens into skilled human capital for socio-economic development of the country by ensuring equitable access to quality education focusing on combating illiteracy, promotion of science and technology, critical thinking, positive values. To ensure the achievement of this mission, it requires the partnership of different stakeholders. Identify all stakeholders in education and briefly explain the role of each stakeholder from national level to the school level for the achievement of mission of education in Rwanda.

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 3 COMMUNITY AND PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION

  Key Unit Competence:

  Mobilize and sensitize parents and community members, to effectively play their role in education.

  Introductory activity
  

  Observe the following pictures and answer the related questions
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Questions

  1. What do you observe on the pictures?

  2. Who is helping children to study at home?

  3. Who follows children while going to school?

  4. Who brought school fees for his child?

  5. Who came for the meeting at school?

  6. Who is participating in community work at school?

  7. What is the importance of activities done on the pictures in children’s education?

  8. What should be the challenges that may affect engagement of parents and community in children’s education?

  3.1. Parental involvement
  

  3.1.1. Importance of parental involvement in education
  

  Activity 3.1.1
  

  Read the following case study and answer the questions.

  MUTONI is a child from wealthier and educated family; her mother is a doctor and her father is a teacher in secondary schools. MUTONI is healthy and physically fit because her parents take him to hospital whenever she gets sick. In her early age they used to give her the varied toys and opportunity to play. She is now in P4, she finds studying easy and enjoyable activity for her because her father always in evening hours shares with her what she studied during the day, she is always kind to her classmates as well as her teachers. When her parents are invited in the school meeting, all of her parents come together despite of their daily responsibilities. MUTONI behaves well so that all the teachers are curious to know where she stays but she says that her parents are her role models. Therefore, the school started the project of positive parenting training whereby MUTONI’s parents are invited to share with others the styles they use to raise up MUTONI.

  Question:

  Describe how Mutoni’s performance and behaviour are influenced by her parents.

  The parents’ involvement in children’s education is of paramount importance as shown in the text below:

  - Parents are children’s first and most enduring/permanent educators: the involvement of parents in young children’s education is a fundamental right and obligation (UNICEF).

  - Parents and what they do have powerful effects on children’s learning: the

  home learning environment (parents’ behaviours and attitudes) is linked to children’s learning outcomes.

  - Parents and professionals working in partnership benefit children: parents and practitioners share information about children’s learning and development at home, and at the ECD center.

  - Enhancing quality in ECE: parental involvement enhances good functioning of ECE as they support all the activities related to ECE.

  - Students will demonstrate good academic performance: if parents are showing interest in their children’ education, children will more likely recognize that their education is important.

  - Parental involvement gives children attention and praise which, in turn, helps them recognize their education is worthy of adult interest. As children tend to model adult behaviors, when parents are actively involved with their schooling, children will learn the importance of education and try to emulate those behaviors from their parents.

  - Family engagement in school improves student achievement, reduces absenteeism, and restores parents’ confidence in their children’s education. Students with involved parents or other caregivers earn higher grades and test scores, have better social skills, and show improved behavior.

  - Research shows that students perform better in school if both parents are involved, regardless of the whether both parents live with the student or not.

  - Parental involvement improves behavior and a More Positive Attitudes of students:

  - Being involved in all aspects of a child’s education, can help minimize the number of behavior issues. For example, children whose parents are involved in their lives have a lower rate of substance abuse and behave better, both in and out of the classroom. It has been found that “children with involved parents also have enhanced skills for regulating emotions and feel negative emotions less often.”

  - Parent involvement in education… aids children’ social functioning. In particular, children with involved parents have better peer interactions than children with uninvolved parents. Their social skills also seem to be more advanced. Notably, advanced social skills, in turn, lead to better academic outcomes.”

  As conclusion, when parents are involved in their children’ education, children benefit not only in the classroom but also far beyond. Moreover, having involved parents not only improves behavior and performance in school, but also improves social skills.

  Application activity 3.1.1
  

  Compose a poem of 4 verses in which you discuss what you can appreciate to people who raised you during your education since childhood up to now.

  3.1.2. The role and responsibilities of parents in the child’s education

  Activity 3.1.2
  

  Go back to the case study in the activity 3.1.1 and answer the following question: 

  What are strategies took by Mutoni’s parents for her academic and social life success?

  When the parents take part in the education of their children, the children are more likely to benefit as discussed before. The following are the roles and responsibilities of parents in children’s education:

  • Involve yourself in your child’s formal education: Communicate regularly with your child’s teacher (s). Make sure that your child is completing his/her homework each night, assist your child with his/her homework, but don’t do the homework, talk to your child every day about school (what is being studied, any interesting thing from the school), recognize and acknowledge your child’s academic achievements.

  • Parents provide an environment that is safe for their children: First, parents should keep child free from physical, sexual, and emotional abuse.

  • Provide your child with basic needs such as water, plenty of nutritious foods, shelter, a warm bed with sheets, blankets, and a pillow, medical care as needed/ medicine when ill and clothing that is appropriate for the weather conditions.

  • Provide your child with self-esteem needs: Accept your child’s uniqueness and respect his/her individuality, encourage (do not push) your child to participate in a club, activity, or sport. Notice and acknowledge your child’s achievements and pro-social behavior, encourage proper hygiene (to look good is to feel good, or so they say!) and set expectations for your child that are realistic and age-appropriate.

  • Teach your child morals and values: teach him/her to be honest, to respect, to be responsible, to have compassion, to be patient, to forgive, and to be generous.

  • Develop mutual respect with your child: Use respectful language, respect his/her feelings, opinions, respect his/her privacy, respect his/her individuality.

  • Provide discipline, which is effective and appropriate: discipline for children should be Structured, Consistent, Predictable and Fair.

  • Get to know your child: Spend quality time together, be approachable to your child, ask questions, and regularly communicate with your child.

  Application activity 3.1.2

  MANIRARORA is a parent who has a young girl in a private school in Kigali. He pays school fees for her, as it is required for the school, and provides her other required school materials and thinks that it is enough for her to succeed well. Finally, he is surprised to hear that her daughter fails at school. He complains saying that, he fulfilled all his responsibilities and her daughter deceives her. Based on the different ways parents may involve in the child’ education.

  1. Does surely MANIRARORA fulfill his responsibilities successfully as parent in the education of his daughter?

  2. Comparing to what you learnt about the roles and responsibilities of parents in the child’s education, in which other ways should MANIRARORA be involved in his child’s learning?

  3.1.3. The factors that influence parental involvement
  

  Activity 3.1.3
  

  Read this scenario and answer the related questions:

  MASENGESHO is a student at primary school, her father works far from home and the school, he is reluctant to visit her at school when it is needed, and does not even attend the meetings at school because he is always busy finding what can make his family survive. When MASENGESHO asks her mother to assist her to make homework, she does not accept because, she is unable to understand content in English, she cannot even find time to hear MASENGESHO’s problems because she has other two younger babies to care for (one of two years old and another of one-year-old). 

  After reading this scenario, what are the factors that cause the parents of MASENGESHO not to be effectively involved in their daughter’s education?

  a. Parents’ cognition

  This is a major contributor. It has three forms:

  - Parents’ aspirations: idealistic hopes/goals that parents form regarding future attainment. Parents with higher aspirations are more likely to be more willing to exert efforts to ensure that those aspirations are realized.

  - Parents’ self-efficacy: this refers to ‘’beliefs’’ in one’s capacities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura. 1997).

  - Parents with high self-efficacy are generally more optimistic; authoritative and constant in their interactions with their children than are those with lower parenting self-efficacy. These parents with high self-efficacy are more likely to monitor their children’s school work and to participate actively at school site (Grolnick, Benejt, Kurowski & Apostoler, 1997).

  - Parents’ perception of the school: parents’ degree of involvement is likely to be affected by the school itself. If teachers appear to care about the welfare of the child, communicate respect for parents, and develop effective means of communicating with families, parents are more willing and able to become involved in their children’s schooling (Hoover- Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).

  b. Family-related factors

  - Socio-economic status: affluent/rich parents are more involved in educational activities at the school than poor parents.

  - Family size: children are major expense. Larger families require a greater investment of time to engage in activities at school site and would be less likely to become involved in day-to-day interactions with children at home.

  - Employment status: employment may reduce the amount of time and energy parents have for interacting with their children and becoming involved in their schooling. Nonetheless, employment may boost parents’ support for children’s schooling by making financial resources available for lessons and materials.

  - Sex of the child: in some cultures, parents tend to favor boys over girls. They become involved in the boy’s schooling than they do for girls. Some even will not enroll their daughters in school.

  Application activity 3.1.3
  

  Apart from the factors that influence parental involvement in the children’s education mentioned above, with clear examples describe other factors that can affect parental involvement.

  3.1.4. Challenges related to parental involvement in education
  

  Activity 3.1.4
  

  Many parents are very eager and enthusiasm to contribute considerably in their children’s education; but some encounter problems that hinder their effective involvement. For example, one parent at a certain school used to visit his son at school, but the security guard was not flexible to allow him enter the school. The leaders were always rude to him, and when he changed and used telephone, the school staff members were not careful to him and finally gave up. Based on this example, suggest other challenges that hinder parent’s involvement in education.

  Anything that can hinder or affect negatively the involvement of parents in the education of their children is referred to as challenge. Among challenges there are for example:

  - Shortage of time: Parents have to work to maintain the financial standing of the family. They have to work from the morning to evening. In particular, if there has been a divorce or death in the family, they probably have trouble financially. Therefore, the parents are busy finding out what to eat and miss time to involve in their children’s education.

  - Bad experience: Some parents do not feel welcomed to go to school. They might have bad experience or memories at school such as they are the victims of school violence or they have failed in school. Therefore, they would not have desire to return to a place that reminds them their own failures or nightmares.

  - Illiteracy: Some parents may not want to go to school because they think that they are illiterate, they feel not confident to talk or do not know what to talk to teachers, and they do not know the system of the school.  This is an excuse for those parents to neglect their children’s education. Moreover, they also believe that only teachers are responsible for their children’ education as they are professionals in the field. If their children

  do not do well at school, they will blame teachers. They do not understand their responsibility towards their children’s learning.

  - Lack of sensitiveness from the school system: When the school does not care about the parental involvement in education, most of parents just don’t care, too. Some parents really need to be encouraged to involve more in their children’s education and they need the school to understand their socioeconomic level, personal, and financial problems, etc. Furthermore, when the parents want to involve in their children’s education, some schools don’t encourage or sometimes accuse them of interference.

  Application activity 3.1.4
  

  In your village, there are parents who have children who study in nursery, primary as well as in secondary schools. Study and analyse the challenges parents face when trying to get involved in their children’s education.

  3.2. Community involvement

  3.2.1. Importance of community involvement in education

  Activity 3.2.1
  

  In one school, there was a serious problem of drop out. Therefore, the head teacher made a report respectively to the executive secretary of the cell and the executive secretary of the sector. Then after, the executive secretary of the sector ordered that every member of the community should report any case of school dropout and identify its causes. Some reported the cases of students who lacked the school uniform and other related school materials while others reported the cases of children who head families. From that time, the executive secretary of the sector made advocacy for those children. Some community members decided to send back their children to school and accept to contribute money to help poor families. Now those students are learning well.

  After reading this scenario, explain how the community played a great important role to the learning of the students who dropped out.

  The term community means more than just a group of people living within a neighbourhood. It may be generally described as a group of people who are linked in some way. A common definition of community emerged as a group of

  people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share common perspectives, and engage in joint action in geographical locations or settings. The community is part of young children’s education. It can recognize education as performing a vital community service and be willing to come together to exchange experience. Children are not only our future, but they are part of our community’s present. Therefore, all members of the community should work together to ensure quality education of the young generation as it is very significant as it is explained below:

  When schools, parents, families, and communities work together to support learning,

  • Students tend to earn higher grades,

  • Attend school more regularly,

  • Stay in school longer, and enrol in higher-level programs.

  • The cases of drop out are eliminated as well as other educational related issues.

  • All needs and interests of children are met successfully.

  With these important benefits in mind, it is clear that a focus on increasing community involvement programs and opportunities should be a consistent goal for your school.

  Application activity 3.2.1
  

  In your own words and according to your experience, discuss how community involvement in education is paramount important.

  3.2.2. The roles and responsibilities of community involvement in education

  Activity 3.2.2
  

  Read this scenario and answer the question asked after the scenario. In our cell, all people aged 18 years and above, except those in old age, go for community work on Saturday of the last week of each month. In community work, they do different activities; for example, cleaning roads and participating in school construction. When they finish community work of the day, they all sit together and discuss the emerging issues that should be taken seriously by every member of the community.

  Among the issues that are often discussed include dropping out of students, child abuse, and teenager pregnancies in secondary school and in the community. They condemn publicly those who cause students to drop out and those who engage children in forced labour.

  From this scenario, highlight the ideas showing the role of community involvement in education.

  Among the roles and responsibilities of community involvement in education we can mention:

  - Establishing schools and child development centers.

  - Providing a conducive environment for children to learn through community work ‘’umuganda’’ community members can build classrooms, clean the school environment and even the surroundings to ensure safety so that all possible dangers are removed.

  - Sponsoring feeding programs: community members can initiate incomegenerating projects to get financial resources.

  - Providing land for establishing schools: the center must be built within the

  community to help children access it easily. Therefore, the community is supposed to provide the land.

  - Providing physical resources: all the equipment and teaching materials will not be bought; some can be provided by the community.

  - Providing expert in different domains: those are different technical support such as doctors, carpenters, engineers, old people, teachers, trainers, leaders, etc.

  Application activity 3.2.2
  

  Based on your experience discuss the role of community in early preprimary, primary and secondary education.

  3.2.3. Factors that influence community involvement in education

  Activity 3.2.3

  Read the scenario and answer the question:

  In our sector the leaders are fair to all members of the community. They explain every thing which is useful to the individual as well as general society, and encourage all members to be active and participate in the development of all sectors found in the sector including education sector. When it is time for community meeting, the school leaders come and announce the educational issues that require community involvement. When there is something at school that requires immediate community involvement, for example in the case of strong wind at the level it destroys some buildings at school, the school leader communicates directly the local leaders for help and the local leaders mobilizes the community members to go for community work to repair the destroyed buildings.

  Question

  Analyze the above scenario and identify factors that influence members of the community, from the local leaders to the families, in the school activities

  As education is not offered, taken and benefited by one member of the community, it is the reason why it requires all members of the community involvement to ensure the quality of education given to the children of the community.

  Community involvement is most of the time influenced by the following factors.

  • The awareness of the community on their roles in education: when members of the community are aware of the way they can contribute in education, they are more likely to participate actively as much as possible in the education of their children. Contrary, when they do not even know their roles and responsibilities, they do not contribute in education.

  • Communication and information sharing between the school and the community: it requires effective communication between the schools and the community around because the members of the community cannot support unknown activity, it requires the leaders to communicate to them and suggest the ways he/she wants the community to help.

  • Management capacity among the community leaders: the way the leaders manage the members of the community can influence their engagement in different services of the community including education services. This is because there are many activities that require advocacy and mobilization

  of leaders to influence the participation of community members. Therefore, if the leader is able to convince community members, they will be more likely to take part in education development but if the leader does not have the skills for community advocacy and mobilization, the members of the community will not participate.

  • Availability of financial resources for the community to participate in the educational activities. Surely, finance is needed everywhere in implementation in any activity. Therefore, educational services also needs money. When the community members do not have money, it is impossible to support children who are from poor families or the children without families but when the community members have enough money, they participate in education more confidently.

  Application activity 3.2.3
  

  In your community, there are different people who should work together to contribute in education. Discuss factors that influence that community involvement in education.

  3.2.4. Challenges related to the community involvement in education

  Activity 3.2.4
  

  Previously, you learnt the similar lesson (challenges related to the parental involvement) in the sub-unit 3.2. Now go back to the content in the heading

  3.1.4, make a revision, analyze it and demonstrate whether there are some challenges related to parental involvement that can also be applied to the community involvement in education.

  The challenges that may hinder community involvement in education include the following:

  • Lack of effective communication: to ensure effective involvement for all members of the community, there should be effective communication. Unfortunately, some school leaders do not communicate well to the community and therefore no involvement of it in the functioning of the school. If there is no communication between school leaders, local leaders as well the general members of the community, there is no other way they can be aware of the education programs that need partnership.

  • Fear for some member of the community to announce their opinions that may contribute to the improvement of education in the community: some members may have the idea but providing it is a problem: they are not confident and fear to talk in the public.

  • Lack of time to meet in order to discuss the educational issues (Younis, 2002): some members of the community are always busy for their own activities and do not have time to attend the meeting concerning education.

  If they do not attend because they are always busy in other businesses, they will not involve effectively in education.

  • Some members of the public are not sure of the benefits of their contribution (Israel, Coleman, Illvento, 1993): if members in the community do not know what they can benefit from involving in education, it means they do not know the importance of community involvement in education.

  • Lack of interesting programs in the schools located in the community that may attract the involvement of community in education: members of the community will be interested in their involvement in education, when there are good designed projects that call the involvement of the community.

  Unfortunately, most of the school leaders do not have the skills for designing such attractive projects.

  • Some schools in the community do not have skills to involve community in the functioning of the school.

  Application activity 3.2.4
  

  Refer to the community in your sector; identify the challenges related to the community involvement in education.

  3.3. Strategies to increase parental and community involvement in education

  Activity 3.3
  

  Read the scenario and answer the question asked after the scenario

  Simon is an exemplary teacher in his school, fluent speaker and an opinion leader in his sector. When there is an issue that requires the involvement of every member of the community, the executive secretary of the sector plans meeting for every cell of the sector to take place on different dates and invites Simon in each cell.

  The target to call Simon is to help in mobilizing the community about their involvement to the solution of the arise issue. The executive secretary of the sector also ensures effective communication with cell executive secretary and chairpersons of the village who always interact with people in the community. The executive secretary of the sector also plans the training for every subsidiary leader to ensure the total elimination of the issue, and finally he reaches the target.

  Question:

  Referring to the information in the scenario, what are the strategies used by the sector executive secretary to ensure that all community members are involved to reach the reliable solutions to the issues that arose in the sector?

  Previously, you learnt about the challenges that affect parental as well as community involvement in education, now in this sub-unit 3.3 you will learn about the strategies to overcome those challenges and increase parental and community involvement. Those strategies are described here below.

  A. Effective communication and advocacy

  There is effective communication in a school when the school and the families or community communicate effectively about school programs and learners progress. Advocacy is defined as any action that speaks in favor of, recommends, argues for a cause, supports or defends, or pleads on behalf of others.

  For effective communication and advocacy, the following strategies can be used:

  • Parents’ and community meeting: regularly the schools should hold a meeting with the student’s parents and involves the community representatives like the local leaders (chairperson of the village, cell executive secretary, etc..). This meeting is to show the process of what the school is doing in education programs, the responsibilities of the school to ensure the holistic development of their children. Particularly, the school should explain them what it wants the parents and community to contribute to the betterment of the school and how important their responsibilities and involvement are in their children’s education.

  • Home visits and community outreach: the school should go directly to the families to follow up and discuss issues regarding to student problems, recruit new students and bring back the students who have dropped out of the school. By doing this the school team can profit an occasion and explain to families and members of the community about their children’s problems so that they can build a trusting relationship with each other to ensure the quality education of children.

  • Written reports to parents: when, it is time for students to go home at the end of the term, the school should make a report for individual students about their progress records and the requirements for next term improvement and be sent to their respective parents. And again, make another report to the community through the local leaders about the students’ performance and desired help for better improvement.

  • Phone calls: when it is an obvious issue to be solved immediately, the school can communicate parents who are concerned or one of relevant community leaders if need be to discuss the issue and find solution. For example, if one student went out of the school without permission, his/her parent may be called to advise him/her, and also if one student is sick his/her parent should be called to intervene to the health care of the student.

  • Community workshops: providing many important workshops to students’ parents, and community members about income generating activities, small business enterprise, budget training, child protection, traffic law, environment, health and nutrition. These workshops equip them with the skills and knowledge to ensure their family relationships, financial situation, health and safety, and so on. When they gain more knowledge and their family situations are better, they will more likely to involve in their children’s learning.t

  B. Community education

  Community education is a process of personal and community transformation, empowerment, social change and collective responsiveness (AONTAS, 2000). It may also be described as a process of empowering people to identify, realize and manage their resources effectively and wisely. Community education builds the capacity of groups to engage in developing a social teaching and learning process that is creative, participative and needs-based. And when the community members are satisfied with their needs, they are more likely to involve considerably with enthusiasm in their children’s education.

  • Principles of community education

  - Self-termination: identify people’s needs and wants.

  - Self-help: people acquire self- reliance than dependence. They help themselves.

  - Leadership development: the use of leadership capacities of local citizens are prerequisites for on-going self-help and community improvement efforts. E.g.: parent’s committees are established in order to manage ECD centers properly.

  - Localization: services, programs, events and other community involvement opportunities should be brought to closest to where people live for public participation. These activities should be decentralized for members’ success.

  - Integrated delivery of services: organizations and agencies that operate for the good of a community should establish a close working relationship with others with related purposes.

  - Maximum use of resources: the physical, financial and human resources of every community should be interconnected and exhaustively utilized in order to meet the diverse needs and interests of the community.

  - Inclusiveness: the programs, activities and services should involve the broadest possible cross sections (age, gender, religious, ethnic, social, economic,)

  - Responsiveness: programs and services should respond to needs and interests of the community members.

  - Lifelong learning: learning begins at the birth or earlier and continues until death. This learning may be formal, informal or non-formal.

  • Importance of community education

  - Community education promotes critical reflection, norms, values and structures; empowers and enables the community members to play an influential role in shaping their lives.

  - Community education is an effective way of reaching large numbers of people in needy/poor situations and areas.

  - For development in a community, members need community education.

  - Community education liberates people from dependency syndrome.

  - Community education leads to an increased ability to act as part of a united community for improved living.

  - Community education nurtures/encourages the wellbeing of the participants and their community.

  • Principles of community education by Paulo Freire

  - No education is ever neutral: education results to something.

  - Community education must be relevant: it should be chosen in relation to the context of a particular community and to identification of gaps.

  - Community education poses a problem: This is because community education seeks to avert/prevent undesirable situation before it becomes unmanageable. People are equipped with ideas on strategies they could embark (get on) on to solve an identified problem. Problem posing helps people to understand who they are, where they have come from and where they are so they can approach the future more wisely.

  - Community education should be a mutual learning process: this is based on the fact that no one knows it all and no one is ignorant of everything. Everyone makes his/her meaningful contribution. Everyone is either a teacher or a learner at some point.

  - Community education should involve reflection and action: members of the community should be allowed to critically reflect on their situation and to think of ways in which existing gaps could be filled.

  - Community education should lead to radical transformation: this emphasizes the transformation of the whole world and the fact that everyone has a role to play.

  C. Community mobilization

  Community mobilization is a process of reacting awareness and motivating a group of people to invite their voluntary support and involvement in identification and then prioritization of their need, and development of willingness to take the necessary action. Community mobilization is the process of building community capacity to self-identify priorities, resources, needs and solutions in such a way as to promote representative participation, good governance, accountability and peaceful change (MercyCorps, 2009).

  • Skills required for community mobilization

  - Appropriate skills for communication

  - Help people to be free to express themselves and diagnose their needs

  - Help community members to plan and act together in terms of organization

  - Have skills to create a rapport/relationship with community members

  - Be able to facilitate an affirming atmosphere that helps members to develop confidence

  - The mobilizer should help community members work as a team

  • Entering the community for mobilization

  When entering the community, one must be ready to:

  - Look, listen and learn (3Ls): every community is unique hence no one can claim to understand the organizational behaviors and practices of a new community.

  - Avoid creating false anticipation: Creating too high expectations often prompts/ encourages frustration and thus failure of a project.

  - Be ready to study the community by participating in their activities: it is not easy to understand a community without getting involved in their activities.

  - Find out more about community’s beliefs (religion, cultural values,)

  - Find out who the opinion leaders are: opinion leaders are reference persons to give cues on how to respond in any situation.

  - Study the organizational structure of the community: hierarchical structures vary among groups of people. Some are submissive others are dominant.

  - Find out whether other agencies have been there before you and investigate their performance: it is very good to learn from others’ mistakes or success. But avoid duplicating.

  - Consult the office concerned: you must look for clearance form of the local authority.

  - You must be ready to conduct a survey: to establish the real situation, you must carry out some investigation in form of survey.

  Application activity 3.3
  

  You are from different sectors and the people in those sectors are different for example people in town behave and understand things differently. Strategies you can use to involve people in any project require firstly understanding them (being aware of their education level, economic status, interest and needs). Now, suppose that you are a teacher at certain school, and most of the community members think that only academicians should be involved in education. Referring to their understandings describe the different strategies that you will use to increase their involvement in education.

  End unit assesment

  1. Compare and contrast the education system where the teachers, parents and community are involved to the education system where only teachers are involved.

  2. There are factors that may affect positively or negatively parental and community involvement in education. Discuss them.

  3. Discuss strategies that may be used to increase the community and parental involvement in education.

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 4 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR TEACHER

  Key Unit Competence:

  Display commitment to uphold the professional code of ethics for teachers and other public servants in Rwanda.

  Introductory activity
  

  In every secondary school in Rwanda, there is an office of Dean of discipline working with matrons and patrons. At classroom level, there are classroom rules set by the teacher together with learners to promote ownership. Among teachers of primary and secondary, there is a committee in charge of discipline. Cooperatives, associations and companies have internal rules and regulations. At national level, many laws, policies and orders were enacted and will be enacted as time goes on. Whoever acts contrary to the laws, rules and regulations is sanctioned.

  1. What is the role played by the office of the Dean of discipline in the school?

  2. Do you find classroom rules and regulations important? Justify your position

  3. We know that all teachers are mature and educated. Why discipline committee among teachers?

  4. Why internal rules and regulations in all organizations?

  5. Why laws, policies and orders in the country?

  6. Have you ever seen or got information about a teacher or other public servant punished?

  4.1. Presidential order n045/01 of 30/06/2015 establishing the code of professional ethics for public servants

  4.1.1. General provisions and principles of conduct for a public servant at and outside the workplace

  Activity 4.1.1

  Even though you are trained to be teachers, you are not limited to job of teaching. Apart from educational institutions, you may find yourselves working in other public institutions like district, sector, cell, ministries, parliament, agencies/boards affiliated to ministries, etc. 

  What will be your professional behaviors at workplace and outside?

  The general provisions and principles of conduct for a public servant at and outside the workplace describe the behaviours and establish the code of professional ethics for public servants. As a future teacher, you are supposed to be aware of this order and to abide by them. This order can be accessed from Official Gazette nº Special of 01/07/2015.

  A. General provisions

  • Purpose of this Order

  Article 1 of this order, provides the purpose this order, which is to establish the code of professional ethics for public servants.

  • Scope of application

  Article 2 of this order highlights the scope of application of the order: this Order shall apply to public servants except those who are governed by special laws of professional ethics.

  • Definitions

  The article 3 of this order mentions the meaning of the following terms:

  - Bribe: any illegal benefit solicited, promised to get it or received by a person who affirms to exert an influence or acquaintance for another person to make a decision, whether the exerted influence or acquaintance produces expected results or not. It shall also mean the illegal exercise of authority to influence the decision that interests him/her or to deter the decision that affects him/her;

  - Professional ethics: good morals, attitudes and behavior that characterize a professional public servant as a holder of public trust. Such conduct must characterize him/her at and outside workplace;

  - Service beneficiary: any person from a public institution or not, who seeks a public service from a public servant.

  B. Principles of conduct for a public servant at and outside workplace

  Various articles of this order describe the principles of conduct for a public servant at and outside workplace. These are the following:

  • Compliance with the Constitution, other Laws and Government Programs

  This order in its article 4, mentions that a public servant must always respect the Constitution, other laws and public institutions. A public servant must also respect policies and programs of the Government, both at national and local levels. While a public servant on official training or mission abroad, he/she must safeguard good image of Rwanda and refrain from acting contrary to the laws, customs and traditions of the host country.

  • Accountability

  Article 5 of this order explains that a public servant shall accept and be proud of his/her responsibilities. He/she must be personally responsible for his/her actions or inactions and must always provide explanations when called upon to give reasons for the decisions or actions he/she has taken. A public servant shall avoid being a rubberstamp, which means a person who does not have principles, always follows decisions of others, and follows whatever is appropriate or not; makes no analysis to make his/her own decision. A public servant must also be a careful person by making follow up over undertaking and implementation of instructions. Before taking a decision, he/she must make analysis and consider such decision consequences.

  • Impartiality, objectivity and transparency

  Article 6 of this order says that a public servant shall treat all persons he/she interact with in a fair and unbiased manner, regardless of gender, race or ethnic group, origin, religion, political affiliation or any other ground of discrimination. A public servant shall make choices based solely on merit. He/she shall also be honest and as open as possible about all the decisions and actions he/she takes.

  • Decency and integrity

  Article 7 of this order shows that a public servant must present himself / herself in a respectable manner that generally conforms to morally accepted standards and values of Rwandan society such as avoidance of prostitution, drunkenness, telling lies, provocation, defamation and contempt against a superior. A public servant must refrain from any form of abuse of position or usurpation of duties, titles or uniform with intent to mislead the public or on detriment of public interest.

  • Zero tolerance to corruption, rape and sexual harassment

  Article 8 of this order stipulates that a public servant must refrain from any act of corruption and bribery in his/her service and elsewhere. He/she must report to the competent authority any incident of corruption. A public servant must always avoid any act that may cause another person to engage in a nonconsensual sexual intercourse by using force, order, threat or trickery. He/she must avoid any harassment for the purposes of his/her sexual pleasure.

  Application activity 4.1.1
  

  1. Answer by true if the statement is correct and by false if the statement is wrong.

  a. Some kinds of corruption are tolerated while others are not.

  b. Outside of the workplace especially in weekend, public servant is allowed to engage in practices like prostitution and drunkenness.

  c. A public servant should not respect the constitution and other laws; she/he only respects the presidential order establishing the code of professional ethics for public servant.

  d. The teachers are not concerned with the presidential order establishing the professional ethics for public servants.

  e. Presidential order n045/01 of 30/06/2015 establishing the code of professional ethics for public servants shall only apply to all public servants except those who are governed by special laws of professional ethics.

  f. Professional ethics means good morals, attitudes and behavior that characterize a professional public servant as a holder of public trust. Such conduct must characterize him/her only at workplace.

  g. Public servant shall offer services based solely on relations not on merit.

  2. For any country to develop, any public servant should be accountable. Explain this affirmation with some arguments.

  4.1.2. Conduct at workplace
  

  Activity 4.1.2
  

  Suppose you are a worker in a given institution and you come very late because of other duties you were assigned by your superior. Reaching your office, you find many people in front of your office waiting for various services but wondering why you are late. 

  What will you do to calm the situation and maintain your reputation?

  A. Work ethics

  Different articles of this presidential order, describe the conduct of public servant at workplace as follow:

  • Attendance to duty

  Article 9 of the above order, stipulates that a public servant must be at work during the working days and hours provided by the laws. A public servant must not come late to office meeting or office functions without reasonable and timely communicated reason. A public servant must first seek and obtain permission from his/her supervisor to be absent from duty.

  • Time management and consciousness

  Article 10 of this order, mention that a public servant shall always use working hours for official duties. He/shall strive to be results oriented in performance of duties and endeavor to promptly finalize files under his/her responsibility. A public servant must desist from engaging in behavior that disrupts with his/her work or other workmates, such as:

  - Reading newspapers at all times, keeping the radio on higher volume, plating computers games or surfing the internet irresponsibly;

  - Transacting private business during office hours;

  - Engaging in private conversation and gossip (rumor) during working hours;

  - Making noise in the offices and corridors during working hours.

  • Devotion and serving the public interest

  Article 11 of this order, explains that a public servant must be devoted to the public service. He/she shall not put his/her own interest before the public interest and should not take decisions in order to gain financial and other personal benefits.

  • Professionalism

  Article 12 of this order says that a public servant must respect and uphold all norms and standards of good performance of duties and responsibilities he/she is entrusted with by applying the required skills, competences and good character.

  • Efficiency and effectiveness

  The article 13 of this order explains that a public servant must make optimum use of resources to achieve the objectives of the institution. A public servant must strive to achieve the intended results in terms of quality and quantity in accordance with set targets and performance standards set for service delivery.

  • Customer care

  Article 14 

  of this order declares that a public servant must receive and serve service beneficiaries with a warm welcome, promptness, respect and good manners with a view to ensuring service beneficiary satisfaction and enhancing the image of his/her Institution. A public servant must:

  - Serve every service beneficiary in kind manner;

  - Serve all beneficiaries of services equally;

  - Manifest courtesy (politeness), empathy and fairness to all service

  beneficiaries with special attention to persons with disabilities, the old persons, sick and expectant mothers;

  - Uphold teamwork by making consultations where necessary, to promote service delivery.

  • Effective management of resources

  The article 15 of this order mentions that a public servant shall be accountable

  for all resources under his/ her competence as follows:

  As regards financial and property management, a public servant must:

  - Ensure proper utilization of public funds and value for money;

  - Safeguard public assets entrusted to him/her and ensure that no damage, loss or misuse occurs.

  As regards human resources management, a public servant must:

  - Ensure that staff under his/her supervision understand well and comply with their job descriptions and understand the scope of their work;

  - Support all staff under his/her supervision to enhance their competencies and professional self-development;

  - Ensure respect for his/her subordinates.

  • Effective communication

  Article 16 of this order underlines that a public servant shall ensure effective and consistent communication with his/her colleagues and his/her superiors in a bid to promote the organizational efficiency. A public servant must report to his/her supervisor about the meeting proceedings in which he/she represented his/her institution.

  • Professional secrecy

  According to the article 17 a public servant must:

  - Keep secret information gained during the course of his/her duty in the

  Public Service in accordance with applicable laws;

  - Not publish any official information in any document, article, book, play, film or otherwise without explicit permission from the superior.

  • Continuity of public service

  The article 18 in this order highlights that a public servant ordered or intending to be out of office for leave, mission, training, suspension, termination of employment or any other reason shall before his/her departure, transfer any pending matter to another public servant as may be approved by his/her supervisor, to ensure that public service is continuously delivered without loss or interruption caused by his/her absence. A public servant taking over responsibilities must ensure good performance of functions taken over and deliver related services as usual.

  • Decent dressing and service card

  Article 19 of this order says that, at the work place, a public servant must dress in a decent manner and always wear his/her service card. Where she/he is employed in a uniformed service, a public servant must wear the uniform during working hours.

  B. Ethics of a public servant vis-à-vis service beneficiaries

  Article 20: Relations to service beneficiaries

  Vis-à-vis service beneficiaries, a public servant must:

  - Respond with promptness and clarity to questions and requests addressed to him/her.

  - Files must be finalized within the timeframe fixed by his/her institution;

  - Conduct him/her in a manner that maintains the trust of the public in state institutions;

  - Answer politely telephone calls and help the caller or direct him/her to the competent agent if he/she is not competent to answer the query;

  - When a service beneficiary is present, the priority of the public servant should be to serve him/her and should politely interrupt any phone calls or other occupations.

  C. Ethics of a public servant vis-à-vis supervisors

  To maintain a good relations his/her supervisor, the article 21 explains that a public servant must:

  - Profess discipline and respect;

  - Perform his/her duties according to the directions from the supervisor;

  - Take initiatives falling under the scope of his/her onus and discuss them with supervisors;

  - Consult with their supervisors in implementing challenging tasks;

  - Inform the new supervisor about any pending matter for continuity of services.

  D. Ethics of a public servant vis-a-vis subordinates

  Article 22 of this order, says that, vis-à-vis his/her subordinates, a public

  servant must do the following:

  - Give a good example by hardworking and exhibiting good conduct in accordance with the provisions of this Order;

  - Know and comply with or enforce the rights of his/her subordinates;

  - Ensure objective assessment of his/her subordinates;

  - Offer his/her subordinates equal treatment and equal training opportunities;

  - Promote professionalism of his/her subordinates and motivate them to take initiative;

  - Call regular meetings with his/her subordinates to discuss work matters.

  E. Ethics of a public servant vis-à-vis colleagues

  To have effective relations with colleagues, article 23 of this order mentions that a public servant must:

  - Behave politely and honestly regardless of their religion, sex, disabilities, region or any discriminatory ground;

  - Not obstruct by any means the effectiveness of their colleagues;

  - Not interfere with their private lives;

  - Offer his/her knowledge and experience, when asked by colleagues of the same or another service.

  Application activity 4.1.2

  At the beginning of each year every employee signs a performance contract that he/she accomplishes throughout the year. At the end of the year, the employer evaluates how each employee achieved his/her duties and responsibilities in the institution for future promotion.

  If you are employer, create a checklist to evaluate your employees’ performance at the end of the year. Use a tick for Yes and a cross for No.

  4.1.3. Avoiding conflict of interest and obligations to respect the code of ethics

  Activity 4.1.3
  

  In your TTC, you have school rules and regulations that specify what you are allowed to and what you are not allowed to do.

  What are you allowed to do and what are you restricted from?

  • Avoiding conflict of public and personal interests

  To avoid conflict of public and personal interests, the article 24 of this order underlines that a public servant must:

  - Not be permanently employed on two or more permanent job positions under statute in public service;

  - Not use his/her position to advance his/her private interests or those of a family member, relative, friend, business associate, or organization with which she/he is affiliated or connected to through a relative;

  - Not participate in paid or unpaid activity that may detract him/her from the judicious performance of his/ her official duties;

  - Inform timely his/her superior a case likely to cause conflict of interest.

  • Gifts

  The article 25 of this order, says that a public servant shall not solicit or accept any gift offered because of his/her official position, except for the following purposes:

  - Safeguarding the good image of the Country;

  - Adhering and respecting foreign culture;

  - Reciprocating the given offer;

  A public servant who receives a gift shall with a submission letter, deliver it to his/her working institution. The institution shall make transfer or use it in accordance with relevant laws. If the gift is meant for personal use, a public servant may keep it for him/herself upon approval of the head of his/her institution.

  • Conduct after service

  The article 26 in this order says any person leaving public service shall keep safeguard good image of the public service and should not benefit from his/her former status as public servant. Any person leaving public service shall keep professional secrecy in accordance with relevant laws.

  • Respect of this Order

  The article 27 of this order highlights that every public servant governed by this Order, has the obligation to respect its provisions in all circumstances. A public servant has the right to defy orders received from his/her superior authority if the orders constitute a manifest violation of this Order. He/she shall, in a polite manner and immediately, provide the superior with reasons as to why he/she is defying from those instructions. Where a public servant is being forced or threatened to act in any way which is contrary to this Order, he/she shall refrain and report the matter to the next line manager.

  • Sanctions

  The article 28 of this order says that without prejudice to the provisions of the penal code, a public servant who fails to abide by the provisions of this Order shall be punished in accordance with the provisions of the Presidential Order determining modalities of imposing disciplinary sanctions to public servants.

  Application activity 4.1.3

  1. Answer by true if the statement is correct and by false if the statement is wrong

  a. A public servant who fails to the presidential order establishing professional ethics for public servant in Rwanda will be punished in accordance to ECD education policy.

  b. Every public servant is obliged to respect all things told by his/her superior even those which are contrary to the presidential order establishing professional ethics for public servants in Rwanda.

  c. When you get a job, you should first satisfy your interests before those of others.

  d. When you have left the job due to your personal reasons, you can share the secrets of that job with whoever.

  e. Sometimes the gift you can receive from service beneficiaries while at workplace can be seen as corruption.

  2. Suggest cases that can lead to punishments for a public servant.

  4.2. Presidential order no 064/01/ of 16/03/2020 establishing special statutes governing teachers in nursery, primary, secondary and Technical and Vocational schools

  4.2.1. General provisions

  Activity 4.2.1

  Suppose you are owner of a private pre-primary school and you want to make your school excellent. Which values do you want in your teachers?

  A. General provisions

  • Purpose of this order

  Article 1 of this order says that, this Order governs working relations between a teacher in nursery, primary, secondary and technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and his/her employer.

  • Scope of application

  Article 2 of this order mentions that this order applies to teachers of public and government subsidized as follows:

  - Teachers of nursery schools;

  - Teachers of primary schools;

  - Teachers of secondary schools;

  - Teachers of technical and vocational schools below the level of higher education.

  B. Definition of terms

  Article 3 of this order, provides the definitions for the following terms:

  - Teacher: a person who teaches in nursery, primary, secondary and

  technical and vocational schools below the level of higher education. It means also the Head teacher and the deputy Head teacher of a school.

  - Promotion of a teacher: promotion to a directly higher grading in the job after fulfilling the eligibility requirements.

  C. Categories of teachers

  Article 4 of this order specifies the categories of teachers of nursery schools as follows:

  - Category one: Junior Nursery Teacher;

  - Category 2: Nursery Teacher;

  - Category 3: Senior Nursery Teacher;

  - Category 4: Principal Nursery Teacher;

  - Category 5: Senior Principal Nursery Teacher;

  - Category 6: Master Nursery Teacher.

  Article 5 of this order presents the categories of teachers of primary schools as follows:

  - Category one: Junior Primary Teacher;

  - Category 2: Primary Teacher;

  - Category 3: Senior Primary Teacher;

  - Category 4: Principal Primary Teacher;

  - Category 5: Senior Principal Primary Teacher;

  - Category 6: Master Primary Teacher.

  The article 6 mentions the categories of teachers of secondary schools in the following ways:

  - Category one: Junior Secondary Teacher;

  - Category 2: Secondary Teacher;

  - Category 3: Senior Secondary Teacher;

  - Category 4: Principal Secondary Teacher;

  - Category 5: Senior Principal Secondary Teacher;

  - Category 6: Master Secondary Teacher.

  While article 7 categorizes TVET trainers as follow:

  - Category one: Junior TVET Trainer;

  - Category 2: TVET Trainer;

  - Category 3: Senior TVET Trainer;

  - Category 4: Principal TVET Trainer;

  - Category 5: Senior Principal TVET Trainer;

  - Category 6: Master TVET Trainer

  D. Grads of categories of teachers

  The article 8 of this order highlights the grades of the categories of teachers.

  These are the following:

  - The first category comprises one (1) grade; Grade II;

  - The second category comprises two (2) grades; Grade III and Grade IV;

  - The third category comprises two (2) grades; Grade V and Grade VI;

  - The fourth category comprises two (2) grades; Grade VII and Grade VIII;

  - The fifth category comprises two (2) grades; Grade IX and Grade X;

  - The sixth category comprises two (2) grades; Grade XI and Grade XII.

  Article 9 of this order provides the placement at the category of Junior teacher:

  It says that newly recruited teacher is placed at the category one of Junior teacher at grading II.

  Article 10 specifies the requirements for placement at the category of Junior

  teachers in these words: For a teacher to be placed in the category of Junior

  teacher, he/she must meet the following conditions:

  - He/she has successfully completed probation period;

  - He/she has been awarded a Teaching Licence.

  Article 11 of the same order stipulates that a teacher is promoted in grades of a category when he/she fulfils the following conditions:

  - he/she has completed three (3) years of teaching experince in the grade;

  - perfomance evaluation conducted each year while in grade shows that he/she is competent and scored at least 80% every year during three (3) consecutive years.

  Article 12 expalins that a teacher is promoted to a higher category when he/she fulfils the following conditions:

  - He/she has completed three (3) years of teaching experince in the current grade;

  - Perfomance evaluation conducted each year while in grade shows that he/she is competent and scored at least 80% every year during three (3) consecutive years;

  - He/she has successfully completed Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses in teaching career.

  The article 13 of this provides special category of honorary teacher. It says that the Minister in charge of education may promote a teacher who has met requirements in the special category of honorary teacher. The article 14 of the same order mentions the requirements for promotion to the special category of honorary teacher. It says a teacher is placed in the category of honorary teacher category if he/she fulfills the following conditions:

  - He/she has been admitted to retirement as a teacher in the category of Master teacher;

  - He/she has never been subject to any administrative sanction or penalty;

  - He/she has demonstrated outstanding performance recognized by the Ministry in charge of education.

  In the same context, article 15 the way the publication of names of teachers promoted to the special category of honorary teacher. It makes clear that the names of a teacher promoted to the special category of honorary teacher are posted on the website of the Ministry in charge of education. The article 16 of the order specifies the benefits allocated to a teacher promoted to the category of honorary teacher. For it a teacher who has been promoted to the category of honorary teacher is entitled to the following benefits:

  - A medal of merit;

  - A Certificate of merit;

  - Any other awards determined by the Ministry of Education.

  Application activity 4.2.1
  

  1. The presidential order establishing special statutes governing teachers in nursery, primary, secondary, Technical, and Vocational schools was put in place. What do you think are the advantages of putting teachers in different categories?

  2. What are the requirements for any teacher to be promoted?

  4.2.2. Teachers’ recruitment and appointment

  Activity 4.2.2

  During its first step of preparing and conducting recruitment exams of teachers, MINEDUC with its agencies collaborated to make the process effective and trustworthy. This has been done a long time with the districts without collaborating with MINEDUC. MUHIRE who sat for this job exam passed it with 79.5% in teaching Mathematics in Kamonyi district. At the beginning of 2020 academic year, he was appointed to one of secondary school which is in Kamonyi district. The mayor of the district wrote to him a provisional appointment letter and he will get final appointment letter after serving 12 months which is equal to an academic year and pass performance assessment which shows that he is competent at his job. KAYITESI who sat also for primary teachers’ exam got 70.5% and is pending on the list because the candidates who passed exam were many with high marks and the district has few posts for primary schools. She still has a hope as waiting list will have value for 6 months. Both are professional teachers as they studied teaching.

  1. Think of any three requirements that MUHIRE and KAYITESI fulfilled for being eligible to apply for a teaching job.

  2. Why do you think that KAYITESI did not immediately get a job?

  3. How long should MUHIRE spend teaching before getting a final appointment letter?

  4. Referring to the story, state one requirement that MUHIRE is requested to fulfill in order to get a final appointment letter.

  5. How long does the waiting list last before being expired?

  A. Teacher’s recruitment
  

  • Responsible institutions

  The article 17 of this order shows the institutions in charge of teachers ‘recruitment and appointment’. It says that a teachers’recruitment and appointment is jointly done by the following institutions:

  - The City of Kigali and a District of Province;

  - The Ministry in charge of education through its affiliated agencies;

  - The Ministry in charge public service.

  • Responsibilities of each institutions (Article 18, 19 and 20)

  City of Kigali and a District of Province

  In the process of recruitment and appointment of teachers, the City of Kigali and a District of Province have the following responsibilities:

  - To make list of all teaching positions in the City of Kigali and a District of Province, which need to be provided with teachers;

  - To submit to affiliated agencies of the Ministry in charge of education the list of teaching positions that need to be provided with teachers, with a copy to the Ministry in charge of education;

  - To appoint the successful candidates in accordance with the placement list published by agencies affiliated to the Ministry in charge of education;

  - To ensure induction and mentorship for newly recruited teachers.

  Ministry in charge of education

  In the process of teachers’recruitment and appointment, the Ministry in charge of education through its affiliated agencies, has the following responsibilities:

  - To publish a list of all teaching positions available in nursery, primary, secondary, and TVET schools through the public service e-rectruitment portal;

  - To shortlist applicants who fulfil the potofolio requirements;

  - To set and to conduct recruitment exams;

  - To publish results of exams;

  - To submit to the Ministry in charge of public service a list of successful candidates to be kept inthe public service e-recruitment portal;

  - To submit to the City of Kigali and a District of Province a list of newly recruited teachers to be appointed and placed in accordance to the teaching vacant positions earlier submitted by the City of Kigali and a District of Province.

  Ministry in charge of public service

  In the process of recruitment and appointment of teachers, the Ministry in charge of public service has the following responsibilities:

  - To manage the process of teachers’ recruitment and appointment through the public service e-recruitment portal;

  - To maintain, for a period of 24 months, a valid database of all successful candidates who are eligible for appointment and placement in case a vacant position is reported during that period.

  • Announcement of vacant post, shortlisting and publication of candidates (Article 21, 22)

  About announcement of vacant posts the article 21 specifies that the Ministry in charge of education advertises vacant posts through the public service e-recruitment portal. The announcement must contain the following details: Job position title, requirements of the job position and the closing date of submission of application file.

  The article 22 shows that shortlisting and publication of candidates is done in this way:

  - The Ministry of Education through its implemeting agencies publishes the list of admitted candidates for examination and non-admitted and the reasons for non-eligibility.

  - The list shall be published through e-recruitment portal.

  - The pre-selection of candidates, examinations, publication of the results and the appointment of teachers must not exceed the two-month period (2) counted from the deadline for submitting application for employment.

  • Examination process and language of examination

  Article 23 and 24 desribe examination process and language of examination in this way:

  - The shortlisted candidates are informed on the date, time and venue for the exam. Examination is conducted on a working day and during working hours, and only a written exam is taken.

  - The examination of teachers of nursery and lower level of primary schools is prepared and conducted in Kinyarwanda.The examination of teachers of language subjects is prepared and conducted in the language they must teach.The examination of all other teachers is prepared and conducted in English.

  • What are the requirements for recruitment of head teacher and deputy head teacher in charge of studies or deputy head teacher in charge of discipline?

  Article 25 of this order says that the Head teacher is recruited when he/she fulfills the following requirements:

  - He/she is at least in the third category of teachers or trainers in the respective level of formal education he/she is working in;

  - He/she has outstanding performance;

  - He/she has integrity and moral values;

  - He/she has outstanding professional ethics.

  Article 26 stipulates that the Deputy Head teacher in charge of studies or the Deputy Head teacher in charge of discipline is recruited when he/she fulfills the followingrequirements:

  - he/she is at least in the second category of teachers or trainers in the respective level of formal education he/she is working in;

  - he/she has outstanding performance;

  - he/she has integrity and moral values;

  - he/she has outstanding professional ethics.

  In the same context, article 27 mentions the committee in charge of recruitment of Head teachers and Deputy Head teachers. It explains that the Head teacher or Deputy Head teacher is recruited among teachers, at the country level, by a Committee that is composed by experts from agencies affiliated to the Ministry in charge of education, the City of Kigali and a District of Province. Instructions of the Minister in charge of education determine modalities for appointment of members and functioning of the Committee.

  B. Appointment of teachers
  

  • Responsible institutions

  Before appointment, a teacher must submit to the City of Kigali or a District of Province the documents such as, detailed curriculum vitae, a photocopy of identity card or passport, a certified copy of degree or certificate, a passport photo in color, a criminal record and a medical certificate.

  Article 29 of this order mentions that the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province appoints teachers in accordance with the list transmitted by the Ministry in charge of education.

  Article 30 of the same order declares that short listing of candidates, conducting examinations, publication of results and appointment of teachers must not exceed sixty (60) days starting from the closing date of submission of applications.

  • Taking Oath for Teachers

  i) Taking oath

  Article 31 of this order stipulates that before starting his/her job; every teacher must take oath before the Executive Secretary of the Sector where the school to which the teacher is appointed, is located. The oath is the following:

  “I,,..................................................................

  Solemnly swear to the Nation:

  1. To fulfill my educational duties with dedication:

  2. To remain loyal to the Republic of Rwanda;

  3. To uphold the Constitution and other laws;

  4. To commit myself to strengthening unity of Rwandans;

  5. To perform my educational duties without discrimination of whatever kind;

  6. Not to use my educational position for personal motives;

  7. To comply with professional ethics;

  8. To be committed to respect of freedom and basic human rights in general and rights of children in particular and common interests of Rwandans. 

  Shall I fail to honour this oath, may I face the rigours of the law. 

  So help me God”.

  A teacher must sign his/her oath immediately after taking it.

  ii) Modalities of taking oath (Article 32)

  - A teacher takes oath by holding the National Flag with his/her left hand while raising the right hand with a stretched palm.

  - A teacher with disability which does not enable him/her to hold the national flag wears the flag.

  - If a teacher who took oath at the time of starting his/her duties is appointed to another public institution, he/she does not take oath unless he/she is appointed as a higher official or appointed in organs where staff members are governed by statutes other than the present one.

  • Teacher probation

  i) Probation period (Article 33)

  - Every newly appointed teacher is subjected to a probation period of twelve (12) months where his/her immediate supervisor evaluates his/her performance in terms of his/her professional capacities, qualities and behaviours.

  - When a teacher starts the probation period, he/she must be informed, in writing, of his/her responsibilities and duties, by the competent authority.

  - A teacher on probation enjoys the same rights as any other teacher who successfully completed the probation.

  - A teacher, who has successfully completed probation period, shall no longer be subjected to a new probation, when he/she is employed as a teacher elsewhere.

  ii) Teacher support during probation period

  Article 34 says that a teacher on probation is given opportunity and support to develop his/her professional capacity through the following way:

  - his/her immediate supervisor must team up the teacher on probation with a teacher or teachers highly experienced in subject (s) taught by the teacher on probation or his/her administrative duties, in order for them toassist him/her to effectively use tools put at his/her disposal to fulfill his/her responsibilities and to build self-confidence;

  - A teacher or teachers with the responsibility of assisting the teacher on probation write termly reports on his/her performance, which highlight the progress made by the teacher on probation in fulfilling his/her responsibilities and advice given to him/her on perfecting performance.

  iii) Completion of the probation period

  The article 35 of the same order says that at the completion of the probation period, performance of the teacher is assessed by the competent authority. 

  If performance assessment is successful, the competent authority who provisionally appointed the teacher is notified, in writing, for issuing a definitive appointment.

  If the assessment shows that the teacher on probation is incompetent, the evaluator informs the appointing authority recommending the teacher’s removal from office.

  However, the appointing authority may order to retake the probation for a period not exceeding twelve (12) months due to clear and convincing reasons.

  In the same context, article 36 announces that a teacher who is not satisfied with the performance assessment may appeal in writing, at first instance, to the appointing authority within a period not exceeding fifteen (15) working days after being informed of the decision taken against him/her.

  The authority appealed to must respond in a period that does not exceed fifteen (15) working days from the date of reception of the appeal.

  If a teacher is not satisfied with the decision taken, he/she may appeal in writing, in the last instance, to the organ in charge of appeal in public service within five (5) working days from the date of notification of the response.

  Application activity 4.2.2

  1. What roles does the Ministry in charge of public service play in teacher’s recruitment?

  2. How does a teacher on probation get support and opportunity to develop his/her professional capacity?

  3. Analyze the following letter that the Mayor of one of the districts in Rwanda wrote to Musengamana Violette (Not a real name) after she has passed a job examination and answer the questions that follows.

  
  

  
  

  a. Mention 3 documents that Musengamana needs to submit to the district in order to start receiving her salary.

  b. Whom do you think should be informed according to the letter?

  c. Which body is in charge of conducting teachers’ job examinations?

  4.2.3. Statutory position of a teacher

  Activity 4.2.3
  

  A teacher is a member of a community in which she/he lives as other members. Apart from teaching profession, teachers may hold other functions in the community based on how he/she is admired by the community members.

  1. Suggest the positions that a teacher may hold in the community.

  2. Do you think that other functions that a teacher may exercise in the community will hinder his/her teaching activities?

  The article 37 mentions that a teacher may be:

  - in service;

  - on transfer;

  - on secondment;

  - on suspension of duties;

  - on leave of absence for a specific period

  A. Status of a teacher in service

  Article 38 of the same order explains that a teacher is in service if he/she occupies a job position to which he/she was appointed and performs his/her duties. A teacher is also considered to be in service when on (1) leave, (2) on official mission, (3) pursuing a capacity development program, (4) in itorero ry’Igihugu and (5) in national service.

  • Types of leave (Article 39)

  i) Annual leave (Article 40) : A teacher is entitled to an annual leave of thirty (30) calendar days taken during school holidays. The instructions of the Minister in charge of education determine the period of annual leave for teachers. However, the Head Teacher and the Deputy Head Teacher may not take their annual leave at the same time.

  NB: During school holidays, institutions in charge of education may assign to teachers various tasks pertaining to the development of education.

  ii) Incidental leave (Article 42): An immediate supervisor grants incidental leave to a teacher in case of fortunate or unfortunate event that occurs in his/her family as follows:

  - Two (2) working days in case of his/her civil marriage;

  - Four (4) working days in case of delivery of his wife;

  - Five (5) working days in addition to days provided in case of complication related to his wife’s delivery;

  - Seven (7) working days in case of death of his/her spouse;

  - One (1) month in addition to days provided for in point 2o of Paragraph One of this Article in case his wife dies while leaving a baby of less than three (3) months;

  - Five (5) working days in case of death of his/her child or adoptive child;

  - Four (4) working days in case of death of his/her father, mother, father-in law or mother-in-law;

  - Four (4) working days in case of death of his/her brother or sister;

  - Three (3) working days in case of death of grandfather or grandmother;

  - Three (3) working days in case of his/her transfer in distance of more than thirty (30) kilometers from his/her usual place of work.

  Note: A teacher on circumstantial leave continues to receive his/her salary and fringe benefits.

  iii) Maternity leave: A female teacher who gives birth has the right to maternity leave of twelve (12) consecutive weeks including two (2) weeks she may take before delivery. A female teacher who wishes to take her maternity leave submits to her immediate supervisor a certificate issued by a recognized medical doctor. A female teacher who gives birth to a still-born baby or whose new-born dies before one (1) month is entitled to a leave of four (4) weeks from the date of birth of the still-born baby or of the date of death of the new-born.

  Additional leave in case of complications related to delivery

  In case of complications related to delivery, an employer grants the mother an additional paid leave not exceeding one (1) month. A recognised medical doctor issues a certificate attesting that there have been complications related to delivery prior to the grant of the additional leave.

  Maternity leave benefits

  - Maternity leave benefits are granted in accordance with relevant laws.

  Breastfeeding period (Article 47) : During twelve (12) months, after maternity leave, a female teacher who gives birth is entitled to breastfeeding time of one (1) hour per day, taken during working hours.

  Coincidence of leave (Article 46): Without prejudice to the Article 42 of this Order, when annual leave coincides with incidental leave or maternity leave, the annual leave is suspended and resumes after the circumstantial leave or maternity leave.

  iv) Sick leave

  Short-term sick leave (Article 48): An immediate supervisor grants to a teacher a short-term sick leave not exceeding fifteen (15) days for reasons of sickness ascertained by a recognised medical doctor.

  Long-term sick leave (Article 49)

  An immediate supervisor grants to a teacher a sick leave exceeding fifteen (15) days but not exceeding six (6) months upon presentation of a medical report issued by a committee of three (3) recognized medical doctors in Rwanda or a medical report issued by a recognized doctor abroad attesting that the teacher is unable to work. The authority of the City of Kigali or the District of Province is informed about. A teacher who is granted a long-term sick leave is entitled to his/her full salary during the first three (3) months and two-thirds (2/3) of the salary for other three (3) months.

  At the end of a long-term sick leave, a teacher returns to work and resumes duties after presenting to the competent authority a medical certificate issued by a recognized doctor ascertaining that he/she is physically and mentally able to resume work.

  If a teacher is not able to resume work after the expiry of the long sick term leave period, he/she is removed from office by the authority who appointed him/her.

  iv) Authorised absence (Article 50)

  For justified reasons, an immediate supervisor may grant to a teacher a written authorised absence from work for one (1) day maximum not deducted from annual leave. 

  However, the immediate supervisor does not grant an authorised absence for more than ten (10) days per year.

  Official mission: A competent authority may send a teacher on official mission within or outside the country in the interest of service, in accordance with relevant laws.

  Capacity development

  A teacher has the right and the duty to undertake capacity development programs to improve his/her expertise and knowledge, in accordance with relevant laws.

  Continuing Profession Development (CPD) Courses for teachers or trainers are organised in the following subjects:

  - Pedagogical and Instructional CPD Course;

  - Measurement and Assessment CPD Course;

  - Inclusive Education CPD Course;

  - Guidance and Counseling CPD Course;

  - Integration of ICT in Teaching and Learning Course;

  - Self-awareness and Values Formation CPD Course;

  - Mentoring and Coaching CPD Course.

  Institutions in charge of education have the responsibilities for budgeting, coordinating, planning, and leading, monitoring and evaluating the outcome of CPD courses offered.

  B. Status of a teacher on transfer

  Request for transfer
  

  A teacher may apply in writing to the Mayor of Kigali City or a District of Province, for transfer from one school to another without changing the grade of his category.

  When a teacher wishes to apply for transfer from the City of Kigali or a District of Province to another, he/she must submit the following:

  - A request letter addressed to the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province of origin. The request must be filed at least one (1) month before the end of the current school year;

  - A proof that he/she has scored at least 80% during performance evaluation of the school year during which he/she is applying for transfer;

  - A declaration of the teacher’s good conduct at work issued by the Sector Inspector after consultation with the Head teacher of the school where the applicant is working;

  - A declaration by the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province of destination, which certifies that there is a vacant position in the school that the applicant would like to join;

  - A declaration by the Head teacher of the school of origin, which certifies that the departure of the teacher will not leave any gap.

  In the interest of service, the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province may transfer a teacher, without his/her request, to another school located in the City of Kigali or the same District of Province.

  Expenses related to transport in case of teacher’s transfer initiated by the employer are borne by the employer. The Minister in charge of education determines the amount and modalities for allocation of the fees.

  A teacher cannot be transferred from the City of Kigali or a District of Province to another before the end of the school year. However, a teacher may be transferred by the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province in the course of the school year, without his/her request, in the interest of service.

  A teacher who is transferred retains his/her right to the grading previously held depending on his/her professional experience and performance. A teacher cannot be transferred before the end of the probationary period.

  C. Status of a teacher on secondment
  

  A teacher is on secondment when he/she, in the interest of service, is temporally

  assigned to work for:

  - another public school;

  - a subsidized school;

  - a Government project or programme.

  The secondment is decided in writing by the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province where the teacher is working after consultation with the Minister in charge of education. The seconded teacher is governed by laws governing the institution to which he/she is seconded. The seconded teacher receives a salary, fringe benefits or both, from the receiving institution.

  The duration of secondment is determined by the seconding authority.

  If secondment ends, not subjected to faults committed by the seconded teacher, he/she returns to his/her original school and the period of secondment is taken into consideration in his/her promotion.

  If secondment ends, subjected to faults committed by the seconded teacher, the seconding institution assesses the faults committed and decides upon the case after consultation with the Minister in charge of education.

  D. Status of a teacher on suspension of duties
  

  • Reasons

  A teacher is suspended from duties if:

  - He/she is provisionally detained for a period exceeding fifteen (15) days;

  - He/she is subject to disciplinary proceedings for a fault that may lead to a sanction of the second category if:

  - The provisional suspension is the only way to prevent the suspected teacher from disposing of evidence or exerting pressure on witnesses;

  - The serious nature of the disciplinary fault, circumstances under which it was committed or the level of harm caused may undermine the image of the employing school in case he/she is not suspended;

  The teacher referred is provisionally suspended by the immediate supervisor or by the Education Inspector of Sector where the school in which the teacher works is located.

  • Rights to salary of a teacher provisionally suspended from duties

  The salary of a teacher continues to be calculated and retained for the teacher during the period of suspension. If the teacher is acquitted or found innocent of the disciplinary fault, he/she receives the salary retained for him/her. If that teacher is convicted or sanctioned for a disciplinary fault, he/she loses the right to his/her retained salary.

  • Duration of provisional suspension from duties

  The duration of provisional suspension of a teacher does not exceed six (6) months. (Article 41)

  • End of provisional suspension from duties due to detention

  A teacher provisionally suspended from duties due to provisional detention resumes work, if, before six (6) months, he/she:

  - Is provisionally released;

  - Is acquitted;

  - Is sentenced to a suspended penalty of imprisonment term of less than six (6) months and

  - He/she is not in the jail.

  E. Status of a teacher on leave of absence for a specific period

  • Reasons

  Leave of absence for a specific period is a situation where a teacher is authorised to stop working for a specific period due to one of the following reasons:

  - to provide care to his/her sick spouse, parent, child, sister or brother for a period not exceeding three (3) months which may be renewed once upon justifiable reasons provided for by the teacher on due time;

  - to accompany his/her spouse who moves abroad due to work related reasons for a period not exceeding one (1) month;

  - any other reason approved by the Minister in charge of education upon request of the teacher through the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province employing him/her. The granted period cannot exceed three (3) months.

  • About salary during leave of absence for a specific period

  A teacher authorised for leave of absence for a specific period is not entitled to his/her salary and other fringe benefits.

  • End of period of leave of absence

  When the period for leave of absence for a specific period ends, the teacher resumes his/her duties.

   A teacher who does not resume his/her duties after the expiry of the period is presumed to have deserted his/her position.

  • Modalities for leave of absence for a specific period

  - A teacher requests in writing the leave of absence for a specific period to the appointing authority and the teacher is given an acknowledgment of receipt.

  - The appointing authority may not grant to a teacher a leave of absence for a specific period in the interest of the service.

  - A teacher who requests for leave of absence for a specific period continues to fulfil his/her duties until the response to his/her request is given.

  - However, if fifteen (15) days, from the receipt of the request by the appointing authority, expire with no written response to the teacher, the leave of absence for a specific period is considered as granted.

  Application activity 4.2.3

  1. Here below there is a list of statements related to in service teacher. Write yes, if the statement is correct and no if the statement is incorrect.

  a. The district may transfer a teacher to another school without his/her request.

  b. The teacher may be sent on training courses within or outside the country in his/her own interest.

  c. Teacher cannot be sent on mission because students can miss classes in his/her absence.

  d. The teacher may be sent on training courses within or outside the country in his/her own interest.

  e. Teacher cannot be sent on mission because students can miss classes in his/her absence.

  f. In maternity leave of three months, female teachers continue to get their full salary.

  g. Female teachers do not have right to the annual leave because they have right to maternity leave.

  h. All experienced teachers are in the category of “master teachers”.

  i. To be professional teacher requires commitment toward teaching career.

  j. A teacher who spends the whole year on official mission cannot get the salary.

  k. In the same school, it is better for head teacher and deputy head teacher in charge of studies to take the annual leave at the same time.

  2. In which situations a teacher is allowed not report himself/herself at school?

  3. Propose the factors that may lead to a teacher to have a leave.

  4.2.4. Temporary replacement of a teacher

  Activity 4.2.4
  

  Teacher MUNYANA has given birth at the beginning of third term. She requested for a maternity leave by writing a letter to her Head Teacher and attached a birth certificate of her baby. Her Head Teacher MUGABE gave her two months and told her that she must immediately report back to work after these two months. Head teacher arranged the class of MUNYANA by giving KAGABO the extra working hours to compensate the periods of MUNYANA who teaches Social Studies in P3 and P5.

  1. According to the story, how did the Head teacher violate the right of MUNYANA to a maternity leave?

  2. Explain the process of applying for maternity leave and duration of maternity leave.

  3. Was it fair to give all periods of MUNYANA to KAGABO?

  4. How would you advise the Head teacher to compensate the periods  of MUNYANA?

  • Circumstances of temporary replacement of the teacher

  Article 64 of this order says that when a teacher, for any reason, is forced to suspend work for at least fifteen (15) days, he/she is temporarily replaced by another teacher who is on the waiting list of those who have passed the recruitment examination.

  • Modalities of management of substitute teachers

  In the same line, article 65 of this order mentions that a teacher who replaces another is temporarily removed from the waiting list of those who have passed the examination, but are not yet placed.

  A teacher who temporarily replaces another, signs a work contract of a duration not exceeding that of the absence of the replaced teacher.

  If the employment contract expires or if the replaced teacher returns to work before the expiry of the substitute teacher’s contract, the substitute teacher is re-registered at his/her first place on the waiting list.

  If the temporarily replaced teacher returns to work before the expiration of his/her substitute teacher’s employment contract, the contract is immediately suspended and the substitute teacher is paid proportionately to the days he/she has worked.

  • Salary of a substitute teacher

  The article 66 of the same order explains that the salary of a substitute teacher is determined in a contract in accordance with the laws governing the work and cannot be higher than the one of the replaced teacher or inferior to that of a junior teacher with the same degree.

  Application activity 4.2.4

  1. Answer by true or false

  a. The salary of a substitute teacher is equal to a half of the salary of the teacher he/she substitute.

  b. The substitute teacher should be on waiting list.

  c. The salary of a substitute teacher should be paid by the school.

  2. The following letter was written to a contractual teacher BUGINGO (Not a real name). Analyze it and answer questions that follow.

  
  

  Questions

  a) Give reasons why bugingo’s contract was terminated.

  b) What was the effect of bugingo’s conduct to the school?

  c) Was it the first time for Bugingo to behave in such manner? justify your answer.

  4.2.5. Rights, obligations and incompatibilities of teacher & responsibilities of the employer

  Activity 4.2.5
  

  At least once a week, you go to the model schools (pre-primary and primary) for teaching practice and during thirty or forty minutes you become class holder.

  1. Apart from lesson delivering, what are the other things you do in the class to ensure the effectiveness of teaching and learning process?

  2. What are pupils allowed to and what aren’t they allowed to do?

  A. Rights of a teacher

  The article from 67 to 79 describe various rights of the teacher.

  • Right to professional file

  The City of Kigali or a District of Province constitutes a personal file for a teacher. The original file is kept by the authority of the City of Kigali or a District of Province, and copies are kept respectively by the Sector Inspector and the Head teacher of the school where the teacher is appointed.

  A teacher’s personal file must contain all documents related to his/her professional performance and conduct, his/her detailed curriculum vitae and other required documents.

  A teacher enjoys the right of access to his/her personal file and may request, in writing, to update it.

  • Right to establish or join trade unions

  A teacher has the right to establish or to join any trade union of his/her choice. (Article 68)

  • Salary

  A teacher is entitled to a salary. The teacher’s salary is determined in accordance with the job classification table.

  A salary of a teacher is calculated from the day of commencement of duties and stopped on the day following his/her termination of duties. When a teacher has worked less than thirty (30) days per month, his/her salary is divided in thirtieths and paid up to the payable number of days worked.

  Salary for an interim school administrator

  When, for a reason or another, there is a managerial vacant position within a school, a competent authority temporary appoints a teacher to serve in that post. A teacher in interim position of school administrator for more than thirty (30) days is entitled to the salary and other monthly benefits associated with the acting position. The salary and benefits for a teacher acting in the administrative position are calculated from the thirty first (31st ) day in the interim position.

  A teacher may be in an acting administrative position for a period not exceeding one (1) year except in case:

  - the school administrator is pursuing a capacity development program;

  - There is a reason approved by the Minister in charge of education upon request of the Mayor of the City of Kigali or a District of Province.

  A teacher acting on a vacant administrative position or a position of which incumbent has been granted a leave of absence for a specific period. In this case, he/she is entitled to a salary and monthly fringe benefits related to the position he/she is provisionally appointed to or acting in, from the time he/she is assigned those responsibilities.

  Prescription of arrears

  The prescription of payment of salary, allowances and terminal benefits is two (2) years. The limitation is counted from the date on which a teacher had to receive the salary, allowances and terminal benefits. However; the period of prescription is interrupted when the employer has agreed with the teacher or the former teacher that the payment constitutes a debt to him/her.

  • Duties of the employer

  - The State provides a teacher with necessary equipment to carry out his/her duties.

  - The State has obligations of preventing and protecting a teacher against occupational hazards.

  - A State provides a healthcare support to a teacher and other people under the teacher’s care in accordance with relevant laws.

  - An employer declares occupational hazards or diseases occurred to a teacher in accordance with relevant laws.

  B. Obligations and incompatibilities of teacher

  The articles from 80 and 81 analyze the obligations and incompatibilities of a teacher.

  • Obligations related to performance of duties

  A teacher is required to personally perform duties as required, devote him/herself to his/her work all the time with integrity and impartiality, respect and honour his/her institution, preserve public property, and have a sense of responsibility and public interest. A teacher must respect the particular or general instructions  given by his/her hierarchical superior in accordance with laws.

  • Activities incompatible with the profession of a teacher

  The following are incompatible with the profession of a teacher:

  - Holding another position on full time basis in public service;

  - Carrying out any professional, business or industrial activities that may likely be detrimental to the performance of his/her duties;

  - Participating in permanent leadership, administration of a company or any other commercial and industrial enterprise likely to be detrimental to the duties of the teacher. However, this shall not apply to those representing the Government interest in private enterprises;

  - Having any interest in an enterprise under his/her direct control or one related to him/her, whether as an individual or through a proxy, under any title, in case such interest is likely to compromise with his/her duties or restrict his/her independence, truth, justice and objectivity. However, before signing such contracts, a teacher must be authorized by his/her employer.

  Application activity 4.2.5

  1. Identify any 3 rights of a teacher in Rwandan education system.

  2. What are teachers obliged to do so as to perform their duties well?

  3. Propose activities that can compromise with the duties of the teacher.

  4. If you are a head-teacher of a given school, how will you promote the rights of your teachers in order to facilitate them accomplish their duties well?

  4.2.6. Disciplinary regime
  

  Activity 4.2.6
  

  In some schools, the class monitor has the responsibility to punish classmates for their wrongdoing. Sometimes the class monitor may punish some students without any mistake/misbehavior, due to bad relationship between him/her and them.

  1. Why some students are punished?

  2. Which piece of advice can you provide to those students punished

  because of wrongdoing and those ones punished without mistake, class monitor and the class in general?

  A. Principles governing imposition of a disciplinary fault

  Article 82 of this order explains that the investigations of a disciplinary fault and imposing a related sanction must be in respect of the following principles:

  - A teacher alleged to have committed a disciplinary fault continues being respected for his/her inalienable rights as a human being;

  - The disciplinary proceeding is conducted in writing;

  - No disciplinary sanction can be imposed to a teacher without prior consideration of his/her written means of defense;

  - The sanction for a disciplinary fault is based on its gravity;

  - A disciplinary fault and sanction are independent from the criminal or civil liabilities and related proceedings;

  - Not any teacher may be sanctioned more than once for the same disciplinary fault;

  - The liability of a disciplinary fault is personal;

  - The disciplinary proceeding is conducted in a clear way, with due transparency and impartiality.

  B. Determining the gravity of a disciplinary fault

  The article 83 of the same order says that the gravity of a disciplinary fault is determined by taking into account the circumstances in which it was committed and the related consequences.

  Basing on circumstances that mitigate or aggravate the gravity of a fault as provided for in Articles 84 and 85 of this Order, the competent authority may remove a sanction or impose a less or more serious sanction than the sanction provided for the fault.

  The competent authority to impose a disciplinary sanction considers appropriateness of mitigating or aggravating circumstances which proceeded accompanied or followed a fault.

  Consideration of mitigating or aggravating circumstances related to a disciplinary fault and the corresponding sanction must be justified in the letter of motivation of the disciplinary sanction issued to a teacher.

  • Mitigating circumstances

  The article 84 mentions that in accordance with an analysis backed with proof, the gravity of a disciplinary fault may be mitigated by one or several of the following circumstances:

  - It is the first time the teacher commits a disciplinary fault within his/her school whereas he/she usually distinguishes himself or herself by acts of good behavior and serves as good example at work, and is proved that the fault occurred without bad faith;

  - Before the commencement of the disciplinary proceeding, a teacher pleads guilty and requests for a pardon;

  - An act or conduct that resulted into a fault has been triggered by serious provocation of a teacher from another person.

  • Aggravating circumstances

  In the same context, the article 85 of this order says that in accordance with an analysis backed with proofs, the gravity of a disciplinary fault may be aggravated by one or several of the following circumstances:

  - Recidivism occurred within the period of one school (1) year;

  - Concurrence of several disciplinary faults;

  - The committed fault is likely to have a serious negative impact on public interest;

  - Serious proved conspiracy and premeditation to commit a fault;

  - The fault has been jointly committed by more than one teacher;

  - The fault has been committed by a teacher in charge of other teachers.

  C. Categories of disciplinary sanctions

  Articles from 86 to 91 describe disciplinary sanctions in the following ways:

  • Sanctions of the first category correspond with petty disciplinary faults according to their gravity. From the least to the most heavy, sanctions of the first category are as follows:

  Warning

  A teacher is sanctioned by a warning, if he/she:

  - does not wear a teacher service card and professional clothe;

  - arrives late on duty without valid and communicated reason;

  - fails to respect the time of arrival to and departure from place of work;

  - smokes at school.

  Reprimand

  A teacher is sanctioned by a reprimand, if he/she:

  - is absent to work for one (1) day without authorization;

  - issues to learners’ instructions without powers or authorization;

  - fails to issue instructions falling under his/her responsibilities;

  - fails to supervise learners or physical resources or activities under his/her responsibilities;

  - does not participate in extracurricular activities organized by the school for the purpose of learners’ discipline and social welfare;

  - fails to submit on time the report related to the mission or training he/she has attended;

  - uses insulting words, signs and actions towards any person within and outside the school;

  - abuse of powers for advancing personal interests;

  - does not reveal any conflict of interests where applicable;

  - fails to adhere to new educational instructions and requirements regarding teaching and learning;

  - tells lies in matters pertaining to his/her work;

  - fails to effectively comply with teaching time table and assigned teaching load;

  - fails to effectively prepare and utilize relevant pedagogical materials and instruments;

  - has indecent dressing, which lacks hygiene and cleanliness, at the work place;

  - carries out an assignment given to him/her with negligence;

  - deploys him/herself on duties for his/her personal interests;

  - has been sent on official mission or for training, but deviated from it;

  - uses, in class, telephone and other electronic devices for unrelated

  activities other than teaching and learning;

  - fails to monitor learners’ discipline while they are in classroom or in field trips;

  - is rebellious and resists to implement the change made in education system

  • Sanctions of the second category correspond with serious disciplinary faults according to their gravity. From the least to the most heavy, sanctions of the second category are as follows:

  Suspension for a period of three (3) months maximum without pay;

  A teacher is sanctioned by suspension for a period not exceeding three (3) months without pay, if he/she:

  - defames verbally, in writing or by images a learner, a staff member or a teacher of the same or lower job level maximum;

  - has indecent behavior within the school and community;

  - uses unprofessional manner in providing or altering marks to learners without following teaching and assessment standards;

  - harasses a student;

  - fails to comply with legitimate instructions from the supervisor;

  - fails to effectively utilize scholastic materials and equipment given by the school;

  - mishandling and damages scholastic materials and equipment given by the school;

  - takes alcohol during working hours and is consistently drunk during working hours;

  - engages in acts intended to discourage his/her colleagues or learners from doing their duties;

  - discloses confidential information related to his/her work;

  - creates or disseminates information meant to create fear, threaten, divisive, hatred or panic within and outside the school;

  - Engages learners in buying, selling or using alcohol or other prohibited drugs.

  Dismissal

  A teacher is sanctioned by dismissal, if he/she:
  

  - deserts his/her work without known and genuine reasons or without

  authorization for a period of at least five (5) consecutive working days;

  - creates or disseminates information meant to create terror activities to within and outside the school;

  - prompts or is involved in any form of assessment and marking malpractices;

  - deliberately destructs the school property;

  - definitively sentenced by a court to a term of imprisonment equal to or

  exceeding six (6) months;

  - definitively sentenced by a court for the crime of genocide or genocide ideology;

  - uses language or does an activity involving genocide ideology or any other form of discrimination;

  - fraudulently alters the content of his/her or another teacher’s professional file;

  - has submitted among his/her credentials falsified documents in order to get recruited;

  - steals at work;

  - assaults another person at work;

  - insults verbally, in writing, by images or photos the Head teacher, Deputy Head teacher or any other teacher on the same or superior grade;

  - commits a fraudulent act or omission aimed at favoring a candidate or putting his/her at disadvantage in course of recruitment process;

  - requires, receives or offers a donation or illegal benefit for provision of a service;

  - commits any form of sexual harassment to a learner or any other staff member;

  - commits a gender-based violence at school;

  - awards to a learner inappropriate marks, facilitates a learner to cheat or

  does not award to a learner his/her appropriate marks due to personal interest;

  - gangs for the purpose of harming the school activities;

  - Refuses to take oath in accordance with relevant laws.

  D. Other disciplinary faults not provided for by this Order

  Article 92 of this order establishes other acts or conducts as disciplinary faults. When a teacher commits an act or behaves in way that breaches his/her work obligation while such act or conduct is not among disciplinary faults provided for by this Order, the Inspector of Education, upon recommendation of internal disciplinary committee, determines the gravity of acts or behaviour taken as disciplinary fault and its corresponding sanction, among sanctions provided for by this Order.

  E. Internal disciplinary committee

  The article from 93 to 100 of the same order establishes internal disciplinary committee and its responsibilities. According to it, each school must establish an internal disciplinary committee.

  • Responsibilities of the internal disciplinary committee

  The Internal disciplinary committee has the following responsibilities:

  - to carry out administrative investigations on the fault alleged to a teacher, intended to the analysis of the circumstances surrounding the fault, its consequences and collection of evidence;

  - Suggest a sanction to be imposed on the teacher and to submit a relevant investigation report to the competent authority to impose sanctions.

  • Composition of internal disciplinary committee in nursery and primary schools

  In nursery and primary schools, the internal disciplinary committee comprises the following five (5) members:

  - The Head Teacher, as Chairperson of the committee;

  - Two (2) representatives of teachers elected by colleagues, one as the Vice-President, the other as the Secretary of the committee;

  - Two (2) parents’ representatives; a male and a female whose children are learners at the school.

  • Composition of internal disciplinary committee in secondary and TVET schools

  In secondary and TVET schools, the internal disciplinary committee comprises of the following seven (7) members:

  - The Head Teacher, as Chairperson of the committee;

  - The Deputy Head Teacher in charge of discipline, as Vice Chairperson of the committee;

  - Three (3) representatives of teachers, including the Secretary of the committee, who are elected by colleagues;

  - Two (2) parents’ representatives; a male and a female whose children are learners at the school.

  • Term of office of members of internal disciplinary committee

  Non-elected members of the internal disciplinary committee are permanent, while other members are elected for a term of office of one (1) year renewable only once.

  • Non-participation to meetings of internal disciplinary committee

  In case a committee member of the internal disciplinary committee, his/her spouse, or a person of kinship at the first degree is alleged to have committed a fault, the committee member does not participate in the committee’s activities related to the investigation his/her case.

  • Proceedings over a member of internal disciplinary committee

  Disciplinary faults committed by the Chairperson of the committee are investigated by the Internal disciplinary committee of the Sector in which he/she is appointed.

  • Invitation of a resource person in meeting of internal disciplinary committee

  If considered necessary, the Internal Disciplinary Committee may invite to its meeting a resource person. However, that resource person does not have right to vote or to participate in taking decisions.

  F. Competence to impose a disciplinary sanction to a teacher
  

  Article 101 specifies the ccompetent authority to impose sanctions to a teacher.

  Upon the recommendations of the school disciplinary committee, the Head teacher imposes sanction to a teacher who committed one of the fault sanctioned by warning or reprimand with a copy to the Sector, the City of Kigali or the

  District of Province where the school is located.

  Regarding faults sanctioned by suspension for a period of three (3) months maximum without pay or dismissal is imposed by the appointing authority, upon the recommendations of the Head teacher based on the school disciplinary committee.

  In case, the faults sanctioned by warning, reprimand, suspension for a period of three (3) months maximum without pay or dismissal is committed by the head teacher, the sanction is imposed by the appointing authority upon recommendations of Sector disciplinary committee headed by the Inspector of Education at Sector level.

  An Inspector of Education, at any level, may temporally suspend a Head teacher, a teacher or any other school administrative and support staff who committed a fault or who is caught in any act sanctioned by suspension for a period of three (3) months maximum without pay or dismissal.

  In case, a Head teacher, a teacher or any other school administrative and support staff is temporally suspended in such instances, the disciplinary procedure is immediately initiated.

  G. Modalities for imposing disciplinary sanctions to a teacher

  • Disciplinary liability and criminal liability

  A disciplinary sanction of a teacher is independent from criminal liability to the extent that the same fault may lead to both disciplinary proceedings and criminal proceedings. If a teacher is prosecuted for an offense related to a disciplinary fault, his/her employing agency opens disciplinary proceedings, without waiting for the closure of criminal proceedings.

  • Means of defense
  

  The competent authority to impose a sanction on the teacher requests the teacher who is alleged to have committed a fault to respond to charges against him/her. A teacher responds to charges against him/her in not more than five (5) working days, from the date of receipt of the written notification. The competent authority who requested response from a teacher informs him/her whether his/her response has been satisfactory or not, within ten (10) working days from the date the written response letter reached the authority who had requested it. If that period expires without written response to the teacher, his/her explanations are considered as satisfactory.

  • Proceedings over a disciplinary fault
  

  When a suspected teacher produces satisfactory explanations, the disciplinary action is withdrawn and all the relevant charges closed without follow up.

  When the explanations produced by the teacher are not satisfactory, upon request by the competent authority, the Internal disciplinary committee makes investigations and provides a report within fifteen (15) working days from the date it received the request to start investigations.

  The competent authority notifies the teacher in writing of a decision taken against him/her within five (5) working days, from the date the competent authority received views from the internal disciplinary committee.

  When a teacher is under investigations for a fault, he/she cannot be sent on training, and his/her resignation cannot be approved before a final decision on the alleged fault is taken.

  • Suspension during investigation
  

  A teacher suspected of having committed a serious fault which can be punished by a sanction of the second category, may be suspended for a period not exceeding six (6) months pending further investigations. During this period the whole salary of the suspended teacher continues to be calculated and retained.

  In case of innocence with regard to disciplinary charges against him/her, he/she receives the salary retained for him/her. If he/she is found guilty, he/she is not entitled to the salary that was retained for him/her.

  In case the period of suspension mentioned in Paragraph One of this Article elapses without any conclusion on his/her case, the concerned teacher immediately resumes his/her work while waiting for the final decision. A decision of suspension of a teacher for investigations is taken by the authority competent to impose the sanction after consultation with the internal disciplinary committee. In case the teacher who has been suspended for further investigations is found guilty, his/her sanction takes effects from the date he/she was suspended to carry out investigations

  Letter of sanction: The article 106 of this order mentions that each sanction is imposed through a letter issued by the competent authority who clarifies in details the fault committed and its consequences.

  The letter of the imposed sanction is delivered to the concerned teacher with confirmation of receipt. A copy of the letter marked with an acknowledgement of receipt is kept in the concerned teacher’s file.

  Application activity 4.2.6
  

  1. As other people, teacher is a human being. He/she can be mistaken or have a problem in or outside the school. Most of time school leaders may call him/her in secret to provide information about the mistake or the problem. When the problem is not solved, other levels can intervene as to solve it.

  Match case of indiscipline or a problem with its corresponding level at which it can be solved

  
  

  2. Think of the advantages of having a discipline committee in a school.

  3. Read the following teachers’ core values (ikivugo k’indemyabigwi) and identify the values it includes.

  “Ndi indemyabigwi mu nkomezamihigo

  Ndi umurezi w’intagamburuzwa

  Ndi umutoza w’umurage wa Gihanga

  Ndi umurezi ubereye u Rwanda

  Nkaba ku isonga mu kubaka u Rwanda rushya n’iterambere ry’Afurika”.

  4.2.7. Appeal procedures

  Activity 4.2.7
  

  A teacher at primary school x was not happy with the decision taken for him/her by the District (suspension for a period of three months (3) without pay). He/she claimed to the district asking why such kind of decisions was taken to him/her and the District refused to consider his/her claim. He/she went to his/her colleague for advice and the later told him/her to keep quiet. If you were his colleague, what would you do for him/her differently?

  Articles 113, 114 and 115 guarantee a right of a teacher to appeal. They stipulate that a teacher who considers that a decision taken against him/her is not justified has a right to appeal.

  • Procedure for request for reconsideration and appeal

  A teacher who is not satisfied with the decision taken against him/her may file a written request for reconsideration in the first instance to the authority who took the decision. The request for reconsideration is lodged within five (5) working days from the date the decision is notified to the teacher. The response to teacher within fifteen (15) working days from the date the request for reconsideration is received.

  When a teacher is not satisfied with the decision taken at the first level, he/she may appeal in the second instance to the City of Kigali or a District of Province where the school is located. The appeal is lodged within five (5) working days from the date the teacher was notified or would have been notified the response from the authority at the first level. The administration of the City of Kigali or a District of Province responds within fifteen (15) working days from the date the appeal is received.

  A teacher, who is not satisfied with the decision taken at the second level by the administration of the City of Kigali or a District of Province, files his/her appeal to the Ministry in charge of education. The appeal is lodged within five (5) working days from the date the teacher was notified or would have been notified the response by the administration of the City of Kigali or a District of Province. The Ministry in charge of education responds within thirty (30) working days from the date the appeal is received.

  A teacher, who is not satisfied with the decision taken the Ministry in charge of education files his/her appeal in last instance to the public agency in charge of appeal related to the management of public servants. The appeal is lodged within five (5) working days from the date the teacher was notified or would

  have been notified the response by the Ministry in charge of education. The public agency in charge of appeal related to the management of public servants responds within thirty (30) working days from the date the appeal is received.

  The decision of the public agency in charge of appeal related to the management of public servants is not subject to other administrative appeal. The provisions of this article do not apply in case appeal in recruitment matters.

  • Powers of the authority in charge of appeal

  If the authority in charge of appeal finds that a competent authority who took the decision subjected to appeal did not respect the provisions of this Order, it requests, in writing, the competent authority to correct identified irregularities or to cancel the decision taken.

  • Filing a complaint with the courts of law

  A teacher, who is not satisfied with a decision of an authority with whom the appeal has been filed in the last instance, may file a complaint to the courts of law in accordance with relevant laws.

  Application activity 4.2.7
  

  Describe the steps through which a teacher can make an appeal when is not happy with the decision taken to him/her.

  4.2.8. Rehabilitation and prescription of a disciplinary fault
  

  Activity 4.2.8
  

  Referring to the scenario on appearing in the activity 4.2.7 if an appeal made by teacher is accepted and it is found that he/she is innocent, will he/she be dismissed from job? If no, what will be done for him/her?

  Articles from 116 to 120 talk about rehabilitation and prescription of a disciplinary fault in these words:

  A. Rehabilitation
  

  After a sanction, a teacher may request to the authority that imposed the sanction, for a rehabilitation.

  • Competent authority to grant rehabilitation

  Rehabilitation is granted by the authority that imposed the sanction after consultation with the internal disciplinary committee for sanctions of the first category. For sanctions of the second category a decision on rehabilitation is taken by the authority that imposed the sanction after consultation with the Minister in charge of education.

  • Requirements to grant rehabilitation

  Rehabilitation may be granted if there are sufficient proofs that, after the sanction, a teacher has demonstrated remorse and good behaviour. For the sanctions of the first category, rehabilitation may be granted only after three (3) years from the date on which the sanction was imposed to the teacher. For the sanctions of the second category, rehabilitation may be granted only after seven (7) years from the date on which the sanction was imposed to the teacher.

  • Rights established by rehabilitation

  Rehabilitation causes the teacher to be entitled to rights of a teacher who did not face the sanction on which such rehabilitation is related to. 

  When rehabilitation is related to a sanction of dismissal, the beneficiary  regains rights of rejoining the teaching position through recruitment. The rights established by rehabilitation referred to in the Paragraphs One and 2 of this Article take effect from the date the rehabilitation is granted. The letter of rehabilitation is kept in the teacher’s file.

  B. Prescription of a disciplinary fault

  When a period of one (1) or two (2) years elapses respectively for a disciplinary fault sanctioned by a sanction of the first category and the one by a sanction of the second category, without imposing sanction, such a disciplinary fault is no longer punished. The period of time specified in Paragraph One of this Article starts from the date the competent authority became aware of the occurrence of the fault.

  Application activity 4.2.8
  

  Discuss the requirements of being granted with rehabilitation.
  

  4.2.9. Termination of employment of a teacher
  

  Activity 4.2.9
  

  Read this scenario and answer to the questions asked

  Mr. J is a tutor and very popular with the students. He often converses and jokes with the students outside the class during break time. It is common for him to greet female students and staff with a hug and male students and staff with a pat on the back. One student has complained to the administration that Mr. J’s hugs or physical contact makes him uncomfortable. Mr. J has been advised by the Principal to stop all physical contact with students and staff. He agrees to try, but he can’t promise anything because that is the way he is and he isn’t doing anything wrong.

  a. How could this situation become a violation of the law, the “Code and conduct of the teacher”?

  b. In this situation, what are some potential negative consequences for the teacher, for the students and the school community?

  c. What responses/actions will result in a more positive outcome and/or what proactive measures might be considered?

  Article from 121 to 134 describe the termination of employment of a teacher.
  

  Grounds for termination of employment of a teacher

  Termination of employment of a teacher occurs when he/she is granted a leave of absence for non-specific period, resigns, is removed from office, is dismissed, retires, and dies. Termination of employment of a teacher results in his/her removal from the record of teachers.

  A. Leave of absence for non-specific period

  Application for leave of absence for non-specific period is made by a teacher indicating in writing his/her will to cease his/her duties.

  • Modalities for leave of absence for a non-specific period

  Leave of absence for a non-specific period is applied in writing to the appointing authority. The leave of absence for a non-specific period may not be granted for public interest. A teacher who has submitted his/her application for leave of absence for a non-specific period continues to perform his/her duties until he/she is notified of the decision on his/her application. However, if there is no written response provided to the teacher within thirty (30) days from the day the appointing authority received the application; the leave of absence for nonspecific period is considered accepted.

  • Reinstatement after leave of absence for a non-specific period

  A teacher who was granted a leave of absence for a non-specific period has the right to be reinstated in teaching service as per the provisions related to teachers’ recruitment provided for in this Order.

  A teacher who is reinstated after a leave of absence for a non-specific period progresses from the grading of category at which he/she had been placed before being granted a leave of absence for a non-specific period.

  B. Application for resignation

  Application for resignation is a decision of a teacher expressing in writing his/

  her will to cease his/her duties.

  • Modalities for resignation

  The application for resignation is addressed to the appointing authority. 

  A teacher who has submitted his/her resignation application continues to perform his/her duties until he/she is notified of the decision on his/her application. 

  However, if there is no written response provided to the teacher within thirty (30) days from the day the appointing authority received the application; his/her resignation is considered accepted.

  • Reinstatement after resignation

  A teacher whose resignation has been accepted may be reinstated in teaching service after five (5) years from the day his/her resignation was accepted.

  Reinstatement in teaching service is done as per the provisions related to teachers’ recruitment provided for in this Order.

  However, in case of the interest of service, a teacher whose resignation has been accepted may be reinstated in teaching service before expiration of five (5) years. A teacher who is reinstated after resignation progresses from the grading of category at which he/she had been placed before being granted resignation.

  C. Removal from office of a teacher

  The removal from office of a teacher is a decision taken by an appointing authority to remove the teacher from the teaching service if:

  - after the probation period, the teacher’s performance appraisal is not satisfactory;

  - a teacher is suspended for a period exceeding six (6) months due to provisional detention;

  - a teacher is sentenced to a non-suspension penalty of imprisonment for a term of less than six (6) months;

  - a teacher is not physically or mentally able to resume his/her duties after a long term sick leave;

  - the performance appraisal of a teacher indicates that he/she is incompetent in accordance with performance management laws.

  D. Requirements for granting termination benefits

  A teacher is entitled to termination benefits in case of:

  - job removal or discontinuance;

  - a teacher being physically or mentally unable to resume his/her duties after a long term sick leave.

  However, when a teacher removed from office and granted termination benefits has been recruited in the teaching service again and he/she is again removed from office, the termination benefits to be granted to the teacher are calculated on the basis of his/her period served after reintegrating the teaching service. Without prejudice to provisions of this Article, a teacher transferred to a State owned company is not entitled to termination benefits. However, the period a teacher served in teaching service is considered in case of the end of the contract in a State owned company

  Calculation of termination benefits
  

  Termination benefits for a teacher are calculated based on his/her last gross salary and on basis of his/her period served in teaching service as follows:

  - three (3) months’ salary for a teacher with at least one (1) year but less than five (5) years of experience;

  - four (4) months’ salary for a teacher with at least five (5) years but less than ten (10) years of experience;

  - five (5) months’ salary for a teacher with at least ten (10) years but less than fifteen (15) years of experience;

  - six (6) months’ salary for a teacher with at least fifteen (15) years but less than twenty (20) years of experience;

  - seven (7) months’ salary for a teacher with at least twenty (20) years but less than twenty-five (25) years of experience;

  - eight (8) months’ salary for a teacher with at least twenty-five (25) years of experience but less than thirty years (30);

  - Eleven (11) months for a teacher with at least thirty years (30) of experience.

  However, termination benefits granted to a teacher removed from office after a long-term sick leave cannot be less than four (4) months gross salary.

  E. Retirement
  

  A teacher who attains sixty-five (65) years retires. However, a teacher who attains at least sixty (60) years of age may apply to the competent authority for early retirement.

  Retirement benefits

  A teacher who retires is entitled to retirement benefits, on the basis of the period the teacher served the teaching service.

  Retirement benefits are computed in the same way as provided for in Article 130 of this Order. Retirement benefits are incompatible with benefits granted to a teacher removed from office.

  F. Death allowances and funeral expenses

  In case a teacher dies while still in service, the legally recognised successors are granted death allowances equivalent to a non-taxable lump sum of six (6) times of the last monthly gross salary of the deceased which are not taxable.

  G. Work certificate
  

  The appointing authority or his/her delegate provides a teacher with a certificate attesting that he/she has served as a teacher. The certificate is issued immediately after the teacher ceased his/her duties and indicates the date of entry into service; position held and date of last day of service.

  Application activity 4.2.9
  

  After learning this lesson; explain key considerations found in the Article from 121 to 134 describing the termination of employment of a teacher?

  End unit assesment
  

  1. Who are in charge of promoting teachers’ rights?

  2. What are the instruments to protect teachers’ rights

  3. To promote teachers’ well-being and quality education in Rwanda, Rwanda Education Board (REB) introduced Indashyikirwa award. The process of selecting Indashyikirwa starts from school level, sector level, district level, provincial level and national level. Indashyikirwa at all these levels are given various rewards such as envelops of money, smart phones, lap tops, cows, tablets, motorcars…to thank them due to their hard work in teaching career, to encourage to do much more and inspire other teachers to do so.

  a) Do you find this practice important? Justify your position.

  b) As prospective teachers, what will you do in your school to become Indashyikirwa?

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY

  Key Unit Competence:

  Justify how knowledge of and respect for different personalities make teachers more effective.

  Introductory activity

  MUGENZI always quarrels with her wife and most of the time when he reaches at the job he could not answer properly to his friends. His son MANZI who is in P4 is emotionally angry and he is not happy when he is with classmates.

  1. List down other characteristics that MANZI may copy from his father

  2. Where does the behaviour of MANZI come from?

  5.1. Key concepts of personality

  Activity 5.1
  

  Which among the following lists of characteristics are related to personality?

  Individual, character, temperament, home environment, emotion, sensitive, teacher’s code of conduct, imagination, self-concept.

  • Personality
  

  Personality is a set of traits or characteristics that make all people individual. It is also an integration of traits that can be investigated and described in order to render an account of the unique quality of the individual. It is made up by many concepts most of which are going to be detailed in this topic.

  • The character
  

  It is usual and constant manner of being, feeling, acting and reacting particular to everybody in his environment. We can see easily character in social relationship. The character can be innate or acquired. It can be modified by the environment (education, life circumstances, success or failure, climate).

  • Behavioural patterns
  

  Behaviour Pattern, as referred to in psychology, refers to a set of dominant behaviours and emotional reactions that include a high emphasis of competition, impatience, hostility and aggression. These are people who are extremely intense and driven to succeed. Behaviour pattern can also be defined as a recurrent way of acting by an individual or group toward a given object or in a given situation.

  • Temperament

  It is the way of being, feeling, acting or reacting of everybody on his/her morphology and physiology. The temperament is fixed or permanent.

  Temperament is a set of in-born traits that organize the child’s approach to the world. They are instrumental in the development of the child’s distinct personality. These traits also determine how the child goes about learning the world surrounding him/her. These traits appear to be relatively stable from birth. They are enduring characteristics that are actually never “good” or “bad.” How they are received determines whether they are perceived by the child as being a bad or good thing. When parents understand the temperament of their children, they can avoid blaming themselves for issues that are normal for their children’s temperament. Some children are noisier than other. Some are cuddlier than others. Some have more regular sleep patterns than others.

  • Temperament Traits
  

  Psychologists studying individual differences in people have identified the following nine traits as parts of temperament (Thomas et al, 1970).

  
  

  
  

  • Temperament Types
  

  i. Easy or flexible (about 40% of most groups of children)
  

  
  

  Typically, the easy child is regular in biological rhythms, adaptable, approachable, and generally positive in mood of mild to medium intensity. Such a child is easy for caregivers. S/he is easily toilet trained, learns to sleep through the night, has regular feeding and nap routines, takes to most new situations and people pleasantly, usually adapts to change quickly, is generally cheerful and expresses her/his distress or frustration mildly. In fact, children with easy temperaments may show very deep feelings with only a single tear rolling down a check.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 5 INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY

  Key Unit Competence:

  Justify how knowledge of and respect for different personalities make teachers more effective.

  Introductory activity

  MUGENZI always quarrels with her wife and most of the time when he reaches at the job he could not answer properly to his friends. His son MANZI who is in P4 is emotionally angry and he is not happy when he is with classmates.

  1. List down other characteristics that MANZI may copy from his father

  2. Where does the behaviour of MANZI come from?

  5.1. Key concepts of personality

  Activity 5.1
  

  Which among the following lists of characteristics are related to personality?

  Individual, character, temperament, home environment, emotion, sensitive, teacher’s code of conduct, imagination, self-concept.

  • Personality
  

  Personality is a set of traits or characteristics that make all people individual. It is also an integration of traits that can be investigated and described in order to render an account of the unique quality of the individual. It is made up by many concepts most of which are going to be detailed in this topic.

  • The character
  

  It is usual and constant manner of being, feeling, acting and reacting particular to everybody in his environment. We can see easily character in social relationship. The character can be innate or acquired. It can be modified by the environment (education, life circumstances, success or failure, climate).

  • Behavioural patterns

  Behaviour Pattern, as referred to in psychology, refers to a set of dominant behaviours and emotional reactions that include a high emphasis of competition, impatience, hostility and aggression. These are people who are extremely intense and driven to succeed. Behaviour pattern can also be defined as a recurrent way of acting by an individual or group toward a given object or in a given situation.

  • Temperament

  It is the way of being, feeling, acting or reacting of everybody on his/her morphology and physiology. The temperament is fixed or permanent. Temperament is a set of in-born traits that organize the child’s approach to the world. They are instrumental in the development of the child’s distinct personality. These traits also determine how the child goes about learning the world surrounding him/her. These traits appear to be relatively stable from birth. They are enduring characteristics that are actually never “good” or “bad.” How they are received determines whether they are perceived by the child as being a bad or good thing. When parents understand the temperament of their children, they can avoid blaming themselves for issues that are normal for their children’s temperament. Some children are noisier than other. Some are cuddlier than others. Some have more regular sleep patterns than others.

  • Temperament Traits
  

  Psychologists studying individual differences in people have identified the following nine traits as parts of temperament (Thomas et al, 1970).

  
  

  
  

  
  

  • Temperament Types

  i. Easy or flexible (about 40% of most groups of children)

  
  

  Typically, the easy child is regular in biological rhythms, adaptable, approachable, and generally positive in mood of mild to medium intensity. Such a child is easy for caregivers. S/he is easily toilet trained, learns to sleep through the night, has regular feeding and nap routines, takes to most new situations and people pleasantly, usually adapts to change quickly, is generally cheerful and expresses her/his distress or frustration mildly. In fact, children with easy temperaments may show very deep feelings with only a single tear rolling down a check.

  ii. Difficult or Feisty (about 10% of children)
  

  
  

  The feisty child is the opposite of the easy child. The child may be hard to get to sleep through the night, her or his feeding and nap schedules may change from day to day, and the child may be difficult to toilet train because of irregular bowel movements. The feisty child typically fusses or even cries loudly at anything new and usually adapts slowly. All too often, this type of child expresses an unpleasant or disagreeable mood and, if frustrated, may even have a temper tantrum. In contrast to the easy child’s reaction, an intense, noisy reaction by the feisty child may not signify a depth of feeling. Often the best way to handle such outbursts is just to wait them out.

  Caregivers who do not understand this type of temperament as normal sometimes feel resentment at the child for being so difficult to manage. They may scold pressure or appease the child, which only reinforces her or his difficult temperament. Understanding, patience and consistency, on the other hand, will lead to a “goodness of fit,” with a final positive adjustment to life demands.

  iii. The slow to warm up or Fearful child (about 15% of children)
  

  Finally, there is a group of children who are often called shy. The child in this group also has discomfort with the new and adapts slowly, but unlike the feisty child, this child’s negative mood is often expressed slowly and the child may or may not be irregular in sleep, feeling and bowel elimination. This is the child who typically stands at the edge of the group and clings quietly to her or his parent when taken to a store, a birthday party or a child care program for the first time. If the child is pressured or pushed to join the group, the child’s shyness immediately becomes worse. But if allowed to become accustomed to the new environment at her/his own pace, this child can gradually become an active, happy member of the group.

  • Traits: When it comes to personality development, people have traits that represent the type of person they are. Traits are distinguishing qualities in one›s character. They are inherited characteristics that one has.

  • Nature and nurture: Nature refers to traits and characteristics that are inherited or genetic in origin, while nurture refers to traits and qualities that are learned by organisms as they grow. The terms «nature» and «nurture» consist of many different subcategories in the field of psychology. These categories fall under several different approaches and theories, which work together to describe the complex characteristics of humans and animals.

  Application activity 5.1
  

  1. Choose the correct answer
  

  Temperament refers to:

  a. Inborn traits

  b. Genetically based

  c. Personality differences

  d. Traits

  2. Brianna is 18 months old. She cries frequently, she is hard to soothe and wakes frequently during the night. According to Thomas and Chess, she would be considered as: (choose the correct answer)

  a. Easy

  b. Difficult

  c. Slow to warm up

  3. Domina has a 18 months old baby. The baby does not easily sleep during night, he/she cries at anything new and usually adapts slowly, she/he is hard to soothe. Domina think that it is a sickness and she needs to take her baby at the hospital.

  a. As a student teacher who has studied temperament, help Domina to understand the baby’s behaviour. What advice can you give Domina?

  b. Which type of temperament does the baby have?

  4. Differentiate character from temperament

  5.2. Characteristics of personality

  Activity 5.2
  

  Though we are born with other siblings in our families, we do not resemble a 100%. There is a certain portion that makes us different from our brothers and sisters in addition to many characteristics we share that make us look alike. The behaviours we have also are influenced by many situations. An example might be talkative and outgoing girl when she is conversing with her boyfriend; she makes all effort to convince him that she is the only one in the school who deserves his love. This may be opposite when she is at home or with her colleagues. This explains much the characteristics of our personalities in different situations but there is what we cannot change and what changes when we interact with others and other behaviours that look to be common among individuals.

  1. Think of the behavioural characteristics that you share with others,

  2. List down the behavioural characteristics that seem to be changing with situations and others that seem to be stable in all situations

  3. What are the behaviours that make you different from others and make you to be who you are?

  4. According to the story, can the boy say that he knows the personality of her girlfriend? Why?

  While there are many theories of personality, the first step is to understand exactly the meaning of the term personality. The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona, which referred to a theatrical mask worn by performers in order to either project different roles or disguise their identities. Personality is also the distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person’s responses to life situations. It is the total sum of the ways in which we, as individuals characteristically react to ourselves, to our experiences and others (Ngaroga, 2006). Personality is determined by the interaction of character and temperament traits with the environment. Each person (including your child) comes with a factory installed wiring. How your child is wired can determine whether they will be easy or difficult to nurture. How well their temperament fits with the environment and how well they are received by the people in the environment will determine how a child sees himself and others.

  The personality of each person is characterized by:
  

  - Uniqueness: nobody can behave completely as the same manner as another.

  - Identity: individual reacts in conformity with his/her memories, experiences, relationships and values that create the one’s sense of self.

  - Unity: individual does not react as the sum total of elements (intelligence, morphology, affectivity, etc) placed side by side, but as a whole which is unified where elements are interdependent.

  In general, personality is viewed as those relatively stable and enduring aspects of an individual which distinguish him/her from other people, making them unique, but which at the same time permits a comparison between individuals.

  The personality of someone is made of his/her character and temperament. It can be represented as follows:

  T: Temperament

  P: Personality

  C: Character

  

  So what exactly makes up a personality? As described in the definitions above, you would expect that traits and patterns of thought and emotions play important roles.

  Some of the other fundamental characteristics of personality include:

  • Consistency

  There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviours. Essentially, people act in the almost similar ways in a variety of situations.

  • Psychological and physiological

  Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

  • Impacts behaviours and actions

  Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

  • Multiple expressions

  Personality is displayed in more than just behaviour. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

  Application activity 5.2
  

  1. What does the term personality mean?

  2. In a group of five (5) members, you have to list down your behaviour that matches with unity, uniqueness and identity.

  5.3. Factors that influence personality

  Activity 5.3
  

  Murenzi was an aggressive person. He used to steal his neighbours and fight with his friends. Later, he was baptized and become a Pastor. Most of his behaviours have changed and he is now a role model in his village.

  Compare the difference between Murenzi’s behaviours before being baptized and after; and discuss what makes him to change.

  Personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behaviour. It is determined by various physical, psychological and environmental factors. Personality can be termed as the combination of mental, physical, and moral aspects that sets one part from others. Some characteristics or approaches are considered elements of the nature, while others include traits that are derived from a nurturing environment and all of these influence personality equally.

  A. Heredity
  

  
  

  Hereditary factors may be summed as constitutional, biological and physiological factors:

  • Constitutional Factors:
  

  The constitution of an individual is an effective factor in determining the type of his Personality. There can be 3 bodily types of personality (1) small and stout, (2) tall and thin, (3) muscular and well proportioned. We are always impressed by an individual who has a muscular and a well-proportioned body. Height, weight, physical defects, health and strength affect Personality.

  • Biological and Physiological Factors

  The function of the nervous system, glands and blood chemistry determines our characteristics and habitual modes of behaviour. These factors form the biological basis of our personality. Adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pituitary gland and endocrine gland affect personality.

  Age
  

  Behaviour changes with aging. Changes are the result of biological maturation based on physical (body) structure, endocrinal system and nervous system. For example the way a person behaves in childhood, puberty, adult and old age is different.

  Intelligence

  Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are more intelligent can make better adjustment in home, school and societal situations than those who are less intelligent.

  Sex

  Sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of an individual. Boys are generally more assertive and vigorous. They prefer adventures. Girls are quieter and more affected by personal, emotional and social problems. Our sex determines our ways of reacting and behaving. We were born boys or girls, and there are biological differences between boys and girls. Those differences are determined by genetic inheritance. That biological differences influence individual’s behaviour and personality.

  Nervous system and Neuro-endocrinal system:

  Development of personality is influenced by the nature of nervous system. Neuroendocrinal system has a great influence on individual personality. The endocrinal glands have a great influence on growing (growth) and specific behaviour. We know that sexual differences are based on endocrinal functioning.

  B. Environment

  The social psychologists emphasize that the personality of an individual develops in a social environment. It is in the social environment, that an individual comes to have moral ideas, social attitudes and interests. This enables him to develop a social self, which is another term for personality. The important aspects of the environment include physical, social, family, cultural, and school environments, as well as the role of electronic and printed media.

  Physical environment includes the natural features such as climate and weather, atmosphere, soil and landforms, rivers and other water bodies of a particular area or country. All these elements influence the personality formation and development of individuals.

  Social Environment comprises the immediate social settings in which individuals live. The child has his birth in the society in which he/she lives and learns everything. Hence, the social environment has an important impact on the personality development of the child. The social groups in which individual lives influences him/her through the process of socialization. Those groups are: family, school, religion, social classes and society in general.

  Family
  

  
  

  The family is the first and foremost social environment where the child is born, learns to move and communicate. During early childhood, the child get firstly in contact with his parents and other family member; expresses his likes and dislikes, stereotypes about people; seeks security and care, and manifests emotional responses as well. The type of training and early childhood experiences received from the family play an important role in the development of personality. Besides this, family economic conditions and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. The parents-child relationship exercises a potent influence upon the child’s personality.

  Cultural refers to all of the beliefs, customs, ideas, behaviours, and traditions of a particular society that are passed through generations. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modelling of behaviour, and it defines which traits and behaviours are considered important, desirable, or undesirable.

  There are norms and behavioural expectations within a culture. These cultural norms can dictate which personality traits are considered important. The researcher Gordon Allport considered culture as an important influence on traits and defined common traits as those that are recognized within a culture. These traits may vary from culture to culture based on differing values, needs, and beliefs; and leave a permanent impression on the child’s personality.

  School plays an important role in moulding the personality of the children because a significant part of a child’s life is spent in school between the ages of 3 and 12 years. In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification, all of which contribute their share in shaping personality. On one hand, success can lead to a change in a self

  concept which may in turn lead to a feeling of self respect, self confidence and on the hand, student who always fail in a certain subject may develop negative attitude towards the teacher and face indiscipline cases in school setting.

  Electronic and mass media
  

  
  

  Electronic and mass media lead to modelling and imitation. The observer may decide to dress and speak like the person who appears on the screen or in the media. Other most likely imitated behaviours are cases of crime shown on TV that may influence behaviour of people, particularly the youth. The electronic media can also on the other side encourage the introvert personality to enjoy himself/herself on social occasions and make friends. One can enlarge his/her friendship circle that may lead to releasing of tension, boredom, anxiety, etc. Jokes observed from electronic media can teach people to be tolerant towards criticism. Through this one can learn his/her mistakes and correct them. Finally, media such as TV and video can also lead to vicarious learning whereby observed behaviour are put into practice by the observer and this highly influence our personality development.

  Other factors
  

  Other factors may include the psychological factors whereby mental functions such as memory, perception, intelligence, affectivity, have an impact on the development of an individual personality; and the personal history of individuals where the important events and personal experiences of an individual may contribute to his personality formation.

  Conclusion
  

  Personality is what makes a person unique and it is recognizable soon after birth. A child’s personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character.

  Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child’s approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls behaviour. A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child’s specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors: temperament and environment influence the development of a person’s personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as “nature,” while the environmental factors are called “nurture.”

  Application activity 5.3
  

  1. How does society influence the personality development?

  2. Is sharing family environment likely to lead to similarities in personality? Why or why not?

  5.4. Importance of studying personality
  

  Activity 5.4
  

  Read the dialogue below illustrating Teacher-Students interaction during a Geography lesson and answer the questions.

  Dialogue

  Teacher: What is the highest mountain in Rwanda?

  John: The highest mountain in Rwanda is Nyarupfubire

  Teacher: Stupid, are you dreaming in classroom. You are like your father.

  Who can give us a correct answer?

  Teacher (continue): You big girl with square face, MUTONI

  Mutoni: aaaaa, Kilimandjaro

  Teacher: Nothing you can do correctly (the class puts up the hands to answer)

  Teacher: point at Muhire (you stubborn boy)

  Muhire: Mountain Karisimbi

  Teacher: Good! It is a surprise! I didn’t expect correct answer from you!

  Questions
  

  1. Based on examples from the dialogue, explain how teacher’s criticism can affect negatively the students’ personality. Do you have similar examples from your own experience? If YES, share with your peers.

  2. Write 3 ways the class is likely to react to Mutoni in the future.

  It is very important for teachers to learn the topic of personality. The following are some benefits of studying personality for a teacher:

  • Increasing personal integrity: The greater self-awareness that comes from self study led me to greater personal integrity by discarding what was false in me and revealing what is true. This should be the first step of any psychotherapy or spiritual path to find out who we really are in personal terms. Then we look for who we are in “transpersonal” terms.

  • Increasing personal freedom: This is due to conscious control of my life resulting from release from subconscious controls and external influences.

  • Objectification of self and other: With an overall personality system in mind, I can see that I and others are all pieces of a pattern. I would like to have an accurate view of the world and of other people. I don’t. My perceptions are distorted, as determined by my personality traits. When I compare my traits with other’s and with the entire personality chart, I see the ways we are different and I do not worry about it.

  • Increasing tolerance and understanding of others: When I have a personality chart on someone, it helps me get to know them quicker and I can relate to them easier. It helps me understand their motives and perceptions and values. With their traits known, I can cut through the garbage and begin to see people for who they really are. I can think, feel and act more appropriately and lovingly toward them. If we become friends, knowing the chart becomes less important of course, but it is a place to start. It helps me to have a system.

  • Through personality and living in group, our friends help us to know ourselves, it helps us become ourselves. It may make good men better and bad men worse. It is in the company of friends that we can most clearly experience the freedom of the self and learn who we really are. Friendship brings out different parts of our “self”.

  • In classroom setting, the study of personality helps the teacher to understand the students’ individual differences, the causes of some cases of indiscipline resulting from personality differences, and become aware of possible strategies he/she can adopt while dealing with them.

  • Personality study also helps the teacher to understand how his/her personality influences students and ways of positively shaping students’ personality in line with academic settings.

  Application activity 5.4
  

  Why should the teacher have knowledge about personality development?
  

  End unit assesment
  

  1. Explain the difference between personality and temperament?

  2. What is the difference between personality and character?

  3. What role does school play in shaping the development of pupils’ personality?

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 6 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

  Key Unit Competence:

  Recognize and respond appropriately to different personalities in classroom situations.

  Introductory activity

  1. In our daily life, people react differently.

  Some are easy going, intellect, warmth, reserved, introvert or extrovert, impatient, rude; others are out going, moody, stable, aggressive, docile, and dominant. They are emotional, prudent, conscious, and talkative, and so on. This characterizes the way individuals live and interact with others.

  From the list above, what characteristics do you have?

  2. The following list represents the well-known psychologists. As a student teacher in Year 3, based on your prerequisites, write their views in psychology.

  
  

  6.1. Theories of personality

  
  

  https://www.verywellmind.com/personality-perspectives-2795950
  

  6.1.1. Psychoanalytical approach
  

  Activity 6.1.1
  

  It was noon and students were from school and running to get home early. P5 students, KALISA, CYUZUZO and MIZERO were together and passed near sugar canes plantation. KALISA who was sharp and impolite told his colleagues to steal the sugar canes and eat because they were all hungry and the journey was still long. CYUZUZO the youngest boy and shy reminds them that stealing is not good and it is a sin as their Religious teacher taught them last week in the topic called “Ten commandments of God”. KALISA insisted and MIZERO who seemed to be careless in all his activities supported KALISA, finally they stole sugar canes and eat them as they continue their journey.

  i. Why did MIZERO and KALISA insist to steal sugar canes?

  ii. Why did CYUZUZO want them to avoid stealing?

  iii. How did every one’s behaviour match with what they did during their journey?

  iv. Imagine if they were caught and brought in front of assembly at school to explain what they did. What would happen to them?

  v. Have you ever met with the same situation? How did you manage it? Share your story with your friends showing the effect of your decision.

  In psychology, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic are two words that can often be confused as most people tend to use these interchangeably. But there is a key difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic. Psychoanalytic refers to the perspective and theoretical ideas that were originated by Sigmund Freud while Psychodynamic refers to the ideas and perspective that came from Sigmund Freud and his followers. As you can see, psychoanalysis is the original creation of a psychological perspective which enables the psychologist to focus on the human mind. Psychodynamic theories drew inspiration from psychoanalysis. In this Unit, we shall link them together in order to clarify their relevance to personality development.

  What is Psychoanalysis?

  Psychoanalysis refers to the theoretical basis that includes a specific approach, theories, and techniques that assist the psychologist to comprehend the human mind. These were founded by Sigmund Freud through his clinical work. In psychoanalysis, Freud spoke of many important concepts. Some of the key concepts that he emphasized on are the role of unconscious, consciousness and pre-consciousness; id, ego and superego; defence mechanisms, dreams, etc.

  He specifically believed that the unconscious was important when understanding the human mind. This theory attempts to understand behaviour by looking at the unconscious mind and its desires, which are said to impact how people live their lives. They look for the causes of behaviour in a dynamic interplay of inner motivational forces that often conflict with one another. They also suggest that many of these motivational determinants of behaviour are unconscious. The unconscious mind develops its characteristics through early childhood experiences, social pressures, and subconscious needs for self-realization and superiority.

  i. Levels of Consciousness
  

  The preconscious refers to anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind with little efforts.

  The conscious mind comprises all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness (Cherry, 2019).

  The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

  To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious.

  Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access. According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.

  For example, we sometimes say things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning (Motley, 2002).

  

                            Source: McLeod, 2013

  Freud separated personality into three sub-systems or components. The three sub-systems interact harmoniously to produce a well-adjusted individual:

  1o. The Id

  This is present at birth, the most primitive and illogical part of personality. It mainly deals with basic biological drives, instincts and reflexes. It is totally unconscious and has no contact with reality. It acts on the pleasure principle because its primary goal is to maximize satisfaction and minimize pain or reduce tension or anxiety.

  The Id is a pool of instinctual biological drives present at birth physical needs for food and elimination of faeces or any other bodily requirement.

  Thus, the id that is all the instincts together is the energy force for the ego and the superego which develop later in childhood. The instincts are called Libido, which are sexual and positive impulses and the other is called Thanatos which refers to destructive and aggressive impulses. The id operates at the pleasure principle which means that it strives for the maximum satisfaction of needs. New-born babies are essentially pure id.

  2o. The Ego
  

  It is the individual’s personal identity and conscious mind. It develops after the child is appropriately six months old. The ego takes for itself part of the energy of the id and proceeds to serve as the mediator between the id and reality. It operates on the reality principle which means that it is rational and is devoted to preserving the individual.

  3o. The Superego
  

  The superego emerges at the end of pre-operational stage of child cognitive development, that is, between the ages of 5 and 7 approximately. 

  The superego contains the rules, values and morals that regulate our behaviour. It is the individual’s interpretation of what the society will permit. Its function is to prohibit what is morally wrong and to promote what is morally right. Thus, it is up to the ego to find a way to satisfy the Id without giving pain to the superego – pain experienced as remorse or guilt.

  Personality represents the effort to arrange a compromise between these processes, though such compromises are rarely free of tensions.

  When the superego becomes dominant, the result is that people become over controlled, rigid and excessively frightened of their own inner needs.

  If the Id becomes too powerful, then people will struggle unceasingly with socially unacceptable, selfish and anxiety producing impulses.

  ii. Defence mechanisms
  

  
  

  
  

  According to Freudian theory, defence mechanism is a mental strategy that the Ego uses to block harmful behaviour and thus reduce anxiety. Defence mechanisms work by altering the Id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious blockage of these impulses.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Note:

  There are theorists who disagreed with certain aspect of Freud’s thinking and developed their own theory. Among them were Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson and Carl Jung. They developed a theory called Neo-analytic or neo -Freudian theory and believed that Freud did not give social and cultural factors a sufficiently important role in the development and dynamics of personality.

  In particular, they believed that he stressed infantile sexuality too much. The second major criticism was that Freud laid too much emphasis on the event of the childhood as determinants of adults’ personality.

  Alfred Adler

  Alfred Adler, a colleague of Freud’s was the first major theorist to break away from Freud. He subsequently founded a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority.

  Adler proposed the concept of the inferiority complex. An inferiority complex refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler’s ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud’s. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.

  Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development rather than the sexual stages Freud outlined. Adler noted the inter-relatedness of humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all. He said, “The happiness of mankind lies in working together, in living as if each individual had set himself the task of contributing to the common welfare” with the main goal of psychology being “to recognize the equal rights and equality of others”.

  With these ideas, Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship). Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behaviour as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He also emphasized conscious rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behaviour as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation, since he believed that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known and pursued. That is not to say that Adler did not also believe in unconscious processes but he felt that conscious processes were more important

  Another major contribution of Adler to personality psychology was the idea that our birth order shapes our personality. He proposed that older siblings, who start out as the focus of their parents’ attention but must share that attention once a new child joins the family, compensate by becoming overachievers. The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children. Despite popular attention, research has not conclusively confirmed Adler’s hypotheses about birth order.

  Carl JUNG
  

  Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and the most loyal and heir apparent to Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called analytical psychology. Jung’s split from Freud was based on two major disagreements.

  First, Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in a person’s mental life. Second, although Jung agreed with Freud’s concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to be incomplete. 

  In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious.

  The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us. These ancestral memories, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by niversal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams.

  Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people over the world, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. Jung believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols such as the hero, the maiden, the sage (wise), and the trickster are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture. In Jung’s view, the task of integrating these unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life. With this orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud’s belief that personality is determined solely by past events and anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on self-actualization and orientation toward the future.

  Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion. These ideas are considered Jung’s most important contributions to the field of personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include these concepts. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of self-realization.

  Eric Erikson
  

  He is influential for having proposed psychosocial theory of development, which suggests that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan based on a series of social relationships, a departure from Freud’s more biological oriented view. In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on sex. Erikson identified eight stages each of which represents a conflict or development task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task (see also stages of psychosocial development, year one, unit 12, lesson 12.1.3).

  Karen Horney
  

  Karen Horney was one of the first women trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst. Like Jung, Horney believed that each individual has the potential for selfrealization and that the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction. Horney also disagreed with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of male biological features. According to Horney, any jealousy is most likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that males often have, meaning that the differences between men’s and women’s personalities are culturally based, not biologically based.

  She further suggested that men have womb envy, because they cannot give birth. Horney’s theories focused on the role of unconscious anxiety. She suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and/or isolation.

  How do children learn to handle this anxiety?
  

  Horney suggested three styles of coping.

  • The first coping style, moving toward people, relies on affiliation and dependence. These children become dependent on their parents and other caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which provides relief from anxiety. When these children grow up, they tend to use this same coping strategy to deal with relationships, expressing an intense need for love and acceptance.

  • The second coping style, moving against people, relies on aggression and assertiveness. Children with this coping style find that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation, and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other children. As adults, people with this coping style tend to lash out with hurtful comments and exploit others.

  • The third coping style, moving away from people, centres on detachment and isolation. These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the world. They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient. When these children are adults, they continue to avoid such things as love and friendship, and they also tend to gravitate toward careers that require little interaction with others.

  Application activity 6.1.1
  

  1. What was Freud’s view of personality and its development?

  2. How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

  3. Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?

  4. Select explanations from list II to match the type of defence mechanisms that goes with each in list I

  
  

  

  

  6.1.2. Humanistic approach

  Activity 6.1.2
  

  
  

  1. How many levels of hierarchy of human needs according to Maslow. List them from the top level to the bottom.

  2. Using Maslow’s pyramid of hierarchy of needs, classify each individual shown on the photo on the appropriate level.

  3. Which level is rarely achieved?

  Key words

  Congruence: state of being in which our thoughts about our real and ideal selves are very similar

  Ideal self: person we would like to be

  Incongruence: state of being in which there is a great discrepancy between our real and ideal selves

  Real self: person who we actually are

  Self-concept: our thoughts and feelings about ourselves.

  As the “third force” in psychology, humanism is raised as a reaction both to the pessimistic determinism of psychoanalysis, with its emphasis on psychological

  disturbance, and to the behaviourists’ view of humans passively reacting to the environment. It does not suggest that psychoanalytic, behaviourist, and other points of view are incorrect but argues that these perspectives do not recognize the depth and meaning of human experience, and fail to recognize the innate capacity for self-directed change and transforming personal experiences.

  Humanistic theories see inherent desires for actualization and satisfaction of needs as driving forces behind behaviour. Abraham Maslow’s famous hierarchy of needs falls into this category, stating that basic needs drive human behaviour initially until the needs are consistently met, at which point the individual moves up the hierarchy to more complex desires.

  Humanistic theory argues that an individual’s subjective free will is the most important determinant of behaviour. Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed that people strive to become self-actualized the “best version” of themselves.

  This perspective focuses on how healthy people develop. One pioneering humanist, Abraham Maslow found that people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of them. When you studied motivation, you learned about one of the best-known humanistic theories, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, in which Maslow proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. The highest need is the need for self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential.

  Characteristics of self-actualized people
  

  Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two per cent of people would reach the state of self-actualization. He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals. By studying 18 people he considered to be selfactualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.

  Characteristics of self-actualizers:
  

  
  

  Behaviour leading to self-actualization:
  

  - Experiencing life like a child with full absorption and concentration.

  - Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths.

  - Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of voice of tradition, authority or the majority.

  - Avoiding pretence (game playing) and being honest.

  - Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority

  - Taking responsibility and working hard.

  - Trying to identify your defences and having the courage to give them up

  The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviours leading to selfactualization are shown in the previous list. Although people achieve selfactualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree; there are no perfect human beings.

  It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized and not only self-actualized people will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. However, self-actualization merely involves achieving one’s potential.

  Carl Rogers
  

  Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self-concept.

  In Rogers’s view, the Self-Concept is the most important feature of personality, and it includes all the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs people have about themselves. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts, our thoughts and feelings about us.

  How would you respond to the question, “Who am I?” Your answer can show how you see yourself. If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about whom you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are.

  Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self.

  The ideal self is the person that you would like to be while the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves.

  “If you compare yourself with others, you may become vain and bitter; for always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself. To love oneself is the beginning of a life-long romance.” (Myers, 2008)

  Congruence and Incongruence
  

  Rogers said that people’s self-concepts often do not exactly match reality. For example, a person may consider himself very honest but often lies to his boss about why he is late to work. Rogers used the term “incongruence” to refer to the discrepancy between the self-concept and reality.

  Congruence, on the other hand, is a fairly accurate match between the selfconcept and reality. According to Rogers, parents promote incongruence if they give their children conditional love. If a parent accepts a child only when the child behaves a particular way, the child is likely to block out experiences that are considered unacceptable. On the other hand, if the parent shows unconditional love, the child can develop congruence. Adults whose parents provided conditional love would continue in adulthood to alter their experiences in order to feel accepted.

  Results of Incongruence
  

  Rogers thought that people experience anxiety when their self-concepts are threatened. To protect themselves from anxiety, people modify their experiences so that they can hold on to their self-concept. People who have a high degree of incongruence are likely to feel very anxious because reality continually threatens their self-concepts.

  “The Good Life”
  

  Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles exist in dynamic processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfil his/her potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the good life.” These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience. He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common

  Criticisms of Rogers’ Theories
  

  Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticized for their lack of empirical evidence used in research. The holistic approach of humanism allows for a great deal of variation but does not identify enough constant variables to be researched with true accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of society on personality development.

  Application activity 6.1.2
  

  1. How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

  2. How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?

  3. How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology?

  4. What criticisms has it faced?

  5. Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?

  6. Describe Maslow’s self-actualizing personality

  6.1.3. Social cognitive approach
  

  Activity 6.1.3
  

  1. Explain the theory of social learning according to Albert Bandura.

  2. How does the Rwandan adage “Uwiba ahetse aba abwiriza uwo mu mugongo” much relate to Bandura’s social learning theory?

  3. Explain how students copy from teacher’s behaviour.

  Key Terms

  Self-efficacy: The term used to describe how one judges one’s own competence to complete tasks and reach goals.

  Locus of control: The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them; can be either internal or external.

  Social learning theory: A theory assuming that people learn certain behaviours through observing and imitating the behaviours of others, and then being rewarded or punished for behaving that way.

  Learned helplessness: The condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards.

  Introduction

  Social cognitive theories see personality as the result of observational learning, through which an individual observes others and consciously chooses to pursue behaviour that is rewarded or avoid behaviour that is punished. This type of learning can best occur if the individual has a high level of confidence in his/her abilities, resulting in greater motivation to accomplish tasks.

  • Social- cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality.

  • Albert Bandura is a behavioural psychologist who came up with the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behaviour, and context all interact with and influence each other.

  • Rotter expanded upon Bandura’s ideas and developed the term locus of control to describe our beliefs about the power we have over our lives.

  • A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own lack of effort.

  • A person with an external locus of control believes that rewards or outcomes are determined by luck, chance, or other people with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to forces outside of their control.

  Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. Social cognition is basically social thought, or how the mind processes social information; social-cognitive theory describes how individuals think and react in social situations. How the mind works in a social setting is extremely complicated emotions, social desirability factors, and unconscious thoughts can all interact  and affect social cognition in many ways. Two major figures in social cognitive theory are behaviourist Albert Bandura and clinical psychologist Julian Rotter.

  A. Albert Bandura (1925-present)
  

  Albert Bandura is a behavioural psychologist credited with creating social learning theory. He agreed with B.F. Skinner’s theory that personality develops through learning; however, he disagreed with Skinner’s strict behaviourist approach to personality development. In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines behaviour, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behaviour, and context all interact, each factor simultaneously influencing and being influenced by the others. He pointed reciprocal determinism to explain that for individual to repeat an agreeable behaviour, he must include his intellectual process, in contrast with Skinner’s belief that thinking only occurs inside a “black box”. In this sense, Bandura agreed that environment causes behaviour, but behaviour can also cause environment. An example is when an adolescent shows his aggressive personality trait because he is maltreated by his peers. When this person expresses his aggression by way of violent acts, he can trigger either a higher level of aggression or fear inside his peers’ minds, therefore changing his environment.

  After theorizing that personality as revealed in his behaviour and environment belong to a two ways process, Bandura later proposed that there is a Third factor that must be considered in this kind of interaction “the person’s cognitive process”.

  Cognitive processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics. Behaviour refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the context in which the behaviour occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

  
  

  Reciprocal determinism: Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal  determinism, in which our behaviour, cognitive processes, and situational context all influence each other.

  This theory was significant because it moved away from the idea that environment alone affects an individual’s behaviour. Instead, Bandura hypothesized that the relationship between behaviour and environment was bi-directional, meaning that both factors can influence each other. In this theory, humans are actively involved in moulding the environment that influences their own development and growth.

  B. Walter Mischel

  Somehow similar to Bandura’s proposal, Walter’s states that an individual’s behaviour is influenced by two things: the specific attributes of a given situation and the manner in which he perceived the situation. In contrast to traditional social cognitive theories, Walter argued that a person only behaves in a similar manner whenever these actions are highly probable to yield into the same results. He emphasized that we have individual differences, so our values and expectancies must be considered in predicting a person’s behaviour and personality.

  According to Walter Mischel, there are five personal variables that contribute to the conditions of a specific situation. They are used in predicting how a person will most likely behave. These variables are:

  - Competencies: our intellectual capabilities and social skills.

  - Encoding strategies and personal constructs: what people pay attention to, and what meaning they attach to the stimulus to attend to...

  - Expectancies: the expected result of different behaviours that are realized by the person inside his mind.

  - Subjective values: the respective value of each possible outcome of various behaviours.

  - Self-regulatory systems: the groups of rules and standards that people adapt in order to regulate their behaviour.

  C. Julian Rotter
  

  He is a clinical psychologist who was influenced by Bandura’s social learning theory after rejecting a strict behaviourist approach. He expanded upon Bandura’s ideas of reciprocal determinism and developed the term locus of control to describe how individuals view their relationship to the environment. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives and is a cognitive factor that affects personality development. Locus of control can be classified along a spectrum from internal to external, which determines the extent to which people believe they can affect the events around them.

  Locus of control:

  Rotter’s theory of locus of control places an individual on a spectrum between internal and external.

  
  

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/social-cognitiveperspectives-on-personality/

  Internal locus of control:

  A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own lack of effort. An internal locus of control has been shown to develop along with self-regulatory abilities. People with internal locus of control tend to internalize both failure and success. Many factors have been

  associated with an internal locus of control. Males tend to be more internal than females when it comes to personal success, and hence more aggressive. Another example is that a student with an internal locus of control may receive a poor grade and conclude that he/she did not revise enough and realize his/her effort was the cause of poor grade and decide to study harder next time.

  A person with an external locus of control sees their life as being controlled by luck, chance, or other people, especially others with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to forces outside their control.

  People with an external locus of control tend to externalize both successes and failures. Individuals who grow up in circumstances where they do not see hard work pay off, as well as individuals who are socially disempowered (such as people in a low socioeconomic bracket), may develop an external locus of control. Evidence has supported the theory that locus of control can be learned and can be modified. However, in non-responsive environment, where an individual actually does not have much control, an external locus of control is associated with greater sense of satisfaction. An example of external locus of control can be seen on student who, after getting poor marks, concludes that the test was poorly written and the teacher was incompetent, thereby blaming external factors out of his/her control.

  D. Criticism of social cognitive theory

  The theory does not provide a full explanation of how social cognition, behaviour, environment and personality are related like in the theory known as reciprocal determinism.

  Another criticism is that the theory is not a unified theory. This means that the different aspects of the theory may not be connected. For example, researchers currently cannot find a connection between observational learning and selfefficacy within the social cognitive perspective.

  Another limitation is that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to quantify the effect that social cognition has on development. Similarly, many aspects of personality are subjective and can be equally hard to measure and quantify.

  Finally, this theory tends to ignore maturation throughout the lifespan. Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated and factors of development are not included.

  Application activity 6.1.3
  

  1. In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality?

  2. What are the causes and consequences of personal control?

  3. What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behaviour and beliefs? Social-cognitive researchers study how people interact with their situations.

  4. What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticism has it faced?

  6.1.4. Trait approach

  6.1.4.1. Introduction to trait approach

  Activity 6.1.4.1
  

  Suppose that you are asked to describe your friend’s personality. You may say that he/she is cheerful, sociable, and fun to be with. Explain how these characteristics can be shaped with environmental influence.

  
  

  What is personality trait?

  Personality trait is a personality characteristic that endures (lasts) over time and across different situations. It focuses on measuring, describing and identifying individual differences in personality in terms of traits.

  Trait theories look to identify specific traits that form the basis for personality and behaviour types. Different models and catalogues of traits have been proposed, and different personality types can be understood through different arrangements of traits within individuals.

  Trait theorists believe that personality can be understood by positing that all people have certain traits, or characteristic and ways of behaving.

  Do you tend to be sociable or shy, passive or aggressive, optimistic or pessimistic?

  Individuals have certain characteristics that partly determine their behaviour. These traits are trends in behaviour or attitude that tend to be present regardless of the situation.

  An example of a trait is extraversion and introversion. Extraversion (or extroversion) tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behaviour, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved and solitary behaviour. An individual may fall along any point in the continuum, and the location where the individual falls will determine how he/she responds to various situations.

  The modern theories come from Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck.

  Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
  

  Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:

  • Cardinal traits: dominate and shape an individual’s behaviour, such as Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed or Mother Theresa’s altruism. This includes people who sacrifice their own good for the benefits of others. They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively known as the individual’s master control. They are considered to be individual’s ruling passions. Cardinal traits are powerful, but few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities are typically composed of multiple traits.

  • Central traits: these are general characteristics found in varying degrees in every person (such as loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, sneakiness, wildness, or grouchiness).

  They are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behaviour. They are general characteristics that we use to describe people. Examples include kind, sincere, cool, jolly, etc.

  • Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not quite as obvious or consistent as central traits. They are plentiful but are only present under specific circumstances; they include things like preferences and attitudes. These secondary traits explain why a person may at times exhibit behaviours that seem different with their usual behaviours. For example, a friendly person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another is not an anxious person but always feels nervous speaking publicly.

  All report hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s behaviour and personality, and he referred to these forces as genotypes and phenotypes. Genotypes are internal forces that relate to how a person retains information and uses it to interact with the world. Phenotypes are external forces that relate to the way an individual accepts his/her surroundings and how others influence his/her behaviour.

  Strength and limitations of traits theory
  

  - Provide useful description of personality and its structure,

  - Provide a foundation of valid and reliable personality devices,

  - Can lead people to accept and use an oversimplified classifications and descriptions,

  - Underestimate socio-culture influences on behaviour.

  Main assumptions of traits theory

  - Personality traits are relatively stable and therefore predictable overtime,

  - Personality traits are relatively stable across different situations,

  - Trait theories take into account that personality consists of a number of different traits, and that some people have more or less of each trait than others,

  - Some traits are more closely interrelated than other traits and tend to occur together,

  - Personality traits are described on a continuum showing either end of trait (i.e. confidence continuum).

  Application activity 6.1.4.1
  

  1. Think of your personality traits and classify them into three levels of Gordon Allport.

  2. Explain the main focus of trait approach to personality

  3. Here is a checklist that can help you discover more about your

  personality traits. Go through them and answer them accordingly.

  a) What makes you happy?

  b) What are some things that make you angry?

  c) Are you happy with your personality?

  d) Would you like to be different?

  e) Are you a determined person? Are you a stubborn person?

  f) Are you shy? In which occasions are you shy?

  g) Do you consider yourself selfish? Why?

  h) Is your personality suited to your friends?

  i) In what way has your personality changed over time? Why has it changed? What was changed?

  j) Are you more introverted (focused on your inner world) or more extraverted) (focused on other people and the outer world)?

  k) Do you think you can change a major characteristic of your personality if you try?

  l) Do you think you have an unusual personality? Why?

  m) If you could change any aspect of your personality, what would it be?

  n) What sort of things would you do to amuse yourself during a leisure time?

  o) What personality traits do you consider important in a good friend /a tutor / a partner?

  p) Do you consider yourself to be even-tempered?

  q) What is one thing that many people don’t know about you?

  r) Do you think that birth order makes a difference in your personality

  (Example: being the first born, last born)?

  s) Who is your role model?

  t) What are some characteristics of your personality?

  6.1.4.2 Typological method
  

  Activity 6.1.4.2
  

  Last month, Mary celebrated her 20th birthday. Her friends organized a surprise to her and brought her in a decorated room with birthday cake on the table. He failed to manage her emotion and cried in front of her friends. Mugeni said that it is normal and she may behave in the same way. Rachael said that it was unusual and she disliked that manner. The girls were talkative and continued to discuss in their way from the party. Kagoyire who was very quiet among the three girls did not comment and show her position.

  1. Based on the story, who is introvert and who is extrovert?

  2. List other traits that can be attributed to everyone stated in the story. How do they differ in personality according to their traits?

  Introduction
  

  The typology is defined as the system in which people are classified into a limited number of categories. By observing and describing a great number of people, psychologist identified several typologies:

  - Morphological typologies: They are based on searching the resemblance and difference of behaviour traits through individual form and structure.

  - Physiological traits: They are based on the difference between the nervous system functioning and endocrine gland functioning.

  - Psychological typologies: They are based on the observation and description of different behaviour traits.

  - Mixed typologies: They establish the correspondence between morphological, physiological and psychological aspects.

  Some typologies
  

  i) Sheldon’s Somatotypes
  

  William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments.

  In the 1940s, Sheldon developed a theory that there are three basic body types, or somatotypes (based on the three tissue layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), each associated with personality characteristics, representing a correlation between physique and temperament.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  ii) Typology of Kretschmer

  The German Ernest Kretschmer says that the type of character and each deep orientation of mental life can be deducted from body structures of individuals.

  He distinguishes 4 types:

  - Pyknic type refers to people with short and round body, they are mostly extraverts (can be compared to endomorph)

  - Asthenic type refers to people with slender or slim body; they are mostly introverts (can be compared to ectomorph)

  - Athletic type refers to people with strong body; they are more energetic and determined (mesomorph)

  - Dysplastic type refers to people with unproportionate body due to hormonal imbalance

  iii) Typology of Carl Gustav Jung

  Jung also emphasized on two attitudes:

  - Introversion: shyness, reclusiveness and inner directedness

  - Extroversion: friendship, sociability and interested in people and events in external world.

  
  

  iv) Typology of HEYMANS and WIERSMA
  

  Inspired by Ernest Kretschmer and by Jung, Heymans and Wiersma, Dutch psychologists, created a personality (or temperament) classification based on a cube with three axes:

  - Activity (x-axis): energy and quantity of action in response to a motive or stimulus

  - Emotivity (y-axis): strength and frequency of emotional response to an event or stimulus

  - Secondarity: degree to which emotions, events, or images have longterm effects

  With every dimension having two poles: + and –; this cube gives rise to eight temperaments:

  - Passionate: E+ A+ S+

  - Phlegmatic: E- A+ S+

  - Choleric: E+ A+ S-

  - Sanguine: E- A+ S-

  - Sentimental: E+ A- S+

  - Apathetic: E- A- S+

  - Neurotic: E+ A- S-

  - Amorphous: E- A- S

  

   Strengths of trait theories

  - Provide useful descriptions of personality and its structure

  - Provide the foundation of valid and reliable personality devices Limitations of trait theories

  Limitations of trait theories

  - Can lead people to accept and use oversimplified classifications and descriptions

  - Underestimate socio-cultural influences on behaviour

  Application activity 6.1.4.2

  1. IHow do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

  2. Distinguish the following types of personality

  i. Extroverts and

  ii. Introverts

  6.1.4.3 The big 5 dimensions of personality traits
  

  Activity 6.1.4.3
  

  “God gives us grace to accept with serenity the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things which should be changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the one from the other.”

  1. Think of the personality traits you have and categorize them into two groups. Negative and positive

  2. How can you shape negative traits of your personality?

  3. What possible selves do you dream of or fear becoming? To what extent do these imagined selves motivate you now?

  These are called also big 5 personality traits or major personality factors. As noted above, the five factors grew out of decades of personality research, growing from the foundations of Cattell’s 16 factors and becoming the most accepted model of personality to date.

  These five factors do not provide completely exhaustive explanations of personality, but they are known as the “Big Five” because they encompass a large portion of personality-related terms. The five factors are not necessarily traits in and of themselves, but factors in which many related traits and characteristics fit.

  For example, the factor agreeableness includes terms like generosity, amiability, and warmth (on the positive side) and aggressiveness and temper (on the negative side). All of these traits and characteristics and many more make up the broader factor of “agreeableness.”

  Below we explain each factor in more detail, with examples and related terms to help you get a sense of what aspects and quirks of personality these factors cover.

  A popular acronym for the Big Five is “OCEAN or CANOE.” The five factors are laid out in the following order: Openness to experience; Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.

  i. Openness to experience
  

  Openness to experience has been described as the depth and complexity of an individual’s mental life and experiences. It is also sometimes called intellect or imagination. Openness to experience concerns an individual’s willingness to try to new things, to be vulnerable, and the ability to think outside the box.

  • An individual who is high in openness to experience is likely someone who has a love of learning, enjoys the arts, engages in a creative career or hobby, and likes meeting new people (Lebowitz, 2016a).

  • An individual who is low in openness to experience probably prefers routine over variety sticks to what they know and prefers less abstract arts and entertainment.

  ii. Conscientiousness
  

  Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviours that facilitate goaldirected behaviour (John &Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay gratification, work within the rules, and plan and organize effectively.

  • Someone who is high in conscientiousness is likely to be successful in school and in their career, to excel in leadership positions, and to doggedly pursue their goals with determination and forethought.

  • A person who is low in conscientiousness is much more likely to procrastinate, to be flighty, impetuous, and impulsive.

  iii. Extroversion
  

  This factor has two familiar ends of the spectrum: extroversion and introversion. It concerns where an individual draws their energy and how they interact with others. In general, extroverts draw energy or “recharge” from interacting with others, while introverts get tired from interacting with others and replenish their energy from solitude.

  • People high in extroversion tend to seek out opportunities for social interaction, where they are often the “life of the party.” They are comfortable with others, gregarious, and prone to action rather than contemplation.

  • People low in extroversion are more likely to be people “of few words,” people who are quiet, introspective, reserved, and thoughtful.

  iv. Agreeableness
  

  This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns sources of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns your orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how you generally interact with others.

  • People high in agreeableness tend to be well-liked, respected, and sensitive to the needs of others. They likely have few enemies, are sympathetic, and affectionate to their friends and loved ones, as well as sympathetic to the plights of strangers (Lebowitz, 2016a).

  • People on the low end of the agreeableness spectrum are less likely to be trusted and liked by others. They tend to be callous, blunt, rude, illtempered, antagonistic, and sarcastic. Although not all people who are low in agreeableness are cruel or abrasive, they are not likely to leave others with a warm fuzzy feeling.

  v. Neuroticism

  Neuroticism is the one Big Five factor in which a high score indicates more

  negative traits. Neuroticism is not a factor of meanness or incompetence, but

  one of confidence and being comfortable in one’s own skin. It encompasses

  one’s emotional stability and general temper.

  • Those high in neuroticism are generally given to anxiety, sadness, worry, and low self-esteem. They may be temperamental or easily angered, and they tend to be self-conscious and unsure of themselves (Lebowitz, 2016a).

  • Individuals who score on the low end of neuroticism are more likely to feel confident, sure of themselves, and adventurous. They may also be brave and unencumbered by worry or self-doubt.

  A brief description of 5 dimensions of personality traits
  

  
  

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/biological-approaches/
  

  Criticisms of the Five Factor Model

  Critics of the five-factor model in particular argue that the model has limitations as an explanatory or predictive theory and that it does not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model because they feel it neglects other domains of personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness, honesty, sexiness/seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, masculinity/femininity, snobbishness/egotism, sense of humour, and risk-taking/thrillseeking.

  Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors.

  A five-factor solution depends, on some degree, on the interpretation of the analyst. A larger number of factors may, in fact, underlie these five factors; this has led to disputes about the “true” number of factors. Proponents of the fivefactor model have responded that although other solutions may be viable in a single dataset, only the five-factor structure consistently replicates across different studies.

  Another frequent criticism is that the five-factor model is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. This means that while these five factors do exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.

  Application activity 6.1.4.3
  

  1. Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

  2. Explain the criticism of big five dimensions of personality traits

  3. Where would you place yourself on the five personality dimensions: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion? Where might your friends place you?

  6.2. Educational implications of personality
  

  Activity 6.2
  

  As we have seen in unit 6, there are 3 types of temperament, which also explain the behaviour of children. There are also different personalities according to typologies, which may also unveil why people behave differently and this may help us to understand how we can relate and socialize with them accordingly.

  Explain how the study of personality can help you to interact with different learners in classroom.

  Studies conducted on college students have concluded that hope, which is linked to agreeableness, has a positive effect on psychological well-being. Individuals high in neurotic tendencies are less likely to display hopeful tendencies and are negatively associated with well-being (Singh, 2012). Personality can sometimes be flexible and measuring the big five personality for individuals as they enter certain stages of life may predict their educational identity.

  There are many causes of individual performance such as intelligence, selfconcept, maturation, home background, study habit and psychologists agree that personality traits is one of the prevailing effect of performance. Students have been scored highly in academic subjects but their behaviour and discipline made them to stop their studies, which explain how much individual’s personality, also play a role in performance. Therefore, personality can be also the stability of person’s behaviour across different situations.

  There has been an increasing in the big 5 personality traits and the role they play in the academic performance of the students. These personality traits affect academic performance in students, either positively or negatively.

  McCrae and Costa (1980) researched extensively on these traits.
  

  A high score on conscientiousness shows a student who is self-disciplined, careful, thorough, organized and determined. On the other hand, low scores on this trait portray indiscipline, careless, disorganization and indifference. Then student who scores highly on this trait is expected to perform excellently well academically and vice versa.

  Agreeableness describes one who is sympathetic, trusting and cooperative. Student with a high score on this trait are selfless, flexible and pleasant. Such students work with others easily with little or no friction. Those scoring low on this trait, find it difficult to get along with others. McCrae and Costa in Daminabo (2008) noted this to be psychotic, which refers to a person who is skeptical, unsympathetic, uncooperative and rude. Low scores are expected to affect academic performance negatively.

  Having a strong personality is the key to success. This is also a key determinant of good leadership. A good personality enables one to establish self-control and self-direction to discover the reality of freedom of choice. A person with a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his emotions and regulate his attitude. In order to have a good personality, self-development is needed. An executive’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his own. Self is something of which he is aware of. The self-concept which an executive brings to his job is the amalgamation of many things.

  Personality traits are expressed in learning styles, which are in turn reflected in learning strategies, which eventually produce a certain learning outcome.

  Personality traits serve as directors or blocks for motivation and learning strategies (Mumford & Gustafson, 1988 in Blickle, 1996).

  Conscientiousness and openness to experience are of special educational interest.

  Blickle (1996) has compared the Five Factor Model personality traits with learning strategies and learning outcome. He found that particularly conscientiousness and openness were related to learning style. The student’s personality was related to learning outcome mediated by learning strategies.

  Conscientiousness is related to work discipline, interest in subject matter, concentration and considering studying as quite easy.

  Students using the strategic approach are good at organizing their work, managing their time and work hard in their studies. They care about their working conditions and have clear goals for their studies. They have an intrinsic motivation and a positive study attitude.

  Openness is linked with questioning and analysing arguments. It is further related to critical evaluation, searching literature and making relationships (deep approach).The students with a deep approach want to find out the deeper meaning in the text. They are critical, logical and relate what they learn to their previous knowledge. Their motivation is intrinsic and they look for a personal comprehension independent of the syllabus.

  Neuroticism is linked to lack of concentration, fear of failure and experiencing studying as stressful. Moreover neuroticism is linked with a lack of critical ability and problems in understanding how things relate to each other.

  This can be linked to the surface learning style. The student with a surface approach concentrates on memorising without any concern of finding a deeper meaning or understanding of the material. They are most concerned about getting through the exams and are not really interested in the material itself. Their motivation is extrinsic and they take on a strategic, syllabus-bound approach to studying.

  As a teacher who understands the effect of negative words on students’ identity and self, you should never say students are wrong or blame them because this may distort their personality. Enhance and develop friendship and a good relation with your students as it may improve students’ self-image and have positive image towards you. You should begin with a praise and honest appreciation and try honestly to see things from your students’ point of views before shifting to criticism. Use encouragement and call attention to your students’ mistakes indirectly but do not use negative figures and example to students.

  Try to make your students happy about doing the thing you suggest as this may help them to shape positively their personality. Much of these will be possible only when the teachers are prepared mentally and avoid projecting their problems to students. Be kind and considerate with a sense of humour. Understanding temperament equips the teacher to successful handle interpersonal relationships. Studying one’s own temperament helps establish personal weaknesses and strengths. Studying other people’s temperaments allows individuals to adapt their communications skills to others.

  Another implication of personality is the learning style described by Carl Jung and the teacher should understand how they are helpful in classroom setting

  Jung’s Theory of Personality Types

  One learning styles theory is based on the work of analytical Psychologist Carl Gustav Jung who developed a theory of psychological types designed to categorize people in terms of various personality patterns. Jung’s theory focuses on the following basic types:

  i. Extraverted learning style

  The first component of the Jungian learning style dimensions indicates how learners interact with the outside world.

  Extraverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from other people. They prefer socializing and working in groups. Some of the learning activities that benefit extraverted learners include:

  - Teaching others how to solve a problem

  - Collaborative / group work

  - Problem based learning

  If you enjoy teaching others, participating in a group and learning by experience, you are probably an extraverted learner.

  Characteristics of Extravert learners

  - Learns best through direct experience

  - Enjoys working with others in groups

  - Often gathers ideas from outside sources

  - Willing to lead, participate and offer opinions

  - Jumps right in without guidance from others

  ii. Introverted learning style
  

  While introverted learners are still sociable, they prefer to solve problems on their own. Introverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from internal sources, such as brainstorming, personal reflection and theoretical exploration.

  These learners prefer to think about things before attempting to try a new skill. If you enjoy solitary studying, individual work and abstract ideas, you are probably an introverted learner

  Characteristics of Introvert Learners

  - Prefers to work alone

  - Enjoys quiet, solitary work

  - Often generates ideas from internal sources

  - Prefers to listen, watch and reflect

  - Likes to observe others before attempting a new skill

  iii. Sensing Learning Style

  Sensing learners are focused on aspects of the physical environment. Jung described these individuals as being interested in the external world. They tend to be realistic and practical, preferring to rely on information gained through experience. While people with a sensing learning style enjoy order and routine, they also tend to be very quick to adapt to changing environments and situations.

  Characteristics of Sensate Learners

  - Focuses on the present

  - Practical and reasonable

  - Utilizes experience and common sense to solve problems

  - Keenly observe the surrounding world.

  iv. Intuitive Learning Style
  

  Intuitive learners tend to focus more on the world of possibility. Unlike sensing learners who are interested in the here and now, intuitive learners enjoy considering ideas, possibilities, and potential outcomes. These learners like abstract thinking, daydreaming and imagining the future.

  Characteristics of Intuitive Learners
  

  - Prefers to work in short sessions, rather than finishing a task all at once

  - Enjoys new challenges, experiences, and situations

  - More likely to look at the big picture rather than the details

  - Like theories and abstract ideas

  v. Thinking Learning Style
  

  Individuals with a thinking learning style tend to focus more on the structure and function of information and objects. Thinking learners utilize rationality and logic when dealing with problems and decisions. These learners often base decisions on personal ideas of right, wrong, fairness, and justice.

  Characteristics of Thinking Learners
  

  - Interested in logic and patterns

  - Dislike basing decisions on emotions

  - Bases decisions on reason and logic

  vi. Feeling Learning Style
  

  People with a feeling style manage information based on the initial emotions and feelings it generates. Individuals with this learning style are interested in personal relationships, feelings, and social harmony. If you base decisions on emotions and dislike conflict, you might have a feeling learning style.

  Characteristics of Feeling Learners
  

  • Interested in people and their feelings

  • In tune with their own emotions and those of other people

  • Base decisions on immediate feelings

  • Generates excitement and enthusiasm in group settings

  vii. Judging Learning Style
  

  Judging learners tend to be very decisive. In some cases, these learners may actually make decisions too quickly before learning everything they need to know about a situation. These learners prefer order and structure, which is why they tend to plan out activities and schedules very carefully. If you are highly organized, detail-oriented, and have strong opinions, you might be a judging learner.

  Characteristics of Judging Learners

  - Do not like ambiguity or mystery

  - Tend to be firm in their decisions

  - Very organized and structured

  - Strong opinions

  - Generally follows the rules

  viii. Perceiving Learning Style

  Perceiving learners tend to make decisions impulsively in response to new information and changing situations. However, these learners tend to focus more on indulging their curiosity rather than making decisions. Unlike judging learners who tend not to change their minds, perceiving learners prefer to keep their options open. If you tend to start many projects at once (often without finishing any of them), avoid strict schedules, and jump into projects first without planning, you might be a perceiving learner.

  Characteristics of Perceiving Learners

  - Often make impulsive decisions

  - Change decisions based on new information

  - Dislike structure and organization

  - Tends to be very flexible and adaptable

  - Sometimes have trouble making decisions.

  All of these views imply the relevance and implication of personality development, which is useful for teachers and all community in wide.

  Application activity 6.2
  

  Discuss the implication of personality development to education.
  

  End unit assesment
  

  1. What are the big five traits

  2. Explain what you understand by psychoanalytic theories

  3. In Freud’s view, what causes anxiety

  4. Describe Maslow’s self-actualizing personality

  5. Is sharing family environment likely to lead to similarities in

  personality? Why or why not?

  6. Match the name given in the column A with the concept of the column B

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 7 CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

  Key Unit Competence:

  Apply the knowledge of social psychology in the school context.

  Introductory activity

  Think about the situations of the group you belong to during morning work. As you answer to the questions, fill the following table with correct information of the best of your knowledge.

  
  

  7.1. Key concepts
  

  Activity 7.1
  

  1. List and explain briefly branches of psychology.

  2. In year 1 and two is there any concept you have had talking about the term “social” or “society”? Which one?

  
  

  a. Social psychology
  

  Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies individuals as they interact with others. It is a part of human nature to be social.

  Social psychology dated long time ago. For instance in 328 B.C, Aristotle wrote: “Man is by nature a social animal”.

  It is not sufficient to study human beings in isolation; we must examine the psychology of the individual in the context of the social situations in which they live. To fully understand people, we must see how they are influenced by their social context.

  According to Gordon Allport’s classic definition, social psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behaviour of individuals is influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

  b. Social behaviour
  

  This term refers to the behaviour taking place between members of the same species. It is a result of interaction within people.

  Examples of social behaviours: shaking hands, conversation, religious rituals, exchanging nonverbal signals, sharing meals, making music together, any act of cooperation between individuals.

  c. Group behaviour
  

  A group: is defined as two or more individuals who are connected to one another by social relationships. Those individuals are together because they share the same purpose or ideas. E.g. Religious, military & political groups

  The group can have some naming depending on characteristics:

  
  

  
  

  d. Group dynamics
  

  The social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) used the term group dynamics, to describe the positive and negative forces within groups of people. In 1945, he established the Group Dynamics Research Centre at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first institute devoted explicitly to the study of group

  dynamics. Throughout his career, Lewin focused on how the study of group dynamics could be applied to real-world, social issues.

  Group dynamics refers to a system of behaviours and psychological processes occurring within a social group (intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. Group dynamics are at the core of understanding racism, sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination.

  e. Leadership
  

  Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is a human factor, which binds a group together and motivates them towards a goal.

  A Leader is any person in the group who has the greatest amount of influence over others. A leader may be a person who holds a position of authority.

  So, Teacher’s leadership is defined as the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence colleagues, principals and other members of school community to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increasing student learning and achievement (York-Barr and Duke: 2004)T.

  f. Conformity refers to the tendency of doing something that others do just simply because they are doing it.

  g. Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing social cues (facial expression, vocal tone, body language, body posture, gestures, proximity) to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others. 

  h. Social influence refers to the control of one’s behaviour by other’s behaviour.

  i. Prejudice refers to the statements that show positive or negative comments or evaluation of another person on their group membership.

  j. Peer pressure is about changing personal attitudes and believes due to direct influence of peers. The individual is encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviours to conform to those of the influencing group or individual.

  k. Social loafing refers to the tendency for people to spend less effort when in group than alone.

  l. A Norm is a customary standard for behaviour that is widely shared by members of a culture.

  m. Obedience is an act of doing what the authorities oblige you to do.

  n. Persuasion is the change of attitudes or beliefs because of being influenced by a communication from another person.

  o. Cognitive dissonance refers to personal inner conflicts caused by recognizing that there inconsistency of person’s actions, attitudes or beliefs.

  p. Stereotyping is a situation by which people draw inferences or interpretations talking about others based on their knowledge they randomly have about them.

  Application activity 7.1
  

  Scenario about the term “cognitive dissonance”.

  I know 10 commandments as Bible and Quran says. I also know and believe that I have to respect them all, but I sometimes find myself doing the opposite.

  Question: Refer to the example above, choose three concepts and write a scenario that expresses each term.

  7.2. Relevance of social psychology
  

  Activity 7.2
  

  Read again the definition of social psychology and write 5 ideas that justify your agreement about the message found in this definition.

  Rationale behind the study of social psychology
  

  - Human beings need to understand the causes and consequences of their interaction. Knowing about social psychology, the person is able to explain the reasons and process through which persons: show aggression, cooperate, belong to groups, and build friendship.

  - Social psychology allows people to understand the process of social influence. This helps to justify the reasons why we follow a given mode of life and in turn people follow our ways of life. Social psychology increases the awareness of social norms in relationship with person’s attitudes.

  - Studying about social psychology provides person with competences to deal with misjudging others. Knowledge about stereotypes and bias will help people to focus on social cohesion, harmony, peace… rather than social conflict, discriminations and alike.

  Importance of social psychology in young children’s education Children’s relationships shape the way they see the world and affect all areas of their development. A child’s most important early relationships are with his/her parents, other family members and caregivers.

  It is not just only the relationship between parents and their child that shapes his/her development; it is also parental relationships with others. Children see how their parents behave and communicate with other people in life – for example, husband/wife, family members, friends and neighbours.

  As a teacher, it is important to try to find out about a child’s sense of stability, both now and in past; economic status; ethnic and racial background; cultural identity; language; religion; norms and values; and gender expectations. All of these elements have an influence on the child’s behaviour and learning. In a typical classroom, even in primary school, students rank themselves and each other in terms of success as students (academic status) and perceived attractiveness and popularity (peer status). Researchers have noted that children with “low status” talk less than others and are ignored by others even when they do speak up. They also have trouble getting to use materials during group work and may even be physically excluded. Consequently, low-status children learn less effectively and less efficiently than their high-status counterparts.

  Teacher awareness of student status can be a starting point to making cooperative learning groups equitable. By assigning a group work that requires multiple intellectual abilities and forming groups so that no one person has all the capabilities, the teacher creates a learning situation that requires group interdependence.

  Another strategy is for teachers to explicitly recognize “low status” or disadvantaged students for their competences. A very simple way to do this is through the use of paraphrasing. Paraphrasing sends three important messages: (1) I understand or am trying to understand what you’re saying, (2) I value your ideas, and (3) I care about you as a person. These are messages that every student, but particularly a low-status student, needs to hear.

  Application activity 7.2
  

  Write 2 paragraphs that shows the relevance of social psychology for a pre and primary teacher.

  7.3. Types of groups
  

  Activity 7.3
  

  Think about the categories or groups that you belong to. How do you differentiate them in terms of self –choice or involuntary membership?

  Example: I am a member of the school debate club. I have myself chosen to be a member (self-chosen)

  Scientists have classified groups in terms of various considerations such as size, affiliation and structure. However, this section will be limited to the categorization of Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929).

  • Primary group
  

  This is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups

  • Secondary groups
  

  In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance. They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups.

  Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.

  • In-group
  

  It is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty. It is a group that an individual identifies in positive direction; it is hence a group in which you belong to.

  • Out-group

  It is a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition. It is a group that an individual identifies in negative direction; it is therefore a group you don’t belong to.

  • Planned groups

  They are deliberately formed by their members or by an external authority for some purpose. They generally define their membership criteria clearly and so at all times know who is and who is not in the group. For example: Executive committee of an organization.

  • Emergent groups

  These groups are not explicitly organized, but they often develop elements of structure as their members determine what kinds of behaviours are expected of 

  members, who is more or less liked, who leads and who follows, and so on. They often have unclear boundaries, for they allow members to come and go rather than requiring them to join in a formal way.

  Examples of groups formed by purpose.

  • Command Groups

  Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that department.

  • Task Groups
  

  Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after the group

  completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the group.

  • Functional Groups
  

  A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting department.

  In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time. Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.

  • Interest Groups

  Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific class.

  • Friendship Groups
  

  Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other’s company and often meet after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month.

  • Reference Groups

  A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to Cherrington, the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong influence on members’ behaviour. By comparing themselves with other members, individuals are able to assess whether their behaviour is acceptable and whether their attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the previously discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form voluntarily. For example, the reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of employees that work in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

  Other types of groups:
  

  • Peer group: a peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.

  • Clique: a group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.

  • Club: a club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.

  • Household: all individuals living in the same home make a household. Anglophone culture may include various models of household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.

  • Community: a community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of overlapping commonalities, often–but not always–in proximity with one another with some degree of continuity over time.

  • Gang: A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. They are usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices.

  • Mob: a mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are usually groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.

  • Posse : A posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives only in America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military purposes. However, it can also refer to a street group.

  • Squad: This is usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to accomplish their goals.

  • Team: Similar to a squad, though, a team may contain more members. A team works in a similar way to a squad.

  • Dyad: This is a social group with two members. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other’s attention with anyone else.

  • Triad: This is a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each uniting two of the three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained.

  Application activity 7.3
  

  With example, explain the following types of groups.

  a) Small groups

  b) Primary and secondary groups

  c) In and out-groups

  7.4. Behaviours created by individuals in group
  

  Activity 7.4
  

  1. Write and share 6 Kinyarwanda proverbs that reinforce the idea of working together.

  2. You belong to various groups. Some of them are friendly others are not. What do you mind are the causes of problems within groups?

  
  

  Social psychologically a person is a social animal. He/she has a need to affiliate with others. According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), the foremost of all human motivations is the need to belong and the English people says “No person is an Island”. In Kinyarwanda there are various proverbs and expressions that reinforce the fact of group behaviours for instance: Abishyize hamwe Imana irabasanga, Umutwe umwe wifasha gusara, igiti kimwe si ishyamba, inkingi imwe ntigera inzu, ushaka kwihuta agenda wenyine ariko ushaka kugera kure agendana n’abandi.

  Because of the strong need to affiliate or to have belongingness, a lot of human behaviours occur in the groups. As we are born we automatically belong to a number of groups and as we grow we join different categories of people and communities with different goals and motivations.

  Social psychologists highlight the following group behaviour/ features:
  

  a. Social loafing: This is a kind of behaviour that individual person (s) tend to express within group activity/task by using less effort when working together than when working alone. For example, in a class, 6 students are tasked to carry a table of 40 kg but only 4 students use all of their effort. Other remaining 2 students just touch the sides of the table.

  b. Social compensation: This is the opposite of social loafing. The individual member of the group works harder in group than alone so as to compensate the less effort (low input) of others. Social compensation is mostly observed in the group where the group members display different abilities. It is obvious that this situation happens in the classroom. The teachers should vary the complexity of group task so that every member participates. During teaching and learning the three types of activities are so important. That is remedial activities, consolidation activities, and extended activities.

  c. Group polarization refers to the tendency of group to make decisions that are more extreme than initial preference of its members. The group members take extreme opinion than when they are in individual situations. There is a risk shift phenomenon for those who participated in the group discussions than those who did not attend.

  Example: In a class, a learner may believe that Mathematics is a very difficult subject. But as he/she meets students doing SME option where all the classmates value mathematics and make easy to them; he/she finds it affordable. They all decide to succeed Mathematic at rate of 80% and he/she does the same. 

  When group polarization is driven by positive effects, the teacher should give extra support to the individuals who were before at the initial preference. The target should be displayed and remind the group member to work accordingly.

  In case group polarization leads to misbehaviour, the teacher has to discourage that through setting rules and regulations that unify the group members.

  d. Groupthink: This is a group behaviour whereby group members suspend critical thinking due to the act of looking for agreement.

  e. To support the idea that learners acquire from one another, the group members should contribute and at the same time receive contributions from others. To promote this in the classroom, teachers have to use and encourage debates, brainstorming, group discussions, gallery works, think-pair-share….

  f. Deindividuation: This is about losing individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour. Individuality is mainly caused by the anonymity to outsiders while in crowds. And again the condition that make an individual less identifiable to people outside the group reduce feelings of accountability and, slightly but consistently, increased the risk of antisocial action. In a positive way, deindividuation is good in the classroom to promote the classroom (Nondestructive group) norms in order to increase the sense of belongingness and camaraderie.

  g. Imitation: Imitation is influenced by Social motivations and pressures towards the need to belong or acquire new attitudes. In teaching and learning process children imitate an action; they may either have a goal to learn or one of various possible social goals. Parents, teachers, relatives and the whole community are expected to model appropriate social behaviour as long young generation use imitation to learn a lot about social and group behaviour.

  h) Contagion: Behavioural contagion is a social influence where by the tendency for certain behaviour showed by one person is copied by others who are either in the vicinity of the original actor, or who have been exposed to media coverage describing the behaviour of the original actor.

  Behavioural contagion is referred to as a “spontaneous, unsolicited and uncritical imitation of another’s behaviour” that occurs when certain variables are met:

  - The observer and the model share a similar situation or mood

  - The model’s behaviour encourages the observer to review his condition and to change it

  - The model’s behaviour would assist the observer to resolve a conflict by reducing restraints, if copied; and

  - The model is assumed to be a positive reference individual.

  i. Attribution of prestige: Individuals in the group tend to obey leaders’ commend basing on his/her status or prestige. Prestige of a given leader is defined in two ways. Firstly, there is formal prestige which is given through top-down leadership. For example: being assigned to control and manage institution.

  Secondary, informal prestige is given to leader because of many reasons such as: Social achievement, age, Social economic status, …

  For example, classmates likely prefer to listen to their colleague who masters and shares the subject content rather than the appointed class monitor.

  Informal prestige is far a stronger predictor of team performance and rate of information transmission during group works than formal prestige.

  j. Emergence of collective values:
  

  In group, persons share many complexity characteristics which end by a common collective identity and value. This is not automatically done. Group Behaviours are non-additive, and outcomes are nonlinear rather group members tend to synchronize and become correlated by adjusting their attitudes and behaviours to be more consistent with group members with whom they interact. As product an individual shift from the identity “I” to the shared identity “we” which makes a powerful motivation to collective action. The shared identity enables the members and those outside of the group to distinguish the group, its attributes and its assumptions from other groups. Individuals are able to position themselves within a particular collective’s technique to the environment, and in so doing assume, either implicitly or through an explicit arrangement, that they will share in the success of the group as its exploits opportunities and mitigates risks in the environment.

  The shared agency that results enables the group to engage in actions and empowers individuals to take positions on behalf of the collective.

  Example:

  On the assembly, head teacher asks a volunteer student to come and sing in front of the assembly. Unfortunately, no student decides to come. After 2 minutes, head teacher said: now I call class by class if none comes that class will be called “Coward”. As the head teacher says a name of the class all class members come in front.

  Application activity 7.4
  

  Suggest one thing or activity, related to each of the concept below, that the teacher can do to strengthen group connectedness:

  1. Social loafing

  2. Social compensation

  3. Group polarization

  4. Groupthink

  5. Deindividuation

  6. Imitation

  7. Contagion

  7.5. Group phenomena
  

  Activity 7.5
  

  Observe the pictures and answer to the questions:
  

  
  

  
  

  1. What differences do you observe on the 3 pictures?
  

  2. Make short story related to each picture.

  Life in group presents some phenomena (observable facts or events) that shows individual changes in various ways; like conformity, cohesion, deviance, social conflicts (frustration & aggression), obedience, social roles, social norms, persuasion, etc.

  A. Conformity
  

  It involves the acceptance of the social and cultural goals and means of attaining those goals.

  Example: a student who follows school rules even when the discipline master is not there.

  Conformity can have either good or bad effects depending on the situation. Peer pressure leading to drug or alcohol abuse is harmful, but driving safely on the correct side of the road is a beneficial example of conformity.

  Herbert Kelman identified three major types of social influence:

  - Compliance: is public conformity, while keeping one’s own private beliefs.

  - Identification: is conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as celebrity or a favourite uncle.

  - Internalization: is acceptance of the belief or behaviour and conforming both publicly and privately.

  Humans are social creatures, so we tend to behave like others in the group, that is, we typically conform. To conform means to be in agreement or in harmony, although it has a somewhat negative, positive connotation, as if someone had persuaded you to do something not quite in line with your own wishes. Moreover, conformity refers to the respect or application of norms giving the way for the group to follow.

  B. Persuasion
  

  There are different forms of convincing someone to do something you want through verbal communication. The goal of persuasion is to make someone change his/her mind. Referring to their economic status or experience, parents may persuade their child to enrol to a certain school different from the child’s choice.

  C. Social conflicts
  

  In some groups, there are interpersonal conflicts. This makes the creation of antagonist sub-groups. The teacher should be aware of such sub-groups and why they were created in order to bring back the unity of the group. We love. We nurture. We help. But as current events and the history of humankind attest, we also harm. In humans, aggression represents any form of behaviour that is intended to harm another.

  D. Cohesion
  

  It is a union, solidarity between the group members. It is defined by the identification of every group member to the rest of the group. It is shown by the collaboration to reach a common objective, the loyalty toward other group members, and the disposition to defend against external threats. The cohesion will be strong when the common and particular objectives are attained.

  E. Deviance

  This is a behaviour of someone who goes astray the group norms or who escapes from the rules of his/her society or his/her group. For example: prostitute, delinquent, drunkard, thief...

  F. Prejudice
  

  Prejudice is unjustified or incorrect attitude towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. It is a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

  Prejudice is held to be a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluation of a particular entity with some degree of favour (Hewstone et al., 1996). We may list: Gender prejudice, Racial/Ethnic minority prejudice, Sexual orientation prejudice, and Disability prejudice

  Application activity 7.5
  

  Conformity, Persuasion, Social conflicts, Deviance, Prejudice

  1. Follow the indicators in the table and classify the above social phenomena accordingly. Given two examples for each phenomenon.

  
  

  2. What can you do to decrease social conflicts in your classroom?
  

  7.6. Factors affecting group behaviour
  

  Activity 7.6
  

  Read this story
  

  When I work with my classmates, I don’t always understand what I am supposed to do. My classmates don’t say exactly what I should do, or how they feel. My classmates understand what other people mean without hearing from them. My brain doesn’t work this way, so sometimes I do things that my classmates don’t like. This makes it hard to work in group.

  But, I need to work in a group so that I can learn. I like learning. I can ask my teacher for helping me learning how to work with my classmates better. My teacher can help me understand what they mean, and how I adopt good behaviour. That way, I will do well in group work, I can learn well. Then I will be happy because learning makes me happy.

  Answer to the following questions
  

  1. What are characters in this story?

  2. Which challenge is addressed in the story?

  3. Suggests the causes of the identified challenge

  The success or failure of a group depends upon so many factors. The following factors are example of them: group member resources, structure (group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness) and group leadership.

  i. Group Member Resources
  

  Every member of a given group, join the group with set of competences and behaviour he/she expresses in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills; and personality characteristics (sociability, self- reliance, and independence). The quality of those resources that the group members bring in with them makes the group tasks successful.

  ii. Group Structure:

  • Group Size

  Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people.
  

  Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each member has sufficient opportunity to take part and engage actively in the group.

  Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should participate next. Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up to a certain point. Increasing the size of a group, beyond 10-12 members, results in decreased satisfaction of group members. It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

  • Group Roles
  

  Group roles have much influence in the successfulness of the group. In formal groups, roles are always predetermined and assigned to members. Each group member shall have specific responsibilities and duties. The package of expectations and attributes given to a group member rank him/her to a social position. In groups, people expect certain sorts of behaviour from those they see as the leader.

  • Group norms
  

  Group norm is a standard of behaviour. In other words, group norm is a rule that tells the individual how to behave in a particular group. Thus, group norms identify the standards against which behaviour of group members will be evaluated and help the group members know what they should not do. Norms could be formal or could be non-formal. So the groups where norms are not clear will find it difficult to operate.

  • Group cohesiveness
  

  Cohesive group is that one with a high degree of mutual esteem and friendship. The greater group cohesiveness, the greater is the individual members’ desire to remain active and resistant to leaving. The research shows that the cohesive group may exert strong influence upon members to behave in accordance with group expectations (Coch and French, 1960).

  iii. Group leadership:
  

  Leadership is the ability to persuade others to fulfil defined objectives enthusiastically. It is a human factor which binds a group together and motivates them towards a goal. Leadership enhances group process through effective communication, deliberate decision making processes, power dynamics, and conflicting interactions.

  It is evident that leadership varies from one organization to another. Therefore, no two leaders administer and lead organizations or group in the same way.

  Different styles of leadership

  a. Autocratic leadership

  This style corresponds to authoritarian leader. In this type of leadership, the leader alone determines policy and assign tasks to individuals without any consultations with them. The subordinates are expected to carry out those directives without question or comment.

  b. Democratic leadership
  

  This type of leadership is at times called participative leadership. It rests on the idea that the workers or their representatives shall be involved in the making of decisions. A democratic leader makes decisions after the discussion or consultation of the group members. This style of leadership considers the needs, interests, rights and freedom of the subordinates.

  c. Laisser-faire leadership
  

  This style comes from a French word meaning “let people do what they wish”. It is a kind of leadership which does not encourage any rules within groups. The leader is merely a symbol since there is no hierarchy of authority

  d. Pseudo-democratic leadership
  

  This is the style of leadership whereby the leader pretends to be democratic. He/she makes decisions and brings them to the members of the groups. He/she rejects suggestions from other people only to bring them up later as his/her own suggestions.

  e. Charismatic leadership

  This is based on the leader’s magnetic personality and influence on his/her subjects which tends to draw them to him/her (self). The leader commands love, faith, respect and devotion because of personal attributes such as

  attractiveness, good position, eloquent speeches and warm personality. His/her followers are converted and are champions of his/ her cause.

  f. Transactional leadership
  

  This style of leadership combines what is called nomothetic and idiographic styles. Nomothetic style is leadership that emphasizes the role of the work and the organization. It is task oriented. Idiographic leadership considers the needs and personalities of the workers. Workers are expected to be free in their participation towards organizational goals. What transactional leadership does is to balance personal needs and organizational demands within a given situation.

  Power and Leadership

  Power refers to a capacity that person A has to influence the behaviour of another person B, so that he/she (person B) acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

  The Five Points of Power

  • Coercive Power (force based power) - Power that is based on fear. A person with coercive power can make things difficult for people. These are the persons that you want to avoid getting angry. Employees working under coercive managers are unlikely to be committed, and more likely to resist the manager.

  • Reward Power - Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Able to give special benefits or rewards to people.

  • Legitimate Power - The power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.

  • Expert Power (competence based power) - Influence based on special skills or knowledge. This person earns respect by experience and knowledge.

  • Referent Power (charismatic power) - Influence based on possession by an individual or desirable resources or personal traits. You like the person and enjoy doing things for him/her.

  Application activity 7.6
  

  1. Write 2 statements/ sentences for each of the factors below that prove their effects on group behaviour.

  i. Group member resources

  ii. Structure

  iii. Group leadership

  2. Write two advantages and two disadvantages for each type of leadership

  7.7. Group work in class
  

  Activity 7.7
  

  Think about your experience in terms of working in groups from S1 up to Year 3.

  1. How did the teacher help you form group?

  2. What are the learning activities you were mostly asked to work in group?

  
  

  3. What was the teacher doing when you were in group work/discussion? Group work refers to a multiplicity of techniques in which two or more learners are assigned a task that involves collaboration and communication (Linsin, 2011).

  Group work techniques can be used to motivate learners, encourage active learning, and develop key critical thinking, communication, and decision-making skills. But without careful planning and facilitation, group work can frustrate learners and instructors and feel like a waste of time.

  Benefits of group work
  

  - Development of higher-level thinking, social skills, oral communication, self-management, and leadership skills.

  - Promotion of learners’ interaction.

  - Increase in learner engagement, commitment and initiative

  - Exposure to an increase in understanding of diverse perspectives.

  - Preparation for real-life social and employment situations

  Some of the challenges associated with group work
  

  - Sometimes all learners speak at once trying to accomplish their task, and this causes noise that may bother others.

  - Some teachers may lose control of the class or have difficulties controlling the class, especially in terms of discipline.

  - Learners with low English (medium of instruction) as a second language may find it harder to engage in group discussions.

  - Learners who lack confidence may find it difficult to contribute to group discussions.

  Effective ways of forming group work
  

  - Consider learner’s ability to engage in group work.

  - Mix learners in different groups, boy/girl, confident/less confident, more/less able,

  - Clarify expectations and learning outcomes of the group work. This enables learner’s preparation and focus.

  - Consider group size. When planning group work, consider the size that will best suit your outcomes, depending on factors such as time allocation, complexity of task, different roles needed.

  - Ensure your learners have access to facilities in which to conduct group work. Make sure furniture is arranged in circles, U- shape, semi-circle… and use all the space in the room, have enough copies of any resources for each group

  Strategies for organizing group work
  

  - Plan the task

  - Plan the exercise carefully to make sure that all learners contribute

  - Decide what you want them to produce

  - Arrange how the groups will feedback

  - Decide how many will work together (Two = pair work, Three or more = group work

  - Use small group where the task has roles for each member

  - Decide who will be working together (Learners who are sitting together/ near each other, Planned by teacher.

  - Organize the classroom (Move desks, help the learners to sit in groups and ask them to face each other

  - Give the learners roles/jobs within the group for example: manager/leader, resource collector, scribe, reporter, developer.

  - Arrange a stop signal and decide on a signal that tells the learners when you want them to stop talking and to listen to the teacher, such as: Clapping rhythm/1, 2, 3 look at me/shaker/5, 4, 3, 2, 1/hands up/mobile phone ringtone

  - Teach learners what noise level is appropriate and model the volume of talking you want.

  - Give a time target (don’t say “do quickly”! Tell them how much time they have before they begin the task.

  - Remind them when they are working how much time they have left (“You have one-minute left!”).

  - Monitor the groups by moving around the classroom monitoring the groups to check everyone is working.

  - Assess the work done by the group

  - Encourage sharing group findings (presentations, gallery works, learning stations, expert panel…)

  The role of the teacher in group works
  

  -The teacher should know deeply what to teach. He/she should master his subject so as to be able to face successfully any or unexpected situations.

  - A teacher should also be omnipresent all along the lesson, he must know how group activities are being carried out, and make sure that all groups don’t go out of the topic. This is an active observation of works.

  - A teacher should also facilitate an exchange between groups to establish a balance between all activities of the groups. He should therefore be omniscient. Then, a teacher should not only observe actively, but also intervene whenever needed.

  - So, teacher should play leadership roles at school that is the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence colleagues, principals and other members of school community to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increasing student learning and achievement (York-Barr and Duke, 2004).

  The leadership role of the teacher can be summarized as follow:
  

  - Teachers are leaders as role models: where the students and other people in the society try to follow behaviours, dressing etiquette of the teachers.

  - Teachers are leaders as influencers not dictators: they can also be catalysts for change. A teacher who takes on the catalyst role feels secured in his/her own work and has a strong commitment to continual improvement. Students are the ones to be strongly influenced by the teacher.

  - Teachers are leaders as positive motivators and facilitators: Facilitating professional learning opportunities among staff members is another role for a teacher-leader. When a teacher learns with and from one another, they can focus on what most directly improves student learning.

  - Teachers are leaders as learners: Learners’ model continual improvement demonstrates lifelong learning and use what they learn to help all students achieve.

  - Teachers are leaders as problem solvers: He is the one who has problem solving skills. He solves different problems in the classroom, at school and outside in the society. Teachers are leaders as mentors. Mentors serve as role models and advise new teachers about instructions, curriculum, procedure practices and politics.

  - Teachers are leaders as instructional specialists: An instructional specialist helps colleagues implement effective teaching strategies. This help might include ideas for differentiating instruction or planning in partnership with fellow teachers.

  - The teachers can play leadership roles in showing professional roles in their teaching. They have to remember that:

  • “A poor teacher tells;

  • An average teacher explains;

  • A good teacher demonstrates;

  • And a great teacher inspires his/her students”

  • The best curriculum and the most perfect curriculum remain dead without good teachers and the good teaching methods.

  • To provide an efficient social life to the students in preparing them to live together.

  • To have the notion of ethical responsibility with very high standards of integrity.

  • To provide guidance to pupils on educational and social matters.

  • To participate in national appraisal arrangements and in training and professional development schemes.

  • To empower safety of pupils on a visit that takes them out of school.

  Problems arising from group work

  a. Problems related to the nature of the group

  The nature of the group is mainly determined by its objectives, and the interactions between its members. This first (objectives) influence the second (interaction).

  • Size of a group: when a group is very large, its members will not be satisfied as communication among group members is difficult even impossible; they will not have a chance to express their ideas (their points of view). The size of the group must be in relation to its objectives or its tasks, but a better group must be limited (generally between 5 and 7/8 members).

  • Non-integration of the chief in the group: a group monitor must be accepted by all group members if not some negative effects can appear within a group.

  b. Problems related to the inter-individual conflicts

  Inter-individual conflicts sometimes lead to the formation of some groups which have contrasting interests and live in an atmosphere of hostility. The more there are conflicts; the more the realization of tasks will be difficult because the collaboration will be very poor.

  c. Problems related to the nature of tasks
  

  Considering the group discussion, the topic to debate about should be at the level of learners and limited enough. Otherwise, there will be very limited interventions and solutions.

  During practical/manual works, insufficient materials and the lack of organization will hinder works from advancing.

  d. Problems related to the nature of personalities
  

  The teacher as a facilitator and animator of group works should always care for establishing the balance of personalities in group members.

  There are different personalities which some:

  - Manifest the lack of interest: indifferent learners,

  - Search to dominate the group: dominant learners,

  - Attack without a relevant reason the group or individuals: aggressive learners,

  - Search to attract others’ attention to them,

  - Reject, resist without reason, always against,

  - Encourage others, say yes and show affection, understand others,

  - Facilitate others’ participation, open communications,

  - Search and facilitate the agreement,

  - Propose an ideal, on which the group aspires and takes initiatives,

  - Follow others voluntary or passively, say yes to decisions.

  Of course nothing will go when one type of personality meet in one group. There must be a mixture of personalities to create mutual influences.

  Group problem solving
  

  - In general, small groups of people solve complex intellectual problems better in groups than they do when working alone.

  - It is true that “two heads are better than one” and that the knowledge and skills of more than one person may be needed to solve a complex problem.

  - The discussion of issues in groups often leads to the polarization of thinking, pushing our opinions towards “pole” of the issue. So, the teacher should intervene in group discussion

  Application activity 7.7
  

  Use primary syllabus of a subject from your choice (according to your option) and fill in the following table with appropriate information or answers.

  
  

  7.8. Organizing and conducting a meeting
  

  Learning objective: Outline steps involved when organizing and conducting meetings

  Activity 7.8
  

  During your school attachment, you have probably attended a school meeting or you did this elsewhere.

  Write a short report to your teacher by informing him/her about the meeting you attended.

  
  

  Teacher is one of the most important education stakeholders. He/she has all required professional competences. Teacher has to link learners with others who display any impact on teaching and learning. Since the teacher has to meet different education stakeholders, he/she must have skills about organizing and conducting meeting. Knowing about social psychology will help the teacher to effectively interact and influence participants to attain the objectives of the meeting.

  Guidelines to plan and conduct a meeting
  

  There are different ways to plan and conduct a meeting depending on the objectives. Below are some guidelines: (UR-CE (2019) Continuous Professional Development Diploma in Effective School Leadership, Student Manual, Volume 1, 3rd Edition, Kigali. Page 129-131)

  Before the meeting
  

  - Prepare the objectives and agenda of the meeting in advance. Consult other school staff to inform or decide on the main objectives of the meeting.

  - Think about who should attend the meeting and prepare invitations. Use various communication channels to ensure that they are accessible to all parents or participants, including those with disabilities

  - Send invitations on time

  - Prepare the venue for the meeting, ensure adequate seating for all.

  - Agree on how the meeting will be conducted to engage attendees to participate actively.

  Main parts of meeting

  Opening the meeting:

  - Welcome word by Chair of the meeting (Teacher, the President of SGAC…)

  - Presentation of the chair of the meeting, the minute-taker and any visitors

  - Monitor attendance. Ensure there is a sufficient number of attendees required to hold the meeting

  - Explain the objective of the meeting

  - Run through the agenda of meeting and check if there are any additional points to be added

  - Set ground rules, such as respecting ideas of others, staying on topic, avoid receiving calls inside the room, not interrupting others, etc. (Daniel S, 2012)

  Review the minutes of the previous meeting (if applicable)

  - Give a summary of the previous meeting

  - Check if action points taken were put into practice

  - Discuss challenges or future action points

  - Approve minutes

  During the meeting

  - Address each agenda item

  - Minute taker records a summary of ideas

  - Action points, responsible people and time frames are decided for each item

  Closing the meeting
  

  - Share with attendees a summary of decisions and action points

  - Agree on date of next meeting

  - Thank participants

  - Remind participants to sign attendance list

  Things to be considered while chairing a meeting
  

  - Good management of time. If necessary, end discussions or suggest that they can be continued after the meeting.

  - Ensure communication remains positive and productive

  - Encourage active participation of all participants, including men and women and people with disabilities.

  - Discourage “sub-meetings” (small group discussions or meetings within meetings) of attendees discussing issues simultaneously

  - Reach consensus after having discussed an issue

  - Support attendees who have difficulty in expressing themselves, so they can also be heard

  - Manage different behaviours of participants in the meeting

  Application activity 7.8
  

  Make a poster showing the steps and activities you will go through while organizing and conducting effective meeting with parents. Make sure that by the end of meeting, parents are able to contribute to feeding program at your school.

  End unit assesment
  

  1. Examine social situation in your classroom and identify how the following concepts appear in your classroom setting:

  a. Conformity

  b. Social influence

  c. Peer pressure

  d. Stereotyping

  e. Small groups

  f. Aggression

  g. Group roles

  h. Group leadership

  i. Group work and related problems.

  Notice: be as realistic as you can. Just base on your observations and experience so that you give real information. Not many sentences are needed.

  2. In primary school, all pupils appreciate sport time. They are free, fun, happy and open. In your school no pupil has Sportswear. This is a very serious issue because this needs collaboration between school teaching and administration staff and parents/ community. Make a plan that shows how you can go about this issue until every pupil attend sport with his/her own sportswear.

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 8 INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

  Key Unit Competence:

  Use effective listening to apply principles of guidance and counselling

  Introductory activity
  

  In everyday activities, you meet different life challenges and problems related to Social, Moral, and Personality development that may affect your interaction with both inside and outside the school environment. Think and answer to the following questions:

  a) What do you do, when you have a problem or a challenge that is beyond your capacity?

  b) Where do you need support for overcoming that problem?

  c) How confident are you when exposing your problem to the relied person?

  d) To what extend do you expect your problem get to be solved?

  8.1: Key concepts
  

  Activity 8.1
  

  Observe this picture bellow and answer to questions related to it.
  

  
  

  a) What is happening on these pictures?

  b) How do you appreciate this kind of support is being given here?

  a. Guidance

  Guidance is a “process of giving advice”. It is a continuous process of helping the individual development in the maximum of their capacity in the direction most beneficial to himself and to society. It involves listening carefully to the problems of the burdened individuals and discussing possible ready-made solutions that could help solve or at least alleviate the problem discussed at hand. In this way, the person who is in dilemma can choose whether or not to accept the given solution or ignore it. Guidance in education is defined as the help all students/learners receive from teachers, parents, community members, and others to assist with educational and career development.

  b. Counselling
  

  It is the process of giving professional help and advice to someone to resolve personal or psychological problems. It is also a method that helps the client to use a problem solving process to recognize and manage stress and that facilitates interpersonal relationship among clients, family, and health care team. It involves a number of sessions that includes talking, listening, discussing the problem at hand and sharing relevant information that could help the person understand the problem and make his/her own decision or course of action. And simply, counselling in education is the help some individual students receive from professionals to overcome personal and social barriers to learning.

  c. Guidance and counselling:
  

  Guidance and Counselling is defined as a planned and organized work aimed at assisting the trainee to understand himself and his abilities and develop his potentialities in order to solve his problems and achieve psychological, social, educational and professional compatibility, and also to achieve his objectives within the framework of teachings. Guidance and Counselling complement each other though there are some differences.

  d. Career guidance
  

  Refers to the career-orientating activities typically provided by school’s counsellors and teachers as they help students to become aware of the work world, the value of planning and self attributes that may relate to various career options. A career guidance program develops an individual’s competencies in self-knowledge and self-understanding, educational, occupational, exploration and career planning.

  e. Therapy
  

  Therapy, also called psychotherapy, is the process of meeting with a therapist to resolve problematic behaviours, beliefs, feelings, relationship issues, and/orsomatic responses (sensations in the body). Through therapy, individuals canchange self-destructive behaviours and habits, resolve painful feelings, improve their relationships, and more. It is also a treatment that is meant to cure a physical or mental disorder.”Psychotherapy” is generally a longer-term treatment that focuses more on gaining insight into chronic physical and emotional problems. Its focus is on the person’s thought processes, and how these may be influenced by past events such that they cause problems in the present.

  f. Advising
  

  Advising is a process in which advisor and advisee enter a dynamic relationship respectful of the student’s concerns. It is a plan to aid students in developing selfawareness, option awareness, and decision-making skills. Ideally, the teacher serves as advisor and guide in an interactive partnership aimed at enhancing the student’s self-awareness and fulfilment. This aims of helping students diminish the confusion that comes with a new environment, clarify their goals and get the most out of their education. Advising is also a process of giving students guidance, support and encouragement. Academic advising is an interactive process in which the adviser helps the student set and achieves academic goals, acquire relevant information and services, and make responsible decisions consistent with interests, goals, abilities, and degree requirements. Decisions concerning careers and/or graduate study may be part of the advising process. Advising should be personalized to consider the special needs of each student, which may include appropriate referral services. It is also a comprehensive system to provide students with skills and knowledge to make decisions about

  his/her education and career.A process to help each student improve his/her chances for long-term employment.

  g. Mentorship:
  

  Mentoring is a human development activity, in which a person known as a mentor possesses good knowledge and experience shares it with another person called mentee who normally has less knowledge and expertise to help him out in the development of his career, improving his self-esteem, enhancing productivity, etc. It is all about general development and psychological well-being of a person. Mentoring is a career development initiative taken by the management, in which an experience person guides and motivates a less experienced one, in gaining competencies for professional development. It provides encouragement, insight, and counselling to the maintenance for the development of person’s career. The relationship between the parties is considered as mentorship, which is a longterm informal one. The mentor may include teacher, guide, adviser, consultant, host, counsellor, etc. The main purpose behind mentoring is to provide open and face to face communication between the mentor and mentee to help an employee to attain social & emotional maturity and effectiveness.

  Differences between counselling and guidance; counselling and therapy

  
  

  

  

  

  Application activity 8.1

  After learning this lesson:

  a) Briefly, explain guidance, counselling, therapy, advising, and mentorship.

  b) What are differences and similarities in the above concepts?

  8.2: Types of guidance and counselling
  

  Activity 8.2
  

  Read this small scenario and reflect on it, by using questions below.

  Diana is a struggling learner in P4, due to the uncouthness transition occurred last year; she is poorly motivated in class and has low grades in her academic performance.

  a) In case Diana approaches you, how could you assist her?

  b) Is there other ways of assisting learners/students to cope with changes?

  There are different types of guidance and counselling services that can be offered to learners in different schools. The focus of our attention should determine what kind of non-specialized guidance and counselling services, teachers can offer in order to promote meaningful learning with focus on pre-primary and primary education.

  8.2.1. Educational/Academic Guidance and counselling
  

  Educational Guidance may be defined as the guidance which; a child or a learner needs while learning in educational institutions or schools. It stands to help them sort out the problems they face there. The educational guidance gives all kinds of information that the children or students need to join the type of school that he may be found most suitable to each of them. Education is the process of directing and guiding one to have his proper development. 

  Educational/academic guidance and counselling is vitally related to every aspect of the educational institution or of the school aims and objectives, the curriculum, the methods of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher and the co-curricular activities. Educational guidance and counselling assists or helps the child or learner to make curricular adjustments according to his ability and capacity. It is a process of assisting the individual in making wise choices in relation to his educational life and planning his educational programme in order to carry it forward successfully. For instance: educational or academic guidance and counselling occur when an individual or a student needs assistance for choosing courses and subjects, developing study habits, obtaining scholarships, making satisfactory progress in studies, appearing examination, continuing higher education in colleges and universities and adjusting to the life in schools and colleges. There are four different stages of educational or academic guidance and counselling for every level of education, but this textbook will focus on preprimary and primary education.

  a. Educational or academic guidance and counselling at the Pre-Primary stage

  At this stage the guidance and counselling has to help the child now to adjust himself to the new life of the school which is somewhat important than the home and family. At this stage, guidance and counselling is directed more definitely towards the development of personality, social behaviour and problems concerning life. The class teacher performs the functions of both the teacher and the counsellor. He can very easily discover the children who are dependent, shy, easily frightened, over aggressive, quarrelsome, gifted or otherwise.

  Besides, school norms are also very helpful in discovering other characteristics. But empathetic counselling, by organizing activities, and by making contact with home the teacher gradually helps the shy and over-dependent child to

  overcome his weak points. It has been appropriately said that “every teacher is

  a guidance and counsellor worker” and guidance is occurring minute by minute, hour by hour and day by day in every classroom of every school building. So guidance at this stage or level should help the child make a satisfactory transfer from home to school.

  b. Educational/academic guidance and counselling at primary Stage

  The importance of the early years of child’s life in the development of habits, attitudes, interests and personality qualities which would be required to live a healthy and well-balanced personality have been emphasized. The level of foundation development of well-balanced personality is done at this stage of education.

  For this, the potentialities of the child are to be identified, his talents are to be explored and proper opportunity or facility be provided for his development. The child must:

  - Be helped to develop his power of thinking and understanding.

  - Be oriented to know modes of living and thinking which will become the main ground of his habits and attitudes.

  - Be helped to adjust him/herself to an expanding environment both within the school and outside.

  - Be helped to explore his/her talents and to understand him/herself.

  Hence for all these purposes in relation to educational guidance and counselling a well-planned educational guidance programme must be organised and implemented for the developmental needs and requirements of the children or students. This guidance programme is to be planned with the inclusion of curricular and co-curricular activities to develop in a systematic way, his basic potentialities which would be important from the point of view of the individual, as well as from that of the society.

  The functions of educational guidance and counselling programme at this stage are given below:

  - The programme must help the children to make a good beginning and to plan intelligently of their education.

  - To get the best out of their education and to prepare pupils how to enter the secondary schools.

  - The guidance programme can be used in identifying learning difficulties and the special needs of children.

  - It has to help the potential drop-outs staying in school, in guiding pupils to develop an insight into the world of work.

  - The educational guidance programme at this stage has to assist the children in planning for the future education and training.

  For doing all these things properly, a sound, conducive and favourable learning climate is to be created and developed in the educational institution or school.

  8.2.2. Vocational/Career Guidance and counselling
  

  The vocational guidance may be defined as the assistance children or students get in schools to know the world of vocations in their life. It is an early exposure to the variety of jobs they will have to make a choice latter in life. The vocational guidance is an incentive for hard work at studies. Vocational guidance is concerned with helping the individual to become aware of his strengths and weaknesses in world of occupations and helping him to choose a vocation for his better adjustment with every situation of the society.

  In other words, vocational guidance may also be defined as a process of helping individuals or people to cope with problems relating to occupational choices, plans, developments, adjustments and maturity. The children know by themselves what they would like to become in life and this depends on what they do in school life. Of course, vocational guidance is meant for telling the children that it is high time for them to think of what are the possible vocations await them in life. For this they need to prepare themselves to be at the right track.

  Orientation to a vocation and developmental perspectives of a vocation can be initiated at the stage of Elementary or Primary School Stage. The aims of vocational guidance at this stage are development oriented because children in the primary stage do have interest in business, in agriculture, in professions;but their interests are mere notions and are not to be taken seriously. Their wishes and expectations are not in accordance with reality. They are in a stage

  of exploration as the child develops his interest to grow. More serious type of interests develops at the adult stage.

  The following qualities and skills are to be developed at this stage:
  

  - Love and respect for manual work.

  - Neat and systematic work.

  - Orderly arrangement of materials.

  - Spirit of cooperative work.

  - Good interpersonal relationship.

  - A desire to do better work.

  - Appraisal of one’s own product.

  - The spirit of sharing with others.

  8.2.3. Personal/social Guidance and counselling

  Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how to behave with consideration towards other people. Primarily, personal and social guidance helps the individual to understand himself, know how to get on with others, learn manners and etiquette pursue leisure time activities, practice social skills, develop family and family relationships, and understand social roles and responsibilities. It is given to an individual or a person to overcome his problems of personality adjustment. It may also be accepted as the assistance given to the individual to solve his emotional, social, ethical, and moral as well as health problems. It is a process of guidance helping the individual to solve his problems which don’t come within the power of educational and vocational guidance.

  In the school setting, personal counselling is often suggested for children who display behaviour problems, such as excessive fighting, chronic tiredness, violent outbursts, extreme withdrawal, inability to get along with peers, and a neglect of appearance.

  In small groups, children have the opportunity to express their feelings about a wide range of personal problems.

  a) The need and importance of personal guidance has been felt in the following grounds

  - It is needed to develop all personal and social qualities that would enable the individuals in solving personal problems and seeking better adjustments.

  - It is meant to overcome the personal problems of personality adjustment of every individual.

  - It gives importance on the personal and social needs of the pupils or individuals.

  - It is linked with our day-to-day life.

  - It is an answer to our big question what should be or not be.

  - It is meant for deciding what habits, attitudes and values we should develop.

  - It deals with all problems of life which are not covered by educational and vocational guidance.

  - This guidance is the core of all types of guidance.

  - It concerns with the total person.

  - This guidance and counselling points out the strengths and weaknesses of every individual or child.

  b) The aims and objectives of personal guidance and counselling  are as follows:

  - To assist the individual in understanding himself.

  - To assist the individual in solving the problems related to his health.

  - To assist the individual in developing suitable habits, attitudes, interests etc.

  - To make individuals aware about the personal problems of life.

  - To assist the individual in developing positive attitude and real self concept.

  - To make individuals aware about the democratic qualities and values.

  - To assist the individual in developing the qualities of loyalty, co-operation, love, sympathy, tolerance etc.

  - To help the individual to become a man of sound moral character in future life.

  - To assist the individuals in his physical, social, moral, spiritual and emotional development.

  - To assist the individuals in taking independent decisions and judgements.

  - To assist the individual to plan his leisure time activities properly.

  - To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment from the right track.

  - To assist the individual in becoming a responsible member of his community.

  - To assist the individual in developing the qualities of leadership.

  - To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems faced in life.

  - Personal guidance and counselling assists or helps every individual immensely about how to develop an integrated personality.

  - At the Primary Stage:

  - Personal guidance and counselling at this stage aims at helping the children to get along with others and to develop certain social qualities. At this stage, opportunities or facilities are given to pupils for their selfexpression.

  - Personal guidance and counselling at this stage deals with the problems related to health, feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline and leisure time pursuits.

  Application activity 8.2
  

  After learning this lesson;

  Make a brief description of types of counselling at pre-primary and primary level.

  Activity 8.3
  

  Which program should be based upon to understand the needs and problems of the students, competence and interest of the guidance personnel?

  The basic principles of guidance and counselling were developed by various scholars.

  According to Rotimo (2014), the basic principles of guidance and couseling are as follows:

  a) Guidance and Counselling is for everyone. The service is not only for those with disabilities but it is also meant for all people without disabilities, developing children and adults;

  b) Guidance and Counselling activities should be based on the need and total development of every person. It is the duty of all personnel in a setting to identify the needs of individuals so that programme activities can be designed to meet such needs;

  c) Guidance and Counselling must be provided in a way that ensures human dignity and worth. The full and adequate development of the individual must be given preference. It should be seen as encouraging individuals to attain maximum satisfaction, to realize their potentials and to be aware to self. No one who has gone through counselling should feel inadequate;

  d) Guidance and Counselling is a sequential, continuous and developmental process, which starts from birth to death. This means that guidance and counselling runs from the nursery school through primary, secondary to the tertiary institutions. It is not a once andfor-all event but a process which is an integral part of the total educational programme throughout the school life of an individual;

  
  

  e) There is a close relationship between counselling activities and the instructional process, each contributing to the other.

  Counselling can help make the instructional activities to be more relevant and meaningful to the needs of students, while the instructional activities can help to give necessary information and directives to a student in planning his/her life goals;

  f) All guidance activities must emphasize the will for each student to learn more about himself in an accurate and systematic manner. Through the use of well-planned instructional strategies and appraisal techniques, individuals can become more knowledgeable about themselves and about the world around them. Without such knowledge, an individual cannot exercise intelligently the rights to free choice in educational, vocational and personal social fields.

  g) Every member of staff in a school and non-school setting should assume responsibility for guidance activities. The principal, teachers and counsellors are all members of the guidance team and each member has prescribed functions and roles.

  h) Effective leadership is the watchword for any effective guidance and counselling programme. Guidance counsellors who are qualified, well- trained and competent are expected to function in schools and other settings. Such professionals would be able to enlist the support of staff members in effecting guidance activities.

  i) The practitioners should practice within ethical and moral limits. The ethical and moral guidelines should be such that clients would feel secure and confident in using the services provided. This also guarantees that counsellors will not use techniques and/or approaches for which they do not have competence; and

  j) The objectives of counselling should be based on clients’ needs and not on the needs of the counsellors. In pursuing such needs of the client, the counsellors must present a positive image. 

  Anatory (2016) listed the following principles of guidance and counselling:

  a) Clients have the right to access the services of the guidance and counselling program in offering to him/her

  b) Disclosure of confidential information regarding a student should be done with the student’s knowledge.

  c) Counselling services are most effective when client voluntarily seek them

  d) Co-operation with parents is desirable and preferable; the guidance counsellor should consider informing the parents of the provided counselling service in the event that there is significant interference to other aspects of the student’s program group counselling a student who is personally or academically at risk an immediate opportunityfor the parent to be a part of the solution.

  According to Diksha Kashyap, the basic principles of counselling in the guidance programme of schools or educational institution is based on the following principles:

  - Counselling is strongly dedicated to self-direction and self-realization of the pupil or client.

  - It is the development of the insights and understandings of the relations of self and environment.

  - It is a structured learning situation.

  - Counselling methods vary with the needs of the client or pupil.

  - It is primarily a preventive and remedial process.

  - It is voluntary for the pupils.

  Application activity 8.3

  Explain the basic principles of Guidance & Counselling.
  

  8.4: Effective listening techniques
  

  Activity 8.4
  

  Observe the picture and answer to questions related
  

  
  

  a) What do you see on this picture?

  b) Describe the activity, which is being done, on the picture above.

  Listening is the behaviour of actively hearing and understanding what someone has to say.

  In order to do this, an individual must focus on the other person’s story while ignoring thoughts about his own needs and activities. Being a good listener entails receiving and sending appropriate messages. In counselling this is important, because it means meeting the needs of the students.

  Listening to students is not just a matter of receiving what they say, but also receiving how they say it. Sometimes how they communicate is much more revealing that what they actually say, which may be more concealing than revealing.

  Listening skills are basic to all human interaction, whether the purpose is for getting information, conducting in-depth interviews, or offering informal help. Listening is considered to be the most important counselling skill.

  Listening seems like a simple process and yet so many are more eager to talk than to listen. In guidance and counselling, effective listening requires a twoway communication.

  Here are some tips for effective listening techniques established by Parker Associates (2015):

  • Stay present – Do not let your mind wander. Many people compose a response while the speaker is still speaking.

  • Make eye contact – Let the speaker see your interest by regularly making eye contact.

  • Ask questions for clarification – This is not your time to respond. Get really clear about what is being said. If you don’t understand, ask questions in an open non-charged manner.

  • Acknowledge feelings – If the speaker is telling you something about his/her feelings, acknowledge them. You don’t have to agree to show that you see the speaker is upset or unhappy about something.

  • Restate or paraphrase – Make sure you are getting the information the speaker is presenting by periodically repeating what you hear in different words from the speakers. “Let me see if I’ve got it so far?”

  • Covey says, “Seek first to understand and then to be understood” – Before you state your thoughts and ideas make sure you totally understand and acknowledge the speakers’ thoughts.

  • Give nonverbal feedback – While the speaker is speaking, be sure to smile, nod, frown, shrug your shoulders, or raise your eyebrows – whatever is appropriate.

  • Be Silent – Don’t be afraid of this. Periods of total quiet will allow you and the speaker to think about what was said. When you are sure the speaker has completed his/her thoughts on the subject, it will be time for you to comment.

  • Take in all the information both verbal and nonverbal – Focus on the meaning of what is being said and what is not being said. There may be a lot of emotion behind the words being said. Be sure you understand the emotion and what is causing it.

  • Get permission – Sometimes people just want to be heard. At other times they are seeking advice. Give advice only when requested and only after the person has had a chance to give you the whole story. If you are not sure, ask if the person is looking for your input

  Application activity 8.4
  

  After learning different steps of effective listening techniques;

  Prepare and practice active listening techniques in a role-play showing how supporting a learner to find solutions to a problem.

  End unit assesment
  

  After learning this unit;

  a. Discuss the benefit for guidance and counselling in educational settings to both teachers and learners.

  b. Apply principles of guidance and counselling in the role-play to assist learners to find solutions to their problem. For example: In groups, plan and present sketches on teenage pregnancy. How can you use guidance and counselling to help boys and girls avoid problems like teenage pregnancy and any other problem that may interfere with their studies?

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 9 TEACHER AS A COUNSELLOR

  Key Unit Competence:

  Identify cases where guidance and counselling is needed in the classroom

  context and devise appropriate strategies for intervention

  Introductory activity

  Read the case scenario and reflect on it.

  DUSENGE is a 9 years old, primary school learner, who was diagnosed with a chronic disease when he was 3 months old. While growing up, he has been required to go to the hospital every other month. He now only has to go about once or twice a year. Unfortunately, DUSENGE started refusing medicines. His mother, Sylvia, is concerned about the fact that DUSENGE is refusing to take his medication. She has noticed that DUSENGE is starting to cough more and gets exhausted much easier and his academic performance has lowered noticeably. He stopped taking the medication about two months after Patrick, a friend that DUSENGE had met in the hospital and were studying in the same grade, died. DUSENGE had maintained a friendship with Patrick for about 2 years. DUSENGE respected Patrick because he was one of the few learners who did not consider him a sick person. Patrick had been waiting for a lung transplant, and DUSENGE had observed him rapidly decline in health. DUSENGE refused to discuss Patrick’s death with his mother. And recently, there were long periods of time when he would not speak to her at all.

  a) Does this case need guidance and counselling? Why?

  b) What action a teacher can take?

  c) In your school/class, do you find any other cases similar to the above one, which need guidance and counselling?

  9.1. Qualities of a counsellor
  

  Activity 9.1
  

  Explore these pictures and answer to questions.

  

  a) Which activity is being taken place on pictures above?

  b) Describe different skills which are on these pictures above.

  c) How will you relate these situations with what does your teacher or members of school staff?

  Professional counsellors are licensed mental health therapists who provide assessment, diagnosis and counselling to people facing a variety of life stresses and psychological problems. They help people with relationship issues, family problems, job stress, mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety, and many other challenging problems that can impact feelings of well-being and happiness. To be effective in their roles, counsellors should enjoy helping others and possess specific attributes and skills.

  Rowland (2014) asserted that being a school counsellor is difficult work. School counsellors often have little time to tend to hundreds or thousands of students, but the impact that they can have makes the profession one of the most helpful. She further established 10 of the top traits every school counsellor should have:

  Be a good listener.

  The first thing that comes to mind is that school counsellors must be able to listen. To their students, parents, and other faculty members…A large portion of a counsellor’s time is spent listening and processing the information given to you by others. Remember to listen first and ask questions later. If you need clarification on something, always speak up but be sure to add details that let the person know you heard what they said in the first place. Listening is a crucial trait for any school counsellor to possess.

  Be able to assess.

  Part of a counsellor’s job is to make accurate assessments of their students to prepare them for life beyond school. If you want to work in a high school setting, this includes being able to accurately assess a student’s successes and shortcomings when it comes to making college choices, where to apply, and helping them narrow down what can be a daunting list of choices. Making these assessments accurately – and being able to report your findings to parents, another faculty, or higher education institutions – is an important part of counselling.

  Be an excellent communicator.

  Having excellent communication skills is one of the most important skills a school counsellor can have. Being able to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings verbally is a trait that can never go unsung as a school counsellor. Often, you

  will be bouncing ideas off a student to help them reach a crucial decision – or discussing a student with their parent or a team of faculty members. Making sure that you can convey your assessment of your student verbally is vital.

  Appreciate diversity.

  Students come from a multitude of backgrounds, and being able to accept and embrace diversity is another trait that is crucial of a school counsellor. Students come from all walks of life and all types of families, and helping students learn to accept and embrace their own diversity in a school setting is critical to a counsellor’s success.

  Be friendly.

  School counsellors must be warm and approachable to their students, and also to parents and faculty members. Being open and gregarious will often mean that students will trust you more than they trust their parents, and getting students to open up and let go of their burdens is one of the most rewarding things a school counsellor can accomplish. Often, students are overworked and set with heavy accomplishment lists, so having someone to listen to their troubles is a way to make students feel less stressed.

  Be authoritative.

  When the situation calls for it, a guidance counsellor must cross the boundary from friend to professional. If abuse or neglect is suspected or present, or if a student is engaging in risky or harmful behaviour, a counsellor must know when to show their authority and take the proper steps to ensure their student’s safety.

  Be well-rounded.

  A school counsellor will often have a wide range of interests outside of work, and you never know when one of these interests will resonate with a student and prompt a connection that gets your student to open up to you. Having a variety of hobbies and talents outside of the office makes school counsellor happier and friendlier. Being able to speak about your experiences in life will allow you to bridge gaps with students and offer advice and share tips and building blocks for social development that you may not have otherwise had.

  Be able to coordinate.

  Counsellors serve as coordinators for many school programs and activities. From college visits, setting standardized test schedules, and even administrative tasks – the counsellor must be able to coordinate a number of tasks at a time. Making sure these things dovetail and all run smoothly (even when they may look chaotic on the outside) is a vital part of what makes a successful school counsellor.

  Have good evaluation skills

  Counsellors spend a lot of their time evaluating test scores or administering tests to students. Being able to accurately evaluate and translate these results to discuss a student’s academic performance, or aid a professor in making an accurate assessment of a student’s skills is vital. Being able to evaluate the results of these exams as more than just numbers on paper, and seeing the meaning beyond the exam is a part of what makes an effective school counsellor. Often, students will see their test scores as very black-and-white in regards to their future prospects. It is the job of their guidance counsellor to offer the many shades of grey in between and explore all opportunities available to their students, regardless of test scores.

  Have a sense of humour

  Often, having a sense of humour will be a school counsellor’s biggest asset in gaining a student’s trust. Being able to laugh at yourself, and offer amusing anecdotes for what you have experienced in life will show students that you’re surprisingly human, too! Being able to see things with a side of laughter is a crucial trait for any school counsellor, and goes a long way toward making your days brighter.

  Lidiya (2019) clarified that counselling children or young adults is different from counselling adults. For teacher who are expected to work with students, here are some major characteristics a professional school counsellor must have:

  Be open and friendly.
  

  Students open up about their issues depending on the environment. If they feel safe and free, they will talk about any issues that the counsellor brings up. 

  Sometimes parents are too harsh or have high expectations of their children. Children from such homes tend to hide their issue until they find a friendly setting. A good school counsellor bridges the gap between parents and children. 

  The counsellor must be open and friendly enough for students to open up and tell the truth.

  However, he/she must also be firm and have a professional approach to solving issues. Sometimes students will not do their part after a session if the counsellor has no boundaries. Children are quick to learn boundaries and determine if the environment is safe or not.

  Excellent listening and communication skills

  One of the lessons that counsellors learn when pursuing their Master of Education in School Counselling is communication skills. Effective communication includes good listening skills. You cannot help anyone to solve an issue if you do not listen and understand the real problem.

  Sometimes the child will go for counselling to improve their learning abilities or grades. However, if the counsellor listens keenly to the child, he/she will uncover some issues that led to poor performance.

  The counsellor should have good communication skills that enable him/her to advise children or teenagers in their language. The tone and attitude of the counsellor will either invite the student to implement the advice or avoid further counselling sessions.

  Organization skills

  Most schools do not have enough resources to hire as many counsellors as the students need. The ratio of students to counsellors is often high. In some cases, teachers assume the role of a counsellor if they have basic training in school counselling. Hence, a good school counsellor must be organized to handle his/her workload.

  A day at work may include counselling sessions from morning to evening with no breaks in between. Parents and administrators expect reports of the performance of students and other issues from the counselling sessions. Hence, counsellors must have excellent organization skills to handle their all responsibilities without feeling overwhelmed.

  Fatigue will affect the counsellor’s listening skills and assessment when handling students

  Evaluation and assessment Skills

  Counsellors do more than listen and give advice. Some issues require students to take tests before, during, and after the counselling sessions. In some cases, the counsellor must assess a student’s performance over time to define his/her problem clearly. In addition, sometimes students are unable

  to articulate issues clearly or are unwilling to open up to the counsellors. With excellent evaluation and assessment skills, counsellors can decipher additional information from the students.

  The skills are also critical when preparing reports because school  administrators and parents rely on such reports to make decisions. The decisions, in this case, include further measures to improve the learning environment or help students improve their learning skills. 

  Be willing to offer support.

  School counsellors must have a different approach from other professionals. Counselling goes beyond completing a series of tasks within a certain period or in a day. The professionals are hired to offer support and improve the learning environment.

  The students need a professional guide to issues or events that affect their learning. Some require a series of sessions to overcome their fears and resume normal learning. The school counsellor must be willing to offer the care and support that each student under their care requires until they complete their studies. Some students may require support after traumatizing events, even if the issues do not affect their school performance.

  Trustworthy

  Counselling sessions ought to be confidential, even when children are involved. Students will only talk freely about their private lives if they think that the school counsellor is trustworthy.

  Some issues must be communicated to the parents, especially when a student needs urgent or additional help. However, the counsellor must know what to share with parents, depending on the problem at hand.

  For instance, some children who open up about abuse at home expect the counsellor to offer support without involving the perpetrators. If the counsellor breaks the trust, a child may choose to suffer in silence to avoid further victimization. At the same time, the counsellor must win the trust of parents and school administrators.

  Living a balanced life

  Sometimes the workload placed on a school counsellor pushes them to work for long hours every week. Counsellors need enough time to rest and rejuvenate. These professionals play a critical role that requires a clear and focused mind to make a sound judgment.

  They need to be able to disconnect and spend time with their families or pursue their hobbies and interests after work. Good counsellors apply the same advice they give to others to their personal lives. Otherwise, workrelated stress and excess fatigue will affect their effectiveness in their role.

  Empathy

  Students long for compassion, care, and love when going through hardship. Most of the issues that bother students come from home or their social groups. School counsellors must be quick to discern when a student needs compassion or attention from an adult.

  The counselling session does not have to end with a list of do’s and don’ts. Sometimes the students just need to know that someone knows and cares about their personal struggles.

  Good counsellors are naturally empathetic.

  The compassion compels them to offer continued support until their patients overcome their issues. However, empathy should not crowd a counsellor’s judgment or decisions. Sometimes deviant students manipulate school counsellors with emotions and tantrums. A good counsellor knows when to be compassionate and when to be authoritative.

  Confidence

  School counsellors encounter difficult students occasionally who challenge their decisions or advice. Some parents may also question their professionalism, especially when a child’s performance does not improve immediately.

  The professional school counsellors must have confidence in their assessment and decisions. Sometimes the decisions involve discontinuing sessions when students refuse to cooperate or listen to the counsellors.

  Students can tell if their mean words or attitude intimidate the counsellors or not. The good news is that any professional can boost his/her personal confidence. For instance, professional training and good preparation before any session boost a counsellor’s confidence in his/her skills.

  Application activity 9.1
  

  After learning this lesson; describe briefly qualities of a good counsellor/ counsellor teacher.

  9.2. Guidance services provided by a teacher
  

  Activity 9.2
  

  Read the following scenario and answers the questions that follow.

  HIRWA is a 11-year-old Pupil in a primary school. When he was in the Primary 4, other Pupils started calling him “girlish.” From primary 5, the harassment became more frequent and severe. By Primary 6, verbal abuse was a constant occurrence. Pupils regularly called him “fag” and “queer.” HIRWA was frustrated to use the playgrounds with other pupils. HIRWA’s mother and close friends reported it. HIRWA’s teachers and other school officials were aware that HIRWA was being bullied. After years of abuse, HIRWA wrote a letter to his classmate-friend saying how he felt like he couldn’t go on with all of the abuse and fear that he was experiencing. The letter was found by a parent at the school.

  Question

  The parent is an acquaintance of yours and talks to you about his concerns regarding HIRWA. He wants to get your input on this situation.

  a) Explain your views and reasons for your position and comment on any of the larger issues in a case like the above one.

  b) Advise what can be done to prevent these issues in terms of guidance and counselling.

  Introduction

  There are a growing number of social problems which affect the lives of young people such as competitiveness, bullying, teenage pregnancy, family crises, sibling rivalry, school failure, abuse, peer pressure and substance abuse are but a few of the problems that pupils face every day. Some pupils are affected by HIV/AIDS because their parents and relatives suffer from it. All these problems affect children in a negative way, and as a result their academic activities are

  negatively affected. The need for guidance and counselling in schools has become imperative in order to promote the well-being of learners. It is therefore important that school guidance and counselling services are fully functional and available to all learners in all schools to help ease the problems that they face.

  Guidance and counselling services are a set of tasks and activities designed to assist students to cope with some problems and challenges as well as to adjust and improve their academic activities in schools. Some of the important guidance services are; Individual inventory service, Orientation service, Information service, Counselling service, Placement service, Referral Service, Remedial service, Follow-up service, and Evaluation service.

  a) Individual Inventory Service

  This service aims to gather information about the student that will help her/him know and understand herself/himself and assist the teachers, counsellors, administrators and parents in understanding the students. The data are gathered through test and non-test techniques. The test techniques include the different tests such as Mental Ability, Scholastic Ability, Achievement, Aptitude, Personality, Values, Interests and Critical Thinking. As all teachers were not trained about those tests, they can use non-test techniques such as inventory forms, interviews, checklist and rating scale.

  b) Orientation Service

  This service assists new students and transferees in becoming at home in their new environment. It talks on various topics that deal with adjusting to school life and the various programs/subjects. Old students are also reoriented with the various Guidance programs and services through their student assemblies, group guidance and classroom sessions.

  c) Information Service

  This service provides valid information which is educational, social, personal and occupational in nature so that the student may be able to develop his/her decision making competencies. It is implemented through Group Guidance and information materials are also made available to the student through the Guidance bulletin board and collected from various sources such as: Teachers, Parents, School guidance personnel or Counsellor, Intimate friends and mates, News papers and different useful journals and, other mass media such as Radio and T.V. 

  The information which students get from different sources should be authenti and free from all bias and errors as a result of which student would be able totake right decision in regards to his educational and vocational careers.

  d) Counselling Service.

  Respect for the dignity of the person and recognition of individual differences underlie this service. This service is rendered through individual counselling, group counselling, home visits, and referrals. The latter is rendered to anyone in difficult situation needing specialized counselling or advising. This service aims to help students attain self awareness so that they can be responsible for themselves, overcome personal difficulties. Counselling may be walk in, referred or call in. Peer counsellors are also available to students who are hesitant to approach their counsellors or teachers.

  e) Placement Service:

  Like other guidance services, placement service is a kind of guidance service which is especially carried on by teachers on guidance workers to assist students to find out his own place in the educational setting on occupational world considering his abilities, interests, skills, aptitudes and attitudes.

  f) Referral Service:

  The referral service is meant for the students who are not subject to be guided and counselled by the teachers or guidance and counselling workers in a normal group. This referral service is arranged for the purpose of specialized help. In this special case, the student is advised by teachers and counsellors to go for taking special help from specialized person or agency.

  g) Remedial Service

  Like referral service, the remedial service is a kind of specialized service, which is meant for exceptional children such as student having speech defects, hard of hearing, incapable of reading and developing study habits etc. These exceptional cases need special treatment by specialized professionals for remedial help.

  h) Follow up Service

  Follow up service focuses on looking into the effectiveness and adequacy of the guidance program and the educational program in general. Follow up is done through letters, telephone calls, personal interview or questionnaires. This may also include contact with school heads, counsellors of former students to gain insight into their level of adjustment.

  i) Evaluation Service

  The evaluation process is an essential part of the process of guidance which is continuous in nature and done from time to time. It completes the entire process of guidance provided in the school. It is needed to evaluate the following considerations such as:

  - Use and application of collected information has to continue activities to find its effectiveness.

  - How far guidance services satisfy the needs and the student’s efficiency.

  - To what extent the time consumed for guidance service is appropriate.

  - To what extent the money spent for guidance service is appropriate.

  - How far guidance personnel involved in the guidance programme have done their work.

  Application activity 9.2
  

  After learning this lesson; briefly, explain the guidance services that a teacher can provide.

  9.3. Roles of teachers in guidance and counselling
  

  Activity 9.3
  

  Look at these picture and answer to questions below:

  

  a) Talk about these two classrooms, what do you appreciate on these pictures?

  b) What are the benefits of the School guidance and counselling Program for Students?

  With reference to the Best College Reviews (2019), school guidance counsellors fulfil many roles within the sphere of children’s education, and their responsibilities may change depending upon the level at which they work. Counsellors are trained educators with an additional focus on mental health and development. This provides them with the skill set they require to face the challenges of their chosen work environment.

  Depending on the day or student’s age

  Emotional, intellectual, and social needs change as children grow up. School counsellors play an active part in helping individuals to develop healthy relationships with their peers, cope with academic challenges, and create a resilient sense of self during this critical developmental period. They will engage in small group or class to mitigate negative trends perceived by teachers and administrators, such as bullying or violent behaviours and inappropriate activities. They provide resources for children displaying tendencies that may put them in academic jeopardy and actively intervene in cases of abuse, emotional and psychological disturbance, or unaddressed cognitive issues. 

  For older students in a secondary educational environment, counsellors help them cope with peer pressure, adolescence related issues and the pressure to succeed academically. During this time, individuals are identifying and adopting systems of ethics that are unique to them. While earlier periods are often mapped onto the systems of adults in their lives, children begin to experiment with different social concepts and ethical frameworks during this time. Counsellors assist them in this exploration via direct or indirect involvement.

  Specific identification and interaction
  

  School guidance counsellors work with many different parties in and around the educational field. While they have specific duties to directly interface with students, they also collaborate with the adults in students’ lives.

  Administrators rely on the specialized education of these counsellors to craft the overall mood of the school in question. They also address specific disturbances by crafting behavioural management plans for individuals or performing needs assessments to identify problems and provide solutions. Data gathering and interpretation is a cornerstone of the job, whether assisting in the administering of standardized testing, gifted or general placement tests or behavioural assessments for individuals and groups.

  Planning for the future
  

  While career planning may be most nebulous at the elementary level, counsellors also guide students in this capacity. As children grow, this aspect of counselling becomes more focused and concrete.

  During the early years, counsellors help to provide opportunities for learning and exploring different fields. At later points, they work directly with students and teachers to help individuals find the educational paths that will take them where they want to go. During high school and beyond, their focus on career guidance intensifies further. They may directly consult with students to find solutions to specific problems, address career goals, and provide for academic needs.

  The responsibilities of a school counsellor are all geared towards creating a healthy developmental environment and assisting individual students in their quest to succeed.

  Application activity 9.3
  

  After learning this lesson;

  Identify with concrete examples roles of teacher in guidance and counselling.

  9.4. Ethical considerations of guidance and counselling
  

  Activity 9.4
  

  Read this case study and answer to the question.

  Suzan comes to you for a help at the Restroom for girls. She is your cousin’s daughter and the first thing she requests from you is not to tell her mother. Suzan is four months pregnant and is not sure who is responsible. Her father died four years ago and the mother has been struggling to educate Suzan and her three brothers. Suzan is in Primary 6 class and it is expected that she will perform very well and be admitted to the best government school.

  Question:

  As Suzan’s aunt (a teacher), how would you deal with this case?

  In supporting and counselling learners with emotional, behavioural and disciplinary problems requires establishing liaison between teachers and learners. It is focused on developing a positive child–teacher relationship in which the child feels comfortable, safe, valued, respected, and free to share their story. In setting up this supportive environment, a number of ethical considerations arise.

  a) Confidentiality
  

  School counsellors need to develop trusting relationships with students, and an understanding of confidentiality in communications and discussions helps built that trust. However, school counsellors are sometimes obligated to break that confidentiality under circumstances where the law or professional ethics require it. They may also breach confidentiality to parents or appropriate third parties in instances where it would ultimately be in the best interests of the student or when they are required to do so by law. For instance, if a student is threatening to harm him- or herself, the parents and/or medical authorities may have to be notified (OLLU, 2019).

  b) Relationships

  Keeping your client-counsellor relationship professional is not always easy. You may find you both move in the same social circle, or you might discover a mutual attraction. Once a child–counsellor relationship has been developed, the next step is maintenance of this relationship in such a way as to support increased awareness and change.

  Boundaries and power in the child–counsellor relationship
  

  School counsellors should be mindful of relationships that could compromise their objectivity and impair their ability to serve students fairly — such as counselling children of close friends or romantic partners. If such relationships are unavoidable, counsellors should take extra steps to maintain their objectivity by well-defined and established boundaries (OLLU, 2019). Setting up boundaries about your role as a counsellor includes:

  - Time (for example, session length and availability outside the session);

  - Place (where the sessions take place);

  - Self-disclosure (how much disclosure is appropriate);

  - Behaviour during the session; and

  - Appropriate touch.

  School counsellors’ relationships with students should always remain within the context of the counsellor’s professional abilities. Since students are minors who may not always understand relationship boundaries, the burden is on counsellors to act professionally and ethically, and explain those boundaries where necessary.

  c) Objectivity
  

  The need to be objective in counselling relationship is important. You need to be impersonal in your dealing with the client, and be objective with your view, offer options that are clear and understood by the client, merits and demerits spelt out very clearly, so that the client is very clear of the kinds of decisions he/ she is going to make. Counsellor’s views should not be imposed on the client.

  d) Voluntary participation

  It is important that you practice tolerance with your client, and unnecessary pressure on the client is totally unacceptable. Request for counselling is voluntary and therefore is improper to force the client

  e) Professionalism
  

  Having an ethical code also guides you as a career professional interacting with clients. Professional competence is that of self-care: it is difficult to provide a supportive counselling relationship when you require support yourself! Again, being self-reflective about your capacity to provide support is important; as is being able to identify when you may be close to burning out.

  Application activity 9.4

  After learning this session:

  Briefly describe ethical considerations in guidance and counselling.

  9.5. Steps and procedures of counselling
  

  Activity 9.5
  

  Sometimes you will be communicating with someone who differs from you in terms of his or her social status, gender or education. How will this affect the counselling process?

  0. Beginning of counselling session (introduction): As the patient enters the room, greet the person, call the person by name, welcome the client and make him/her comfortable. Introduce yourself if meeting for the first time and tell the person the purpose of the meeting (to understand the health problem and its best management). Encourage the counselee to talk about himself or herself.

  1) Active attending or Listening

  It is most important step in counselling because the details provided by the client are based on it. Active listening means listening carefully and paying attention to verbal as well as non verbal signals.

  Provide in-depth information to relieve fears and worries of the client. Similarly, counsellor’s words, expression and posture/gesture (verbal/non verbal communication) indicate that attention is being paid to what is being said. By demonstrating an attending behaviour we enhance the client’s self-respect, establish a safe atmosphere and facilitate free expression of thought by the counselee.

  Active listening includes reflection of feelings, questioning, paraphrasing and clarification. Similarly, actions of the counselee communicate many unexpressed feeling. Some of these nonverbal activities are counselee entering the room, Voice quality, Breathing, Eyes, Facial expressions, Leg movement & Body posture

  Reflection of content and Feelings: People respond differently to their illness. They may express their feelings as fear, anger, anxiety or sadness about disease. E.g. depression may be expressed as short temper, Irritable behaviour, less interest in daily routine, inability to sleep, loss of weight and feeling of worthlessness and anxiety. Do not try to stop, let the person express their feelings, do not stop patient/ family members from crying. Do not take anger personally and try to stay calm. The counsellor must recognize such feelings in a direct, unemotional way. The focus is kept on the emotions of the client and his/her subjective experiences in coping with the situation. Counsellor reflects the contents and feeling of the other persons by responding back to the client and communicating a message though empathy, questioning or paraphrasing that conveys that counsellor is listening and trying to understand counselee’s circumstances.

  Questioning: Always try to use questions and establish communications so that both the problem and the solutions are clear. Asks questions in order to clarify the situation and make client aware of all the dimensions of the problem and help the clients to understand the core issue underlying his/her fears or concerns. Do not ask too many closed question (closed questions are those questions that can be answered by one word like yes /no). Ask open questions to make communication easier, encourage further discussion and facilitate building of trust and warmth in the relationships. Use questions containing why with caution as it may easily sound judgmental. If you need to use “why”, use it in the middle of a sentence and not in the beginning of a sentence.

  Paraphrasing and clarification: Paraphrasing is repetition of the jest of client’s feelings by the counsellor in their own words. For example, “You seem to be saying that you are afraid that your family is not going to take care of you”. The clients might then agree with the interpretation. If not, the counsellor can seek clarification by saying “will you please explain it with more details?” Utilizing this technique, the counsellor attempts to give feed back to the client; the essence or content of what the client has just said and clarifies understanding of the client’s world. Clarification helps the client to come to understand themselves better. When you ask the client to explain something in more details or in a different way; by doing this clients not only explore their own feelings further, but will also feel that you are trying hard to understand their situation. In the process, counsellors also tell the client about the scientific facts not known to them.

  2) Interpretation: Often people avoid focusing on the real problem and talk around the issue. Interpretation goes beyond what is explicitly expressed by the feelings and implied meanings of the client’s statements. Even client is unaware of this. Counsellor redefines the problem from a different point of view to bring out more clarity to the problem and make client aware to the core problem. The counsellor also helps client to establish what is relevant, emphasising the important points – for example, “Of all the things you talked about today, it seems to me you are most concerned about....”

  3) Repeating: At times of stress and crisis, clients are in a state of denial or feeling overwhelmed. They may not always understand everything they are told. As a counsellor, do not hesitate and repeat salient points of the discussion, statements of support or necessary facts. It ensures that the clients clearly understand the problem and requisite action. Client would usually convey that they understand and accept the information.

  4) Summarizing: Many people who are stunned by news of the disease may respond by talking quickly and trying to provide more details or ask more questions; than counsellor can absorb or comprehend. It is then helpful for the counsellor to interrupt at times and summarize what has been said. This is like paraphrasing and helps to ensure that each understands the other correctly. Summarizing towards the end of the counselling provides guidance and direction to both counsellor and counselee; to deal with practical matters of the problem and decide plan of action. A summary resembles a combination of reflection of feeling and paraphrasing over a longer period of time. At the end of each session, the counsellor should summarize the salient points of the discussion, highlight decisions which have been made and need to be acted on.

  5) Confrontation: Many a time’s clients are so much preoccupied with their fears that cannot see the connection between their behaviour and the responses of the others. Confrontation involves a direct examination of incongruities and discrepancies in the client’s thinking, feeling and/or behaviour. The counsellor tells the client that how their thoughts affect their action and behaviour, which in turn affect the behaviour of others towards them. E.g. Because of fear of discrimination, people withdraw themselves and do not speak to friends and relatives. Friends and relatives in turn also respond by not talking to them. Establishment of strong relationship and rapport is essential before commenting on such issues. It is a highly intrusive skill hence timing is very important and advice on confrontation must be delivered in an atmosphere of warmth, care and concern.

  6) Respecting: As a counsellor, try to appreciate that people see their problems in unique personal ways determined by culture, social class and personality. Respect client’s views and beliefs and build on them. Show respect, for instance, by asking a client to explain different aspects of the culture or personal beliefs that are strange to you; for example, “you feel strongly about this. I don’t know about it. Tell me more about it”.

  7) Structuring or Prioritization: Structuring means helping the client to see relationship between facts and feelings. It helps clients to determine the important aspects of their concern that needs immediate attention and other less important aspects that can be put off until later. It is essential part of planning and probably one of the most critical skills in counselling.

  8) Deciding Plan of action: Based on the scientific knowledge, cultural and socioeconomic aspect of the client, help the client to explore all the possible solution for the prioritised aspect and choose the most relevant option for action. Encourage the client to take his or her own decision and act accordingly.

  9) Concluding a counselling session: While ending the session summarize the salient points and decision taken, congratulate client for their efforts, wish them luck and fix next visit.

  Application activity 9.5
  

  After learning this lesson: briefly what are steps and procedures of counselling?

  9.6. Strategies/techniques for solving problems and staging interventions

  Activity 9.6
  

  Read this scenario and answer to the question.

  Client: “it is just two weeks until graduation and I don’t have any idea about what will I do next.”

  Counsellor: “it sounds like you’re feeling some pressure about this. Help me understand what you have been thinking about doing up till now.”

  Question:

  As you have studied about steps and procedures in counselling; which step could you locate this short scenario?

  There are as many examples of Counselling strategies/techniques as there are approaches or theories in Counselling. Examples of some of the approaches are psychoanalysis, Behaviour modification, Rational Emotive Therapy, Transactional Analysis, Gestalt, Logo therapy, Reality Impressive, Client-cantered, Adlerian and Trait and Factor.

  While each of these approaches is unique and therefore distinguishable from the others, there still exists relationship among them because they are all tended towards helping the clients to understand himself and lead a well-adjusted life. It is therefore the technique in each of the approaches that often shows which of the approaches is being employed in practice. However, there are some strategies/techniques that cut across some counselling approaches.

  Generally, examples of counselling strategies/techniques are listening, responding, emphasizing, questioning, prodding, interpretation, reflection, confronting, restatement, probing, self-disclosure, catharsis, assuring, immediacy, encouraging, clarifying, concretising, summarising, homework, silence homework, catharses and exploring.

  Some of the major techniques are discussed below:

  • Listening: Listening is a very crucial technique in the counselling relationship. It involves every part of the body i.e. eyes, voice, ears and hears. Listening is often regarded as the foundation stone upon which other lards of helping service are built. Active listening conveys to chats that they are valued by the counsellor. If the counsellor does not listen attentively, he may not be able to hear and understand what his client’s problems are and observe the exact nature of both the verbal and nonverbal responses by his client. The use of listening as a strategy/technique means being able to communicate understanding of the client’s problems, meaning content. Similarly, it means being able to show to the client that you understand how he feels particularly to show the client that you have an idea of the impact of the existing problems on his psychological well - being.

  • Responding: This is a strategy/technique of counselling that involves the counsellor’s verbal and non-verbal reactions to the problems presented by the client. Responding is very crucial in the helping relationship. It is important to mention that adequate response depends on the counsellor’s attentive and understanding skills. It is important for the counsellor to respond promptly and adequately to the client’s verbal and non-verbal communications. With appropriate and useful response, it is likely that the client would be able to get help in understanding his problems and be able to take positive actions towards the solution of his problems. It is essential that counsellors should be able to respond to the contents feeling and the meaning of the client’s expression if he, the counsellor would provide effective assistance to the client.

  • Questioning: This strategy/ technique helps the Counsellor in probing and thereby explores the problem being presented by the client. It helps to bring to fore, some important fact that will assist in promoting an effective discussion in the interpersonal relationship between the client and the counsellor. Questioning readily helps the client in identifying and having clearer understanding of his problem.

  • Restatement: This involves a process in which the Counsellor having heard and understood what the client said, he (the Counsellor) repeats what was said for the sake of clarification. Specifically, restatement assists the counsellor and the client to reach a lard of mutual understanding of true nature of the problem as it represents the mind of the client. It also affords the client the opportunity of explaining further if what he said was not properly heard or understood by the counsellor. When the counsellor restates the client’s problem, the client is thereby reassured of the counsellor’s attentiveness and ability to follow with the client’s explanation. Although it is important for the counsellor to maintain a listening role, there are certain kinds of responses which communicate not only that; the counsellor is listening, but also that the counsellor is a person with an active role. The restatement is one of these responses.

  An example is the following interaction:

  - Client: “I don’t know whether to stay in school or to drop out and get a job but if I do, I don’t know what kind of job I can find”

  - Counsellor: “You are wondering whether to stay in school or to drop out and work;

  • Assuring: Assuring as a counselling strategy/ technique, demands that a counsellor makes a conscious effort to gain the client’s confidence in the process of assisting him to solve his (client’s) problem. The counsellor exhibits a personal quality, which makes the client to trust and rely on the counsellor as a worthy provider of assistance that can solve his problem.

  • Silence: This strategy/technique involves sudden cessation or suspension of sound by both the counsellor and the client temporarily. It is important for the counsellor to know the appropriate time and way of using silence if not it can be mistaken for his inability of knowing what to say. In case the counsellor does not know a lot to say when silence is applied, he could make statements such as:

  - You must be deeply touched by your problems.

  - Are you thinking of a better way to state your problems?

  - You are not sure; you should discuss certain aspect of your problem with me.

  These statements will enable the client to know that you are still in the process of helping him to follow through his problem.

  • Self-disclosure: This strategy/technique refers to the act of making known someone’s feelings/reactions or uncovering someone’s feelings or reactions to situations or persons. Such feelings are of course secret until they are made known. A counsellor who uses self-disclosure will definitely make known his feelings and reactions to his client’s presentations. It is, however, important to note that such feelings that are made known must be genuine, sincere and authentic. The use of self-disclosure also demands that the counsellor must have understood his client and in fact gained his confidence in their interpersonal relationship. This is because if the counsellor disclosed his genuine feelings upon first contact with client, the client may withdraw from counselling session. But if he understands the client, and the client has developed trust in him, then self-disclosure will serve its functions in helping the client to develop:

  - Develop appropriate honest behaviour;

  - Complete counselling relationship.

  When a Counsellor is genuine and transparent in his interaction with the client, he could be:

  - Seen as a model to the client who also learn to imbibe the counsellor’s behaviour;

  - Able to succeed in expending less energy in withholding his real self;

  - Able to provide a conducive and facilitating environment for himself and the client.

  Both the client and the counsellor are therefore able to feel very free in their discussion. Where the client is initially reluctant, a good use of self-disclosure by the counsellor would help the client express his problem fully. An example of self-disclosure is when the counsellor ways “I have heard similar problem before and it was resolved”.

  Application activity 9.6
  

  Prepare a scenario and role-play it. The scenario is about girls early pregnancy and make a selection, devise appropriate strategies/ techniques for interventions or problem-solving in supporting children who need guidance and counselling.

  9.7. Tools or techniques used when conducting guidance and counselling

  Activity 9.7
  

  How do you think or in which way, information/data of client/students are collected?

  9.7.1. Observation

  This is an oral and visual way of measuring what a person says and what a person does. It is basic to other guidance techniques which do not necessarily pertain only to verbal language. In this technique, behaviour is studied through observation by a trained observer. The effectiveness of the technique depends upon the skilfulness of the observer. An observer is expected to observe well defined behaviours free from biases and prejudices. Parent, teacher, and counsellor should know what to observe, how and what to describe and how to interpret. Observational techniques are useful in the study of students and individuals but their usefulness depends upon the manner and purpose with which they are conducted. It takes time which is made on several occasions and records will reveal the personality and a portion of the totality of the individual

  9.7.2. Interview

  The interview technique is used for collecting information’s about the individual by interview his parents and peers or other family members. When the child has shown difficulties in adjustment, it is usually advisable for interviews to be held with at least one of the parents and preferably both. The conference will be facilitated or hindered by the general attitude on the part of the parents toward the child, and by the community’s conception of the role of the teacher.

  9.7.3. Cumulative record
  

  The cumulative record has been defined as “a method of recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of students”. It is a record of information concerned with the appraisal of an individual student.

  The information which is obtained periodically through various sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the student needs advice for the solution of some educational or vocational problem.

  A cumulative record card supplies information on points such as the following:

  - Personal: (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour,

  (vi) residence.

  - Home: (i) names of parents, (ii) occupations of the parents, (iii) parents

  alive or dead, (iv) economic status, (v) number of siblings, older or younger,

  (vi) language spoken at home.

  - Test scores: (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (iii) other test scores, and (iv) personality traits.

  - School attendance: (i) days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attended with dates.

  - Health: record of physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered from.

  - Miscellaneous: (i) vocational plans, (ii) extracurricular activities, (iii) employment during studies, and (iv) counsellor’s note.

  The cumulative records about students provide useful information to teachers, counsellors and administrators.

  9.7.4. Questionnaire
  

  A questionnaire is a list of questions to be answered by an individual or a group of individuals, especially to get facts or information. It should be elaborated to match with other techniques. Questions are designed to get information about conditions and practices about which the respondents are presumed to have the knowledge. Questions should be few in number and simple to be understood and answered.

  They should directly cover the point of information.

  9.7.5. Case study
  

  A case study is defined as a collection of all available information – social, physiological, biographical, environmental, vocational – that promises to help explain a single individual. A case study is a comprehensive collection of information gathered using different tools and techniques of data collection. It is the most important technique and the best method of studying the whole individual. Its purpose is to say positively and with confidence that, as far as possible, all sources of information have been tapped and all kinds of data have been gathered about the client. In case study, information about the individual is so organized and combined into a whole that the individual studied is viewed as a dynamic one trying to adjust to the environment in which he is. The main object behind a case study is to observe the individual as a whole.

  Application activity 9.7
  

  Read this scenario and answer to related questions.

  A young primary 3 learner comes into the classroom late with tears in his eyes. You find out that his father is very sick in the hospital. His father works for Department of Education and they stay in a government house. His mother told him that his father might die and they will be forced to leave their home. There will be no money for his school fees.

  Questions:

  1) Identify tools or techniques that you may use when conducting guidance and counselling to this learner.

  2) How will you use those identified tools?

  9.8. Referral mechanisms

  Activity 9.8
  

  Read this scenario and answer to question

  You are a teacher offering counselling to students and young children. A young couple comes to you wanting couple counselling they say you are the only counsellor they know. You have no experience of couple counselling, but would like to get some. You realise that if you turn them down they will probably not get any counselling at all.

  Question

  What can you do as a counsellor?
  

  A referral is the process of directing a client to another service provider because she/he requires help that is beyond the expertise or scope of work of the current service provider. A referral can be made to a variety of services, for example health, psychosocial activities, protection services, nutrition, education, shelter, material or financial assistance, physical rehabilitation, community centre and/ or a social service agency. 

  Steps required to make a successful referral are:

  1) Identify the problem- what does the client need? Identify and/or assess the client’s problems, needs, and strengths with her/ him and/ or their caregiver (e.g. if the client is a minor or with severely impaired functioning requiring caregiver help).

  2) Identify which institution or agency can meet this need. Identify and map other service providers who may be able to assist the client and/ or the caregiver with her/his needs. Information about other services in your geographical areas can be obtained from service guides, 4Ws mapping reports or Coordination meetings. Check if the child is already included within the child protection management system.

  3) Contact the service provider to confirm eligibility. Contact the other service providers in advance to find out more about their services and eligibility criteria, unless the specific type of referral is commonly done with the service provider. Requested information should include what their referral protocol entails and whether or not they will be able to assist the client.

  4) Explain referral to the client. Provide information about available services and explain the referral to the client and/ or caregivers (e.g. what services are provided? Where is the service provider located? How can the client get there and receive services? Why do you recommend the referral?). Keep in mind that the client can choose to not be referred.

  5) Document consent. If the client agrees to the referral, obtain consent before the client’s information is shared with others and agree with the client, which information can be shared. Parental/ care giver consent should be obtained if the client is a minor.

  6) Make the referral. Fill out the inter-agency referral form in triplicate (x1 copy with referring agency, x1 copy with client/ caregiver, x1 copy to receiving agency). Provide the referral agency’s contact information to the client and accompany them to the referral agency if needed. Referrals can also be made over the phone (if in an emergency), via e-mail or through an App or a database.

  7) Follow up with the client and the receiving agency to ensure the referral was successful and exchange information, where client consent allows for this. Areas for follow up include: did the client receive the planned services? What was the outcome? Was the client and/ or the caregiver satisfied with the referral process, and the services received?

  8) Storage of information and confidentiality. All referrals forms and case files should be stored in secure (locked) cabinets to ensure the implementation of safe and ethical data collection, management and storage of information.

  At a minimum, referral should include providing the client with information about whom to contact as well as where, when and how to contact them. Client referral works best if the care provider makes the contact and schedules an appointment in the presence of the client, making a note of the contact and the organization in the client’s file.

  Effective referral involves:

  - Communicating with the client about the referral process;

  - Consent for information transfer to referral services (shared confidentiality);

  - Supporting the client in getting to the referral services (strategies, treatment “buddies”, etc.); and

  - Tracking referrals (following up – did the client get there?).

  Application activity 9.8
  

  After learning this lesson; What are professionals to whom students with severe problems can be referred? And when to seek them?

  9.9. Special considerations when counselling young children (ECLPE)

  Activity 9.9
  

  Observe the picture and answer to questions
  

  
  

  1. What is the contribution of parents and teachers to make these young children engaging in playful activities?

  2. How can you collaborate with parents and teachers to address problems of young children?

  9.9.1. Introduction

  Counselling and guidance are referred to as the ways regarding which individuals need some kind of help, support and assistance regarding the problems, they are experiencing. In the field of early childhood education, children are young; they are in between two to six years of age. Hence, parents are the ones, who seek these services from professionals and experts to provide solutions to various problems and challenges.

  Counselling and guidance services in early childhood education, cover number of aspects such as, skills, knowledge, attitudes, habits, communication means and so forth for the development of the mind-set of the child and it also

  contributes towards the development of the child in order to enable him/her make an effective entry into the system of higher education.

  9.9.2. Purposes of counselling and guidance for young children

  There have been many purposes of counselling and guidance in all aspects; the following significant purposes were identified from the perspective of education:

  - The young children should learn how to analyze their weaknesses and then overcoming them; the role of the counsellor and a guide is to help them how to catch the fish on their own and not catching fish by themselves and giving it to them.

  - The young children may also need counselling and guidance services regarding making wise decisions. They are also provided with information regarding how to manage the finances and not try to spend their parent’s money on the items, which they do not require. The young children are required to be assisted in making appropriate, substantial and interesting educational choices.

  - The teachers as well as the parents should also meet with the counsellor or the guide, because it is crucial for them to assist especially young students, who are undergoing counselling and guidance sessions. The parents and the teachers should understand the needs and problems of the students and harsh behaviour or screaming at the students is strictly prohibited.

  - The school authorities or the administrators should be assisted in improving the educational objectives, planning and the course curriculum.

  - The school environment should be formed in such a manner that the young children should feel safe and sound, they should develop proper attitude towards school, teachers, classmates, values, norms, policies, interests, beliefs, discipline and rules.

  - The young children should be directed to ascertain their flaws and inconsistencies in the field of education and improve upon their learning. They should be guided in a manner to promote efficiency.

  - The young children, who depict behavioural and attitudinal problems should be shown the right direction and prescribe ways to get rid of such things because they are the major hindrances to one’s personal and professional development.

  - It is essential to promote amongst the young children a sense of awareness, ability to acquire sufficient knowledge regarding their studies, when studying they should put complete focus, and become more proficient and accomplished

  - Empowering children to deal with painful emotional problems: 

  In early childhood education, children do experience problems and difficulties, which they have to deal with adequately and it is of utmost significance of these services to empower the child. These may include, when the child is unable to achieve good grades in academic performance, unable to participate in extracurricular activities, health problems, getting involved into conflicts and disputes with anybody, unable to acquire what he may desire and so forth. It is the duty of the counsellor to explain to the child that problems and difficulties are an integral part of an individual’s life, but they are required to keep themselves calm and take things smoothly. Young children in most cases, get upset, because they feel they are not being given what they desire and when their needs and aspirations are not being fulfilled. Parents usually provide for their children, what suits them best. If they refuse something, their refusal is also based upon their betterment, hence, it is vital for the children to understand the cause and not feel emotionally stressed.

  9.9.3. Areas of Counselling and Guidance Services in Early Childhood Education

  Counselling and guidance services in early childhood education are primarily concerned with effective growth and development of children. Counselling and guidance services that are provided are mainly concerning the following areas:

  - Vulnerability within the school environment – When children get enrolled in nursery schools, at the initial stage, they feel vulnerable and apprehensive due to the school environmental conditions. Young children are normally close to their mothers and repeatedly ask for their mothers within the school environment. The vulnerability exists within the mind-sets of the children upon observing the school environmental conditions. In most cases, when the children observe a new environment, new people and visit a new place, where their parents are not present, they feel anxious. In such cases, they show hesitance in going to school and parents and teachers possess this viewpoint that they need counselling and guidance to gain more confidence in them.

  - Learning disabilities – The children in nursery schools differ in their learning disabilities. Some are sharp minded and are able to understand the information and concepts taught to them by teachers in schools and parents at home. On the other hand, some students possess learning disabilities and are not able to acquire understanding of concepts rapidly. When students possess learning problems, then parents do get anxious, as they want their child to develop proper learning abilities leading to their effective growth and development. The professional counsellors make provision of adequate assistance and supervision to help the children overcome their learning disabilities. They provide them information regarding putting into practice adequate learning methods.

  - Communication – It is vital for the child to develop effective communication with individuals, within and outside the school environment. It is essential for the efficient well-being, growth and development of the individuals. In schools, when teachers teach academic concepts, rhymes, poems and other concepts to the students, it is vital for them to communicate in an effective manner with the teachers and fellow students. When children experience problems in communicating in an effective manner with the other individuals, either they do not respond or get easily aggravated, then it is vital to take guidance and counselling services from experts.

  - Introversion – When children go to schools, it is vital for the teachers to possess a friendly and an amiable nature. This nature on the part of the teachers will help the students to gain in more confidence in them, communicate in an effective manner, learn academic concepts in an appropriate manner and render an effective contribution in extra-curricular activities and competitions. The feelings of introversion are in some cases present amongst the children. They feel reluctant in communicating withthe people around in schools as well as in homes and keep to themselves. The services of the counsellors are obtained to provide information and assistance to possess a sociable nature. Introversion does not generate positive outcomes and enables the individuals to experience unfavourable effects. Normally, the mind-sets of the individuals gets affected in a negative manner.

  - Stress and Anxiety – Stress and anxiety are psychological problems that normally individuals belonging to all age groups experience. Nursery school students do experience stress and anxiety regarding academic concepts, learning, home-work assignments, class assignments, communication with the teachers and fellow students, extra-curricular activities, play, sports and so forth. They may experience stress and anxiety, when participating in competitions or functions. When they experience stress and anxiety, they are not able to adequately concentrate and have problems. Therefore, counselling and guidance services may help the child to overcome any kinds of problems and difficulties that might take place within the course of acquisition to education and learning.

  - Diet and Nutrition – Services of the counsellors are acquired, when the child does not consume a healthy and a nutritious diet. There are some children, who do not eat healthy food and have cravings for sweets and other junk food items. In some cases, children do not eat regular meals and have meals at sporadic timings, which may affect their health. In some cases, too much of craving for sweets and other unhealthy food items makes them overweight. Therefore, it is vital for the parents to be aware that children should obtain adequate and a nutritious diet, comprising of milk, fruits, cereals, vegetables and so forth. Sweets are not recommended to be completely avoided but they should get consumed once in a while.

  - Behaviour Problems – As the child learns to speak and understand, parents teach their children proper values, norms, cultural traits and principles. They want their children to communicate with respect and decency with every person within as well as outside the house. Learn to recognize one’s duties and responsibilities, such as, not being untidy, putting playthings in their respective places, when done playing, maintaining neatness, not scribbling on the walls, not being aggressive and so forth. When a child is unable to implement any of these proper behaviours, then the parents seek the services of the counsellors to enable the child behave in a normal manner. At the initial stage, it is vital for the parents to detect the behaviour and attitude of the children, so that they are able to make their future lives productive.

  - Aggression – The feelings of anger and frustration are normally common among individuals and in some cases, even young children. Young children may turn violent and aggressive, they may start screaming and crying, when they feel that their wishes and desires have not been met or if they have got involved into a dispute with anybody. The counsellors in this case, recommend the aspects, which would help the child to calm down and overcome the feelings of resentment or antagonism, they may have. It is vital for the children to deal with aggressions, so that in the long term, it would not impose any kinds of detrimental effects. If the child shows aggression in schools, then the teachers may report the matter to the parents and give him one chance, but if he does not get this problem solved, he may get terminated from the school. Learning can take place in an adequate manner, when the attitude of aggression is eliminated.

  - Identification of talents and skills

  Counselling and guidance services in the early childhood environments are also useful for identifying the talents, skills and interests of the individuals. Teachers and parents are aware of the fact that every child is different. Each child differs from the other with regards to learning abilities, nature, understanding, thinking, behaviour and attitude. Children have different interests and skills, which need to be identified and then developed as they grow up.

  Application activity 9.9

  What are the purposes and areas of guidance and counselling to the young children?

  End unit assesment
  

  After learning this unit;
  

  1. Identify problems related to academic, career, social, emotional and intellectual capability that our young children face and how to respond to those problems.

  2. What are cases where guidance and counselling is needed in the classroom context and how the teacher as a counsellor intervenes?

  3. Based on your answers to Question 1:

  a) Create scenarios that reflect problems that pre-primary and primary learners may face in Rwanda.

  b) In groups, role-play as a school counsellor helping learners to overcome those problems

  
  

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