History

Topic outline

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  • S5: History SB File
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• Unit :1 First and Second Republics of Rwanda

  Key unit competence

  Examine the achievements and failures of the First and the Second

  Republics in Rwanda

  Introduction

  This unit is about the history of Rwanda during the First and the

  Second Republics. This period deals with the history of Rwanda

  from 1962, the year during which the country of Rwanda regained

  its independence up to 1990, the year that was marked by the

  beginning of the Liberation War. This war opened a new era which

  would be marked by many political and socio-economic changes

  and would be won by the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) in 1994

  after stopping the genocide that was perpetrated against the Tutsi.

  This victory contributed to the collapse of the Second Republic and

  Rwanda opened a new page of its history with the coming of RPF

  to power.

  This unit will examine various achievements of the First and the

  Second Republics in Rwanda in political and socio-economic areas.

  At the same time, it will focus on the failures of the two regimes

  and factors that led to their collapse.

  Links to other subjects

  This unit can be linked to other subjects like General Studies and

  Communication Skills and Economics.

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  Achievements and failures of the First Republic, 1962–1973

  ࿤ Political evolution: The new institutions of the Republic of Rwanda

  ࿤ From multipartism to monopartism

  ࿤ Management of the problem of Inyenzi incursions: the beginning

  of genocide against the Tutsi.

  ࿤ Economic evolution: Perpetuation of the colonial economic model

  ࿤ Development of economic infrastructure

  ࿤ Socio-cultural evolution: Education and health systems

  ࿤ Failures and reasons for the fall of the First Republic

  Achievements and failures of the Second Republic 1973–1990

  ࿤ Political evolution: New political institutions

  ࿤ Economic evolution

  ࿤ Priority investment in infrastructure

  ࿤ Socio-cultural evolution: Health and education

  ࿤ Failures and reasons for the fall of the Second Republic 

  Achievements of the First Republic 1962–1973

  Activity 1

  1. What kind of regime was adopted at the time of the

  independence of Rwanda?

  2. Describe the political institutions that were established on

  the eve of the acquisition of independence of Rwanda.

  3. Explain the different means that the Mouvement

  Démocratique Républicain–PARMEHUTU (MDR–

  PARMEHUTU) used to eliminate opposition political parties.

  4. Why was the Mouvement Démocratique Républicain–

  PARMEHUTU (MDR-PARMEHUTU)–the only political party

  which presented candidates for presidential and legislative

  elections in 1965?

  Activity 2

  1. Account for the reactions of the First Republic towards the

  problem of Rwandan refugees.

  2. How were the Tutsi who lived in Rwanda treated during the

  attacks of Inyenzi.

  3. What happened to the leaders of the Rassemblement

  Démocratique Rwandaise–RADER–and the Union

  Nationale Rwandaise–UNAR–after the attack of the

  Inyenzi on December 24th, 1963 in Bugesera?

  Activity 3

  Carry out research on the economic evolution of Rwanda during

  the First Republic based on the perpetuation of the colonial

  economic model and find answers to the following questions.

  Present the results of your findings to the class.

  1. Explain the major economic issues that Rwanda faced after

  the acquisition of its independence.

  2. Identify and evaluate the strategies and measures that the

  government of President Grégoire Kayibanda adopted to

  address these problems.

  Activity 4

  Carry out research on the development of economic infrastructure

  planned and/or implemented by the First Republic of Rwanda

  and answer the following questions. Present the results of your

  study to the class.

  1. What are the main achievements of the First Republic of

  Rwanda in the area of banking?

  2. In the framework of the Five-Year Development Plan (1966–

  1971) some projects which aimed to macadamise the road

  axes linking the country of Rwanda to the outside world had

  been conceived. Priority was given to which roads?

  3. Which infrastructures did the First Republic of Rwanda set

  up and also inaugurate?

  4. What were the achievements of the First Republic of

  Rwanda in rural development?

  Activity 5

  Conduct research on the socio-cultural evolution during the First

  Republic of Rwanda and answer the following questions. Present

  the results of your findings to the class.

  1. Assess the achievements of the First Republic of Rwanda

  in education.

  2. Evaluate the achievements of the First Republic of Rwanda

  in health.

  Activity 6

  Conduct research on the failures and reasons for the fall of the

  First Republic and answer the following questions. Present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  1. What were the major failures of the First Republic of

  Rwanda?

  2. Identify the factors that contributed to the fall of the First

  Republic of Rwanda.

  Political evolution

  Rwanda just after independence

  At the time of recovering Rwanda’s independence, Grégoire

  Kayibanda bullied his way into political prominence and was more

  than willing to use ethnic terror and divisions to maintain his rule.

  By independence day on July 1st, 1962, Rwanda had no constitution.

  PARMEHUTU leaders had prepared a document to be used as a

  constitution during the coup d’état of Gitarama. But this text was

  not published in the official Gazette of Ruanda-Urundi. Moreover,

  the colonial authority continued thereafter to dictate laws for the

  new authorities. 

  

  The parliament had the power to supervise the actions of the

  president of the republic and his government (Article 73). Under

  the First Republic, three legislatures were elected: in 1961, 1965

  and 1969, until the dissolution of the parliament following the July

  5th, 1973 coup d’état.

  From Multipartism to Monopartism

  The 1962 constitution devoted its article 10 to a multiparty system.

  However, the ruling party, MDR PARMEHUTU, turned itself into

  a ‘state party’, behaving just like a single party from 1963 after

  eliminating and assimilating other political parties.

  MDR PARMEHUTU fused with the state and the two institutions

  became one and the same at all administration levels. It means that

  the president of the republic was at the same time the president

  of MDR PARMEHUTU party. At the level of prefectures, the préfets

  were leaders of PARMEHUTU. The same applied in communes

  and the lower administrative levels.

  MDR PARMEHUTU used different mechanisms to monopolise

  political power. The party utilised intimidation tactics, arbitrary

  arrests and violence against opponents. At times although not

  often, it also tried to negotiate. In fact in such circumstances that

  APROSOMA disappeared in 1961, after the defection of its leaders

  to MDR PARMEHUTU. These included Aloys Munyangaju and

  Germain Gasingwa.

  

  RADER and UNAR on the other disappeared

  due to the killing of their leaders. These

  included Prosper Bwanakweli, Ndazaro

  Lazare and Karinda Callixte from RADER;

  and Michel Rwagasana, Afrika, Burabyo,

  Joseph Rutsindintwarane, Gisimba,

  Mpirikanyi and Ndahiro Denis from UNAR

  who were murdered in 1963. They were

  executed in the prison of Ruhengeri when

  Inyenzi had just launched major attacks

  and had penetrated Bugesera up to

  Kanzenze.

  After recruiting some opposition leaders

  in its ranks and killing others, MDR

  PARMEHUTU transformed itself into a single party. In 1965, MDR

  PARMEHUTU was the only party which presented candidates for

  presidential and legislative elections.

  The Inyenzi incursions

  The first challenge faced by the First Republic was the problem

  of refugees. The attitude of the government of the First Republic

  varied with time.

  At the beginning of the 1960s, the provisional government had

  shown concern and established a state secretariat for refugees. But

  after every Inyenzi attack, the Tutsi inside the country would be

  killed. Survivors would seek asylum outside the country.

  The major attacks of Inyenzi were the following:

  ࿤ The December 21st, 1961 attack from Uganda via Kinigi

  targeting individuals in Ruhengeri, Kigali and Gitarama.

  ࿤ The April 1962, attack from Uganda targeting the eastern parts

  of the country.

  ࿤ The July 3rd to 4th, 1962, attack from Goma by approximately

  80 to 100 Inyenzi. Four of the captured Inyenzi, were executed

  in Ruhengeri prison.

  ࿤ The December 24th, 1963 attack in Bugesera. Attackers came

  from Burundi, via Kirundo and Nemba. After some successes,

  the Inyenzi were stopped and defeated by the National Guard

  commanded by two Belgian officers Dubois and Florquin. After

  the Bugesera attacks (1963–1964), President Kayibanda  warned the Inyenzi that: “If they try to conquer Kigali by

  fighting, it would be the total and quick end of the Tutsi”.

  ࿤ The last main Inyenzi attacks took place in Cyangugu and

  Gikongoro prefectures (Bugarama in 1964, Nshili in 1966 and

  Bweyeye in 1966) and in Kibungo prefecture (Butama in 1966).

  After the Bugesera attack, many Tutsi were killed at Gikongoro

  prefecture and the deaths were estimated between 8,000 and

  10,000. In the same period, Kayibanda ordered the execution of

  27 leaders of UNAR and RADER who had been imprisoned in

  Ruhengeri prison without any form of legal procedure whatsoever.

  The attack on Rwanda launched in Bugesera was under the

  command of François Rukeba, one of the main UNAR activists.

  This ill-prepared attack failed, and many Tutsi fell victim to the

  massacres which were organised in retaliation. The word Inyenzi,

  which literally translates to cockroach, was first used in the 60s. It

  was initially used to designate UNAR movements as they organised

  incursions into Rwanda. Its meaning later extended to the entire

  Rwandan Tutsi population. Occasional incursions into Rwandan

  territory continued to occur in Rwanda until 1967. Between 1959

  and 1967, nearly 20,000 Tutsis were killed during the repression

  against UNAR, and 200,000 others fled the country.

  Economic evolution

  
  Economic problems

  At independence, many government offices were in Bujumbura

  which had been the colonial capital of Ruanda-Urundi. Rwanda

  was under-equipped. There were a few infrastructures. The country

  did not have a radio, an airport, permanent roads, a telephone

  system, hotels, a university or any other institution of higher

  learning. Everything had to come through Bujumbura or through

  Belgian Congo.

  In addition, Rwanda lacked the financial means. It had only one

  donor: Belgium. As a result Rwanda was dependent on foreign

  donors for most of her needs.

  Another economic problem faced by Rwanda was the poor

  functioning of the monetary and customs union between Rwanda

  and Burundi. Moreover, the two countries did not have very good

  relations because they had two different political regimes: Rwanda

  was a republic while Burundi was a constitutional monarchy.

  The country was going through an extremely difficult crisis including

  the deficits in the balance of payments because in 1962 prices

  rose by 50 per cent and by 1964, prices had risen by 300 per

  cent. The Rwandan currency depreciated while agricultural and

  mineral production declined. This resulted in a big fall in exports

  and a big gap in foreign exchange.

  To address this situation, Rwanda asked for assistance from

  western countries and from international organisations like the

  International Monetary Fund (IMF). Rwanda’s western donors were

  mainly Belgium and United States of America (USA). Belgium and

  IMF had just granted Rwanda a little more in terms of loans while

  the USA had donated food and some money to buy equipment.

  Besides external assistance, the government of Rwanda took other

  measures to get the country out of the economic crisis. It reduced

  expenses of all ministries including funds allocated to education.

  Another proposed solution was the First five year economic

  development plan of 1966–1971. The plan was based on an

  analysis of the economic and social conditions, and challeges that

  Rwanda had to face in order to define its economic development.

  Plans were made to construct tarmac roads linking the country to

  all her neighbours in the frame-work of the five-year development

  plan (1966-1971). The following roads were to be built:

  ࿤ Kigali–Gatuna

  ࿤ Kigali–Rusumo

  ࿤ Kigali–Butare

  ࿤ Ruhengeri–Cyanika

  It is essential to note that before the coup d’état that brought the

  First Republic in 1973 to an end, construction had only started

  on the Kigali- Gatuna road in 1971. The construction of this road

  was completed in 1977. In addition, the Rusumo bridge at the

  Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania and the bridge over

  Nyabarongo River were constructed.

  In rural development, the emphasis was placed on the reclamation

  of marshlands in order to improve agricultural production and the

  distribution of improved seeds and plants in some parts of the

  country. New crops like rice were introduced. Some cattle dips

  were put in place to fight ticks.

  Socio-cultural evolution

  
  Education system

  The First Republic made very few achievements in education and

  health. The First Republic tried to give free education and health

  services.

  At independence, Rwanda had a few secondary schools such as

  Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida in Butare, Ecole Technique Officielle de

  Kicukiro, College Sainte André in Kigali and College du Christ Roi

  in Nyanza.

  By 1962 there were 23 secondary schools and this number

  increased to 63 schools in 1972. The number of pupils in primary

  schools increased from 261,306 in 1962 to 425,000 pupils

  in 1972 due to the double shift system. The budget allocated

  to education also increased from 168,264,000 Frw in 1962 to

  563,194,000 Frw in 1972.

  The first national university was opened on November 3rd 1963

  in Rwanda. It was started by a Canadian priest called Levesque

  with 50 students distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and

  sciences. It was launched at Ruhande in Butare (Huye District

  today) with the assistance of Switzerland and Canada. By 1971–

  1972, the enrolment had reached 470. The Institut Pédagogique

  National (IPN) was started in 1966. Despite these efforts in

  education, no tangible fruits were evident as indicated by the small

  numbers produced during this period.

  

  Health

  In the health sector, the First Republic also tried to make some efforts.

  The focus was put on the construction of new dispensaries whose

  number increased from 67 to 142 in 1972. Steps were also taken

  to address malnutrition and poor conditions of hygiene. As a remedy,

  some medical centres were constructed to provide health education

  in order to sensitise people on how to prevent certain diseases.

  Breastfeeding mothers were provided with child care skills. The

  government also set up nutrition centres for malnourished children.

  To take care of disabled children, a centre for physically handicapped

  children was built at Gatagara. A psychiatry centre for the mentally

  handicapped was built at Ndera. This centre known as Caraes

  Ndera was run by the Brothers of Charity. In preventive medicine,

  vaccination campaigns were initiated between 

                    1965 and 1970.

  Reasons for the Fall of the First Republic

  Institutionalisation of discrimination against Tutsi

  From 1959 onwards, the Tutsi population was targeted, causing

  hundreds of thousands of deaths. A population of almost two

  million Rwandans were refugees for almost four decades. The First

  Republic, under President Grégoire Kayibanda, institutionalised

  discrimination against the Tutsi and periodically used massacres

  against the Tutsi as a means of maintaining the status quo.

  In 1965, Rwanda was declared a one-party state under MDR/

  PARMEHUTU, which was the architect of the racist ideology. The

  regime of Kayibanda did not manifest a good will to repatriate the

  refugees. Instead, the state killed the Tutsi whenever the Inyenzi

  attacked the country.

  Transfer of ethnicism to regionalism

  In 1965, PARMEHUTU won every seat in the National Assembly.

  In spite of this achievement, this party experience had started

  to internal tensions since 1963. These tensions fell into two

  categories:

  There were inter-personal rivalries and disagreements in the

  distribution of jobs as the party organs and state structures came

  closer and closer. There was increasing discontent among emerging

  cadres, students and individuals with primary and secondary education. Very fierce local political competition was combined

  with rivalries at national level. Bourgomasters and prefects

  competed intensely. Whereas the former drew upon their clientele

  networks and the legitimacy as elected officials, the latter used

  state structures and party influence. Divisions emerged due to the

  struggle for jobs. The state decided to expose ethnic divisions so as

  to unify the regime.

  The purges which began in February 26th 1973 were initially

  provoked by students, but also encouraged and led by political

  authorities. Along with PARMEHUTU, the authorities aimed at

  uniting the regime by defining a common enemy. Northern soldiers

  (particularly Lieutenant Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of

  Police, who was from Ruhengeri) who, planned to cause a political

  crisis, also targeted the Tutsi population (“Mututsi mvira aha”).

  The purges, initially involved the posting of lists of Tutsi students

  and staff, asking them to leave universities and companies. This

  problem later run out of control.

  Consequently, Grégoire Kayibanda punished several northern

  dignitaries by dismissing them from jobs and removing them

  from locations associated with power: Lieutenant Colonel Alexis

  Kanyarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo Seminary while

  Major Nsekalije was assigned to a tea cooperative in Byumba. All

  the general secretaries of the government ministries were replaced,

  as well as nine of the ten prefects. The divide between the south

  and the north was firmly established.

  From February–March 1973, purges were organised in schools

  and in public administration against the Tutsi population. Tutsi

  students appeared on lists posted in all secondary schools and at

  the university of Rwanda and signed ‘Mouvement des Étudiants’

  (‘Students’ Movement’) or ‘Comité de Salut Public’ (‘Committee

  of Public Safety’). They felt threatened and had to flee from these

  institutions.

  In mid-February, the movement reached the National University of

  Rwanda in Butare and the secondary school of Kabgayi managed

  by the Josephite brothers. This movement, which had started in

  schools, spread to public administration and private companies.

  In ministries, hospitals, banks and shops, the Committee of Public

  Safety posted lists identifying the Tutsi. Private individuals were

  requested to fire their Tutsi servants. From the towns, this spread

  to the countryside. In the prefectures of Gitarama and Kibuye, the

  houses of the Tutsi were burned down and they were told to leave.

  Different explanations are given for the source of this turmoil.

  Though orders were given through the administration, they may

  have originated from people close to Grégoire Kayibanda. They

  may also have come from Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of Police,

  who was from Ruhengeri.

  Afterwards, the names of some ministers appeared on the lists

  drawn up in Kigali. In Gitarama, several rich Hutu traders’ stores

  were attacked and looted, as well as the residences of certain

  politicians, including that of Rwasibo Jean Baptiste. On March 22,

  Grégoire Kayibanda made a pacification speech and announced

  the creation of a ministerial commission in charge of inspecting

  schools.

  Another cause of the rivalry between the north and the south was

  that PARMEHUTU members of the south especially in Gitarama,

  the home area of President Kayibanda tended to dominate

  PARMEHUTU and government power at the expense of the northern

  region. For example, in the last government formed by President

  Grégoire Kayibanda in 1972, there were six ministers out of

  eighteen. One third came from Gitarama, the region of Kayibanda.

  Kayibanda was accused of behaving like a monarch who played

  around, and causing misunderstanding in the government.

  There was a failed coup attempt by Nyatanyi Pierre the chief of

  cabinet under President Kayibanda and Muramutsa Joachim,

  commandant of the Kanombe unit. Because these two officers were

  from the north the coup was seen as a coup of the north against

  the south. The two officers were imprisoned only to be pardoned

  later by President Habyarimana when he took over power in the

  coup d’état of 1973.

  Towards the fall of the First Republic

  The first signs of the decline of the First Republic appeared in October

  1968, when a parliamentary commission of inquiry report on the

  administration of the country was rejected by the majority of the

  members of the parliament. This was because of interpersonal and

  regional differences in the ranks of PARMEHUTU. The report had

  serious accusations against President Kayibanda. The accusations

  in the report included favouritism and nepotism, intimidation,

  misuse of political power and impunity which characterised the

  political and public life of the regime. 

  As a result of this report, members of parliament were divided into

  two camps. Some supported the report while others opposed it. The

  supporters of the report were suspended from the decision making

  organs of the party. They were also prevented from contesting the

  legislative elections of 1969.

  Another factor that contributed to the reinforcement of regional

  divisions was the constitutional amendment of May 18th, 1973 by

  the National Assembly. This amendment increased the duration of

  presidential terms of office from five to seven years, and allowed

  Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a third term. Although, the

  National Assembly supported the amendment of the constitution,

  the country was already divided according to the two main regions:

  north and south. The north wanted to take power while the south

  wanted to keep it.

  In order to solve the problem of discontent in political and military

  ranks that was linked to regionalism, President Kayibanda resorted

  to violence and ethnic cleansing of the Tutsi. Kayibanda wanted

  to hide the regional divisions in the country by turning public and

  international attention to what had been considered as a lesser evil

  or no evil at all.

  In carrying out this plan, Tutsi children were chased out of schools

  and the few Tutsi in minor administrative positions were dismissed,

  and others murdered. These crimes were planned and carried out

  by top ranking officials in the government.

  This impunity degenerated into regional confrontation. The Hutu

  of the north started to resent and fight the Hutu of the central

  part of the country favoured by President Kayibanda. It was under

  these circumstances that Habyarimana Juvenal, the minister of

  defence decided to intervene militarily. He overthrew Kayibanda in

  the coup d’état of 5th July 1973. Kayibanda and many officials in

  his regime were thrown into prison. They faced court martial. They

  were sentenced to death or given long prison sentences.

  Achievements of the Second Republic(1973–1990)

  Activity 7

  Research on the political evolution of Rwanda during the Second

  Republic and find answers to the following questions. Present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  1. Identify and explain the political and institutional changes

  made after the coup d’état of July 5th, 1973.

  2. What were the new political institutions set up by the

  Second Republic?

  Activity 8

  Research on the economic evolution of Rwanda during the Second

  Republic and find answers to the following questions. Present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  1. Identify the benefits which Rwanda expected to gain from

  regional integration during the Second Republic.

  2. What were the causes of the economic crisis that hit

  Rwanda from 1986?

  3. What measures were adopted to address the above crisis?

  4. Evaluate the achievements of the government of Rwanda in

  economic infrastructure during the Second Republic.

  Activity 9

  Discuss the strategies adopted by the government of Rwanda

  to reduce infant mortality, to promote and achieve curative care

  and preventive education.

  Activity 10

  Conduct a study on the socio-cultural evolution of Rwanda

  during the Second Republic and write an essay on one of the

  following topics. Afterwards, read your essay to the class.

  1. What were the reasons that led to the failure of the

  1978/1979 education reform?

  2. Comment on how the ethnic and regional balance was

  applied by the Second Republic.

  Activity 11

  Write an essay on reasons for the fall of the Second Republic.

  Political evolution

  On July 5th, 1973, President Kayibanda was overthrown in a

  coup d’état led by Major General Habyarimana Juvenal. The latter

  was assisted by the following senior military officers: Lieutenant

  Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, Majors Aloys Nsekarije, Benda Sabin,

  Ruhashya Epimaque, Gahimano Fabien, Jean Népomuscéne

  Munyandekwe, Bonaventure Ntibitura, Serubuga Laurent, Buregeya

  Bonaventure and Simba Aloys.

  

  The coup leaders dissolved the National

  Assembly, suspended the 1962 constitution and

  banned all political activity. They at the same

  time put in place what they called a National

  Peace and Unity Committee composed of 11

  senior officers to replace the ousted government.

  Given the state of insecurity the country was

  going through before the coup d’état of 5th July

  1973, this committee was greeted with a lot

  of hope, even among the Rwandan refugees.

  In President Habyarimana’s declaration on July

  5th, 1974, much was said about national peace

  and unity. He castigated regionalism, public

  immorality, and corruption.

  On July 5th 1975, Major General Juvénal Habyarimana etablished

  Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement

  (MRND). The Party’s main objective was to unify, encourage and

  intensify efforts of all Rwandans to enhance economic, social and

  cultural development in an atmosphere of national peace and unity.

  In 1977, the Commission for Administration and Institutional Affairs

  of Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement

  (MRND) prepared a new constitution. In October 1978, the

  constitution was adopted by government and the MRND Central

  Committee.

  On the December 20th 1978, the new constitution was adopted by

  the population in a referendum with a reported 89 per cent of the

  votes. At the same time Habyarimana was elected through universal

  suffrage as president of Rwanda with a 99 per cent majority.

  Article 7 of the constitution declared Rwanda a single party

  state under the MRND where every citizen was a member right

  from birth. In reality, this was the establishment of a one party

  political system. The president of the MRND party had to be the

  sole presidential candidate. The new constitution abolished the

  National Assembly and replaced it with The National Development

  Council (NDC). The first National Development Council or Conseil

  National pour le Développement( CND) was elected in 1983.

  At the diplomatic level, the Second Republic made international

  openness and cooperation one of its main priorities. Rwanda

  therefore increased the number of its diplomatic representatives

  abroad.

  On December 19th, 1983 Juvénal Habyarimana was re-elected

  president of Rwanda with 99.98 per cent of the votes. After five

  years, on December 19th, 1988 Juvénal Habyarimana was reelected again for five years winning 99.8 per cent of the votes.

  In June 1990, French President François Mitterrand gave a speech

  at La Baule in France in which he announced that French aid

  would be conditional upon democratisation in Africa. Following

  this speech, Rwanda experienced a slight opening up towards a

  multi-party system.

  

  Thus, on July 5, 1990, during his

  traditional July 5 speech, the day of

  the Second Republic’s 17th anniversary,

  Juvénal Habyarimana was in position

  to announce these political changes:

  the separation of the party bodies

  from state structures, and the possible

  implementation of a multi-party system,

  though he remained very vague about the

  details of how this would be implemented.

  On September 1st 1990, thirty-three

  Rwandan intellectuals published a

  manifesto ‘for a multi-party system and

  democracy’.

  On September 25th, 1990 Juvénal Habyarimana named the

  Commission Nationale de Synthèse CNS or (National Synthesis

  Committee), in charge of developing the first draft for a constitution

  allowing many political parties.

  Economic evolution

  Under the Second Republic, the Second Five-year period of the

  economic, social and cultural development plan which covered

  the period from 1977 up to 1981 was implemented. This plan had

  four missions:

  ࿤ Ensuring food security of the population and address the

  population growth rate.

  ࿤ Promotion of human resource management.

  ࿤ Improvement of the social conditions of individuals and the

  community.

  et Artisanal Integré (CERAI). These professional schools admitted

  students who had missed secondary school enrollment for 3 years.

  In such schools, students could learn professional skills such as

  woodwork, electricity, masonry and plumbing.

  From 1982 to 1986, the Third Five-year period of the economic,

  social and cultural development plan was also adopted with the

  following aims:

  ࿤ To improve food security for the population in terms of both

  quality and quantity.

  ࿤ To promote jobs at sustainable wage levels that cover the basic

  needs while emphasising training programmes in order to

  increase labour productivity.

  ࿤ To improve the population’s health conditions, promote access

  to shelter and produce goods for mass consumption.

  ࿤ To develop external relations and encourage the fairness of

  international trade conditions.

  The Rwandan diplomatic representation in foreign countries

  increased. In 1979, Rwanda had hosted the Sixth Franco – African

  Conference. In 1976, Rwanda had just been a co-founder of the

  Communauté Economique des Pays des Grand Lacs (CEPGL).

  It was also host to the headquarters of the Kagera River Basin

  Organisation (KBO).

  The Second Republic made a great effort in agriculture. Cash crops

  especially tea, coffee and pyrethrum were promoted by the increase

  in acrage cultivated and the creation of factories. These include

  the tea factories of Shagasha, Mata, Gisovu, and Nyabihu, and the

  pyrethrum factory processing in Ruhengeri.

  The government of the Second Republic focused a particular

  attention on food crops like maize, rice, soya beans, sugarcane,

  etc. Some factories were also set up to process these crops like the

  Maïserie de Mukamira, Sucrerie de Kabuye, and others.

  Emphasis was also put on the creation of agricultural projects.

  In almost all former prefectures, there were such projects like

  Développement Global de Butare (DGB), Projet Agricole de

  Gitarama(PAG), Développement Rural de Byumba (DRB) and Crête

  Congo Nil.

  Regarding animal husbandry, the accent was placed on rearing one

  cow in a cowshed and planting reeds and other kinds of grasses to

  feed the cows. To improve the existing breeds of cows, strategies

  such as the importation of bulls, artificial insemination, research,

  fighting cattle diseases, etc were adopted.

  Concerning infrastructural development, the following infrastructure

  were put in place by the Second Republic:

  

  

  

  ࿤ Asphalting of the following routes:

  Kigali–Gatuna

  Kigali–Butare–Akanyaru

  Kigali–Ruhengeri–Gisenyi

  Kigali–Kibungo–Rusumo

  Butare–Gikongoro–Cyangugu

  ࿤ Construction of several buildings to serve as offices, for different

  ministries and hospitals; for example King Faisal Hospital,

  ࿤ Extension of electricity network

  ࿤ Construction of Kanombe Airport

  ࿤ Construction of Amahoro National Stadium

  From 1980 to 1986, the country enjoyed economic growth due

  to a combination of positive external and internal factors. This

  included good climate high prices of coffee, tea and minerals, and

  a considerable flow of external capital into the country.

  However, from the end of 1986, the situation deteriorated and the

  economy of Rwanda gradually declined. The causes of the economic

  crisis in Rwanda during this period included the following:

  ࿤ The drastic fall of the world coffee and tin prices

  ࿤ The over devaluation of the Rwandan franc

  ࿤ The poor management of public funds

  ࿤ The demographic explosion prevailing in Rwanda since 1940,

  hence the reduced yields from land.

  To address this economic crisis, the government of Rwanda applied

  the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) dictated by the Bretton

  Woods Institutions (International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World

  Bank) with a view to stabilising the economy and benefiting from

  financial support of those institutions. 

  

  Socio-cultural evolution

  Health

  Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made to expand

  the health sector. The dispensaries were transformed into health

  centres and more medical personnel were trained.

  The government also put in place a policy which aimed at creating

  nutrition centres in order to educate parents on nutrition and

  hygiene.

  Government improved hygiene conditions by putting emphasis on

  the most vulnerable groups such as women and children. In order

  to find a solution to hygiene related-problems, the government

  established nutritional centres at health centres. Thus it achieved

  curative care and preventive education, including vaccination,

  nutrition, maternal and child protection.

  In 1979 the government established the Broad-Based Vaccination

  Programme (PEV/BVP) whose objective was to reduce infant

  mortality through vaccination against certain targeted diseases

  which included tuberculosis, whooping cough, tetanus, polio,

  measles and diphtheria.

  In 1987, the government established the Programme National de Lutte

  contre le SIDA (PNLS) or National Programme for the Fight against

  AIDS whose objective was to control, prevent, reduce and conduct

  research on AIDS. In the same year, the government launched the

  Programme National de Lutte contre le Paludisme (PNLP)or National

  Programme for Fight against Malaria. In 1989 the Programme for

  Acceleration of Primary Health Care (PASSP) was also put in place. 

  This programme aimed at encouraging community participation in

  self-reliance and management of health services at their health

  centres.

  Education

  In this sector, the following were the achievements of the Second

  Republic:

  Many reforms were made at all levels of education in Rwanda.

  Among these was the construction of new primary and secondary

  schools.

  During the school year of 1978–1979, primary education was

  revised. The primary cycle changed from 6 years to 8 years. Training

  in professional skills was introduced in Primary 7 and Primary 8,

  and Kinyarwanda became a language of instruction from P 1 up

  to P 8.

  At the secondary education level, the Ordinary Level was reduced

  and specialisations sections introduced in the second year of

  secondary education. But this reform failed due to lack of:

  ࿤ teaching materials

  ࿤ qualified teachers in the newly introduced subjects

  ࿤ appropriate evaluation methods for the reform.

  So, in 1991, these reforms were revised, the primary education

  cycle was brought back to 6 years.

  At university level, the Institut Pédagogique National (IPN) was

  fused with some departments of the National University of Rwanda.

  The new campus of Nyakinama was created in 1980–1981 as

  the result of this fusion. Besides, the duration of studies in most

  faculties was reduced from 5 to 4 years.

  Reasons for the Fall of the Second Republic

  
  

  The imprisonment and killing of the politicians of                                the First Republic

  
  

  During the two years that followed the coup, the former ‘leaders’

  of the First Republic were assassinated or imprisoned. From

  1974 – 1977, 58 people — individuals who were either close to

  Grégoire Kayibanda and public figures of the First Republic — were

  assassinated upon orders from Théoneste Lizinde, chief of security

  at the interior ministry. According to some sources, the repression

  affected up to 700 people.

  Lack of freedom of speech and press

  The Second Republic was against multipartism. Whoever attempted

  to criticise the regime was intimidated or imprisoned. For instance,

  on September 18th, 1990 the trial of the priest André Sibomana,

  who was the director of the bi-monthly publication Kinyamateka,

  and three of his journalists opened in Kigali after the publication of

  articles denouncing corruption in the government. On July 3th and

  6th, 1990 the Cour de Sûreté de l’État (State Security Court) had

  Vincent Rwabukwisi, the editor-in-chief of Kanguka arrested. He

  was accused of having interviewed King Kigeri V Ndahindurwa in

  exile in Nairobi and of plotting with refugees.

  Beside these cases, other examples of violation of human rights are

  the murder of the former chief editor of Kinyamateka newspaper,

  Father Sylvio Sindambiwe and Nyiramutarambirwa Felicula, a

  former member of parliament.

  Economic crisis

  By the end of the 1980s, the regime was becoming ineffective.

  The falling price of coffee caused a severe crisis in the country and

  fueled discontent.

  From 1986, there was a fall in the prices of coffee and tin. Coffee

  represented 75 per cent of the national economy.

  In January 1988, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was

  affected by a famine which killed 250 people.

  In 1989, coffee prices decreased by 50 per cent. There was an

  increase in credits from 189 million US dollars up to 941 million

  and reduction of foreign currency reserves from 144 million US

  dollars up to 30 million.

  The Rwandan Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 330 US dollars

  fell to 200 US dollars in 1990. In 1989, the national social budget

  was reduced to 40 per cent.

  In 1991, Rwanda signed an agreement with the World Bank to

  implement a Structural Adjustment Plan (SAP) which led to the

  devaluation of the Rwandan franc on two occasions: its value fell

  by 40 per cent in November 1990, then again by 15 per cent

  in June 1992. Though the SAP was only partially implemented,

  the main effect of the devaluation was inflation, which reached

  19.2 per cent in 1991 and an increase in demand because of the

  liberation war.

  Institutionalisation of ethnic and regional balance or quota system

  The regime of Habyrimana was not a model of democracy as its

  leaders claimed. The regime forced people into a single party system

  and partisan politics based on ethnic and regional segregation.

  The regime led to growth of the Rukiga-Nduga conflict which was

  characterised by the exclusion of Tutsi and Hutu of Nduga from

  schools and key posts in national leadership positions like during

  Kayibanda regime.

  This discrimination which was institutionalised by the Second

  Republic from 1981 was known as “ethnic and regional balance

  or quota system”. The system saw Tutsi children excluded from

  secondary and tertiary education. This policy also tended to

  discriminate against the Hutu from all other parts of the country,

  especially the south. These areas were allocated fewer places

  in secondary schools and in university, in the national army,

  administration and diplomatic service on the basis of ethnic and

  regional belonging. The best and numerous positions in all fields

  were reserved for the Hutu from the north.

  This policy applied in all government institutions was a serious

  violation of, especially, the right to education. This culminated into

  the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. The policy excluded bright

  and gifted children just because they were Tutsi.

  Enrollment in Public Secondary schools in September 1989 by
  Prefecture

  

  In the table above, only three prefectures had their places increased.

  These were Gisenyi with + 396 places, Kigali with + 35 places

  and Ruhengeri with + 10 places. Other prefectures lost their

  available places like Butare which lost 140 places. That shows the

  unfairness in the distribution of places in secondary schools and

  university due to regionalism and ethnieism. The places reserved

  for Tutsi were effectively reduced in each prefecture.

  Centralisation of power in the hands of a small group of people
  “Akazu”

  Between 1985 and 1990 most of the leadership positions were

  reserved for Hutus. Power was held by elites from the north-west

  of the country, in contrast with the pro-southern orientation of the

  First Republic. One-third of the 85 most important governmental

  positions were given to persons born in the prefecture of Gisenyi.

  After ten years of economic growth, the economic crisis and

  regional favouritism destabilised the government. Rivalry for posts

  increased, power struggles became more fierce, and mafia-type

  behaviour and structures thrived. One of the main power centres

  was known as the Akazu. It was organised around Agathe Kanziga

  — Juvénal Habyarimana’s wife—and her brothers. In April 1988,

  the assassination of Colonel Stanislas Mayuya, who was considered

  the likely successor of the president, was carried out by this power

  centre.

  Division among Rwandans from the north-west began in the

  1980s. It started when two highly regarded senior military officers,

  Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe and Major Théoneste Lizinde were

  accused of plotting a coup d’état. Lizinde was accused of killing

  some politicians who had served in the First Republic from the

  south. This misunderstanding divided the politicians and people

  from the north. As a result, political power was monopolised by a

  small part of the north-west from Bushiru in the ex-commune of

  Karago. Finally, power was concentrated in the hands of President

  Habyarimana, his immediate family, and his in-laws. This was

  termed Akazu meaning “from one single household”.

  Glorification of Habyarimana and dictatorship

  As years went by, President Habyarimana started developing a

  personality cult. This was done through political mobilisation and

  glorification of the President by his political party using animation 

  and his portrait which appeared everywhere in public and private

  surroundings.

  In addition to this personality cult, President Habyarimana set up a

  dictatorship. There was a single party, the Revolutionary National

  Democratic Movement (MRND), and power was concentrated in

  the hands of a small group of President Habyarimana’s family. No

  single decision could be made whatsoever without the dictator’s

  consent.

  Opposing the return of refugees

  In June–July 1986, the Central Committee of MRND, the highest

  decision-making body in the Habyarimana regime, examined

  the problem of Rwandan refugees scattered around the world,

  especially in the neighbouring countries. As a solution, the Central

  Committee resolved that the refugees were not to return into the

  country. The Central Committee strongly advocated that refugees

  should find a way of integrating into their countries of asylum.

  According to the Central Committee, Rwanda was overpopulated

  and incapable of receiving and accommodating her own people

  back. Only those who had the capacity to cater for themselves, it

  was decided, should apply individually for consideration to return

  to Rwanda.

  It was in that context that they declared that any refugee who

  wished to return should show proof of his or her financial capacity

  to support himself/herself once allowed to repatriate to Rwanda.

  Habyarimana himself advocated that a child of a refugee should

  not be called a refugee and so he started negotiations with Uganda

  to reintegrate Rwandan refugees. In February 1989, President

  Habyarimana established a special commission for refugees’

  problems and met Uganda government officials.

  This position of President Habyarimana and his government

  prompted the refugees to call for an international conference in

  Washington in August 1988 in which they rejected this position

  and reaffirmed their inalienable right to return to their homeland.

  This was one of the causes of the National Liberation War which

  sarted on October 1st, 1990.

  

  The year 1962 was marked by the recovery of Rwanda’s

  independence. This was preceded by ethnic turmoil from 1959 that

  led thousands of Rwandans to become refugees in neighbouring

  countries. The First Republic that replaced Belgian colonial rule

  failed to reunite Rwandans who had been divided by the colonisers.

  Instead, the regimes of Kayibanda and Habyarimana perpetuated

  the colonial policy which relied on divisionism.

  After the establishment of the First Republic, Rwanda was faced

  with many problems. The country was insecure due to the incursions

  launched by Inyenzi from neighbouring countries. The response of

  Rwandan leaders was the killing of thousands of Tutsi who had

  remained in the country. Another major issue was the economic

  crisis. At independence, Rwanda had no adequate resources to

  insure its financial self-reliance.

  Despite these financial limitations, some economic and social

  infrastructures such as banks, roads, bridges, schools, and

  hospitals were set up by the First Republic. However, due to a

  number of factors including the divisions between the Rwandans

  from the north and those from south, the domination of the

  main administrative posts by the people from Gitarama in the

  government of Kayibanda, and insecurity caused by the killing of

  the Tutsi who had become the scapegoat in the rivalries between

  the Bakiga and Banyenduga, the First Republic was deposed by

  Juvénal Habyarimana who set up the Second Republic in 1973.

  This regime was not different from that of Kayibanda in the approach

  to social relations. Although, it supported unity of the Banyarwanda

  in the beginning, later it introduced the policy of ethnic and regional

  balance or quota system. This aimed at excluding Tutsi and Hutu

  of Nduga from schools and main administrative posts.

  The Second Republic registered some achievements. Infrastructure

  like roads, football stadiums, bridges, administrative offices, and

  Kanombe airport, were built and rehabilitated. Schools, health

  centres, and hospitals were also built.

  However, the Habyarimana regime was characterised by bad

  governance. There was corruption, dictatorship, nepotism,

  mismanagement and embezzlement of the public funds, violence

  against the opposition and journalists, arbitrary imprisonments, and political assassinations. There was an economic crisis from

  1987 onwards, and unwillingness to address the problem of

  Rwandan refugees.

  For all the above problems, the Habyarimana regime was fought

  by Rwandan people from both outside and inside the country. The

  Rwanda Patriotic Front launched the October 1990 Liberation War

  which ended in the removal of the Habyarimana regime in July

  1994.

  Glossary

  Diaspora: the dispersion or spreading of something

  that was originally localised (as a people or

  language or culture)

  Embezzlement: the fraudulent appropriation of funds or

  property entrusted to your care but actually

  owned by someone else

  Intrigues: a crafty and involved plot to achieve your

  (usually sinister) ends

  Manipulate: influence or control shrewdly or deviously

  Nepotism: favouritism shown to relatives or close friends

  by those in power (as by giving them jobs)

  Quota: a proportional share assigned to each participant

  Rift: a personal or social separation (as between

  opposing factions, e.g. “they hoped to avoid a

  rift in relations”

  Scapegoat: someone who is punished for the errors of others

  Scattered: occurring or distributed over widely spaced

  and irregular intervals in time or space

  Status quo: the existing state of affairs

  Turmoil: disturbance usually in protest or violent

  agitation

  Revision questions

  A. Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Before her independence Rwanda was colonised by

  a) France

  b) Belgium

  c) Germany and Belgium

  d) None of these

  2. Two senior officers planned a coup d’état against President

  Kayibanda but it aborted

  a) Biseruka and Kanyarengwe

  b) Nsekarije and Simba

  c) Nyatanyi and Muramutsa

  d) None of these

  3. The National University of Rwanda was established in

  a) 1961

  b) 1957

  c) 1963

  d) 1964

  4. MRND was founded in

  a) 1971

  b) 1975

  c) 1976

  d) 1978

  5. The quota system was introduced in Rwanda by

  a) Lizinde Theoneste

  b) President Habyarimana

  c) President Kayibanda

  d) None of these

  B. Fill in the Blanks

  1. The post of the president of republic of Rwanda was first given

  to .....................................................................

  2. On July 5th 1973, ......................... was overthrown from power in

  a coup d’état led by Major General Habyarimana Juvenal.

  3. In 1965, the PARMEHUTU won every seat in the National ....

  ...............................................................

  4. Alexis Kanyarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo .....

  ...............................................................................

  5. In 1991, Rwanda signed an agreement with the World Bank to

  implement a .................. which led to the devaluation of the

  Rwandan franc.

  C. Answer True or False

  1. President Kayibanda was elected by the parliament for all the

  mandates during which he ruled Rwanda.

  2. Inyenzi was a name given to an army that attacked Buganda

  from Rwanda in 1960s.

  3. Rwanda recovered its independence on July 24th, 1961.

  4. President Kayibanda was elected for the second mandate in

  1966.

  5. The following roads; Kigali-Gatuna, Kigali-Rusumo, KigaliButare, Ruhengeri-Cyanika were constructed by the First

  Republic.

  Revision questions

  1. Describe the new political institutions put in place in Rwanda

  on the eve of her independence.

  2. Evaluate the socio-economic achievements of the First Republic.

  3. Account for the methods used by Kayibanda to fight against the

  Inyenzi rebels.

  4. Explain why Grégoire Kayibanda failed to unify the Rwandan

  citizens.

  5. Assess the economic and social infrastructures built by the

  Second Republic.

  6. Identify the advantages that Rwanda expected from the regional

  integration.

  7. Identify and explain the causes of the economic crisis that hit

  the Second Republic of Rwanda from 1987.

  8. Explain reasons for the failure of the 1978/1979 education

  reforms.

  9. Outline the features of the ethnic and regional balance policy

  during the Second Republic?

  10.Evaluate the failures of the first and second republics.

  11.Examine the factors that led to the downfall of the Kayibanda

  and Habyarimana regimes.

  Files: 2URLs: 2
• Unit 2 Genocide Denial and Ideology in Rwanda and Abroad

  Key unit competence

  Explain measures of preventing genocide from happening again in

  Rwanda and elsewhere

  Introduction

  In 1994, a genocide was perpetrated against the Tutsi. Before,

  during and after that genocide, its perpetrators set up ways of

  denying it. Even the international community hesitated to consider

  the massive killing of the Tutsi as genocide.

  Three forms of the denial of genocide against the Tutsi have been

  identified: literal genocide denial, interpretative and implicatory

  genocide denial. Literal genocide denial consisted of refusal to

  accept that Rwanda genocide had taken place. The interpretative

  genocide denial aims at saying that in Rwanda there had been

  a double genocide. The implicatory genocide denial supports the

  opinion that the Rwanda Patriotic Army also participated in the

  genocide.

  Genocide denial and genocide ideology are unbearable. The

  government of Rwanda set up different strategies to combat it

  including law n°18/2008 of 23/07/2008 relating to the punishment of the crime of genocide ideology. At the international level, different

  conferences were organised and the problem of genocide, its denial

  and ideology were examined in order to search for ways of fighting

  them.

  Links to other subjects

  Conflict transformation in General Studies and Communication

  Skills

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Forms and channels of genocide denial and ideology of genocide

  denial

  ࿤ Ways of fighting against different forms and channels of genocide

  denial and ideology

  Forms and channels of Genocide Denial and Ideology

  
  

  Activity 1

  Define the following concepts: ideology, genocide ideology and

  genocide denial. Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 2

  Carry out research on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and

  then discuss different ways used to deny this genocide. Present

  the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 3

  Carry out research on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and

  then explain the three forms of denial of that genocide. Present

  the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 4

  Carry out research on the 1994 genocide against Tutsi and

  analyse how the banal denial was manifested in Rwanda and

  abroad. Present the results of your study to the class.

  Activity 5

  Conduct a study on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and

  demonstrate with examples how the literal genocide denial was

  manifested in Rwanda and abroad. Present the results of your

  study to the class.

  Activity 6

  Conduct a research on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi

  and show how the interpretative form of genocide denial was

  manifested in Rwanda and abroad. Present the results of your

  study to the class.

  Activity 7

  Carry out research on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and

  show how the implicatory form of genocide denial manifested

  in Rwanda and abroad. Present the results of your findings to

  the class.

  Definition of Concepts

  Definition of the terms “ideology”, “genocide ideology” and

  “genocide denial”

  Definition of the concept “ideology”

  An ideology is an organised collection of ideas. The word ideology

  was used in the late 18th century to define a “science of ideas”. 

  An ideology is a comprehensive vision, or a set of ideas proposed by

  the dominant class to all members of a society. The main purpose

  behind an ideology is to introduce change in society through a

  normative thought process. Ideologies tend to be abstract thoughts

  applied to reality and, thus, make this concept unique to politics.

  Ideologies are very common in the world of politics and have been

  used; for example, to provide guidance and to persuade.

  Definition of the concept “genocide ideology”

  Genocide ideology is a collection of thoughts characterised

  by conduct, speeches, documents and other acts aiming at

  exterminating or inciting others to exterminate people basing on

  ethnic group, origin, nationality, region, colour, physical appearance,

  sex, language, religion or political opinion, committed in normal

  periods or during war.

  Definition of the term “genocide denial” in Rwanda

  Genocide denial is an attempt to deny or minimise statements of

  the scale and severity of an incidence of genocide for instance the

  denial of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi and the holocaust.

  Where there is near universal agreement that genocide occurred,

  genocide denial is usually considered as a form of illegitimate

  historical revisionism. However, in circumstances where the

  generally accepted facts do not clearly support the occurrence of

  genocide, the use of the term may be an argument by those who

  argue that genocide occurred.

  Some ways used to deny the 1994 genocide against Tutsi

  ࿤ The minimisation of genocide in any behaviour exhibited publicly

  and intentionally in order to reduce the weight or consequences

  of the genocide against Tutsi.

  ࿤ Minimising how the genocide was committed.

  ࿤ Altering the truth about the genocide against the Tutsi in order

  to hide the truth from the people.

  ࿤ Asserting that there were two genocides in Rwanda: one

  committed against the Tutsi and the other against Hutu or

  saying there had been acts of mutual killing, etc. 

  Forms of Genocide Denial and its manifestation
  in Rwandan Ssociety and Abroad

  In 1994, the Hutu extremists in Rwanda’s government then in

  power, planned, organised for and guided through public institutions

  genocide against the Tutsi and Hutu opposed to the genocide plan.

  Simultaneously, they also organised how after committing it they

  could deny it as it happens in all the cases of genocide. This is the

  last stage (8th) in the process of genocide. To deny here means

  to deny something that was collectively organised and involved

  targeted, deliberate killings of specific groups of unarmed civilians

  identified on the basis of origin, and usually targeting those with

  suspect political loyalties and their relatives.

  The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi was committed according

  to ‘home-made’ Rwandan plans already underway by as early as

  1992 as it has been suggested by the historical and legal record,

  of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and of numerous

  studies. Since 1994, the genocide denial has taken three main

  forms: Literal genocide denial, interpretative and implicatory

  genocide denial. In the case of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi,

  all these three forms of genocide denial are more or less linked to

  one another.

  Literal genocide denial involves negating the facts of genocide,

  silencing talk of genocidal plans and killings. Literal denial becomes

  harder to sustain once evidence emerges that genocide plans

  were made and executed right across Rwanda. Following this,

  interpretative genocide denial reframes or relabels, the events of

  the genocide, viewing them as part and parcel of civil war, rather

  than genocide. Subsequently, implicatory genocide denial becomes

  prevalent, and involves explicit counter-accusations that genocide

  was planned by those previously viewed as saving the victims. The

  Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) government is thus accused of

  planning genocide, not only in Rwanda but also in eastern Congo,

  now Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). A double genocide

  thesis is part of both the interpretative and implicatory forms of

  genocide denial. All the three forms of denial tend to reinforce two

  parallel and mutually incompatible accounts of the 1994 genocide

  against the Tutsi, of the past, and tend to further polarise political

  and public opinion, reinforcing divisions over the past, present and

  future direction of the country. 

  Banal denial

  This kind of denial is manifested through the films in which French

  soldiers seen rescuing, Belgian or French missionaries refuse to do

  so towards the thousands of Tutsi that were being killed. These

  powerful film sequences convey one key quality of everyday denial

  in the sense that rescuing the expatriates while abandoning the

  Tutsi to their killers constitutes one of the very flagrant aspects of

  the genocide denial.

  Some researchers like Freud have demonstrated that some forms

  of silence or fantasy serve to protect an individual’s ego from

  deep-rooted fears and memories, including from memories of

  trauma. Denial in this every day, individual sense signals the failure

  to accept reality, but also has a certain logic since it makes escape

  during a psychologically impossible situation possible. Some

  interpersonal forms of denial thus appear normal psychological

  responses to abnormal situations.

  The soldier’s turning up the music is an example of banal denial;

  his being under orders to save only non-Rwandans, and white

  expatriates in particular, is something else; it is collective denial.

  In a wider sense, the term ‘denial’ refers to something societywide, something organised. In collective forms of denial, like

  genocide denial, individual, more banal responses through denial

  may also be instrumentalised.

  Another scholar, Cohen, focuses rather on how to analyse social and

  collectively organised forms of denial, of which genocide denial is

  a prime example. He suggests that when entire societies, including

  governments, and social groups, move to ignore past atrocities, to

  minimise the significance of human suffering, then this constitutes

  collective denial, and can even involve official denial by the state.

  Collective genocide denial has serious long-term consequences for

  criminal justice which cannot be equated with more banal forms of

  individual denial, analysed by Freud as coping mechanisms. Whilst

  genocide denial has both individual and collective manifestations

  even before the genocide became reality, denial of its true purpose

  can be shown to be part and parcel of the logic of extremist Hutu

  power political ideology, at least from 1990, and perhaps even

  from the time of the first attacks on the Tutsi in 1959,with Belgian

  assistance.

  Through a set of historical spirals of conflicting claims about which

  group is the original, real or ultimate victim, these three broad

  forms of genocide denial can however be roughly equated with

  three broad phases of recent Rwandan history.

  Literal denial

  Although literal denial was predominant in the early post-genocide

  years in Rwanda, it has not yet disappeared. Literal denial involves

  either the full intention to deceive or forms of self-deception that

  result in disbelief, silence or claiming not to know.

  Knowledge may be directly denied, sometimes even in the face of

  clear evidence to the contrary. Silence, indifference and treating

  evidence as if it does not merit serious consideration, are all

  strategies of literal genocide denial.

  Literal genocide denial was mainly confined to the private sphere

  during the early post-genocide years. It still appears in some

  research, in internet blogs, and among the lawyers of those accused

  of genocide at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.

  

  Interpretative denial

  Arguably, this becomes the dominant form of genocide

  denial in post-genocide Rwanda. Interpretative genocide

  denial involves re-categorising evidence that is established,

  and goes beyond negating, ignoring or silencing talk of

  genocide. Higher moral goals are often invoked in cases

  of interpretative denial, such as: revolutionary struggle, 

  ethnic purity, western civilisation’, or in the case of Rwanda,

  legitimate self-defence and a striving for ethnic-based selfdetermination.

  Interpretative genocide denial involves use of euphemisms, and the

  relativising of atrocities by one’s own side as an understandable

  response to the threat of the ‘other side.’ Like literal genocide

  denial, interpretative genocide denial can form part of international

  scholarly discourse, or be part of public popular opinion. In the

  media, the most common expression of interpretative denial was

  to present the genocide of Tutsi as simply part of a wider ‘civil war’

  of all against all, rather than a targeted genocide.

  Implicatory denial

  This third form of genocide denial consists of retaliatory counteraccusations, and explicit justification for one’s position, through

  anticipatory counter–accusation against the other party.

  Implicatory genocide denial has been aimed at restoring a sense of

  self-worth among those accused of genocide crimes. By claiming,

  for example, that the Rwanda Patriotic Front really started the

  genocide themselves, by shooting down the plane carrying the

  presidents of Rwanda and Burundi on 6 April 1994, implicatory

  genocide denial tries to prove that if genocide was committed, it

  was not by those accused but by the ‘other side’ in a civil war.

  The aim is also to exonerate all atrocities and lay the blame on

  others. In implicatory denial, the other side is always guilty of lies,

  propaganda, ideology, disinformation or prejudice, and thus of

  triggering the genocide.

  Those accusing the RPF in this way seek to exonerate themselves

  from any responsibility for genocide themselves. Implicatory denial

  has arisen mainly since 2003, and mainly through legal institutions

  in France and Spain, and on internet sites of the political opposition

  to the Rwanda Patriotic Front. In more details, each of these three

  basic forms of genocide denial can be presented.

  Literal denial 1994–1998

  At first, silence was the most common form of literal genocide

  denial. Silence remains salient well after the initial post-genocide

  years, sometimes in a surprising crude fashion. At a conference organised at the Peace Palace in The Hague, on Peace and Stability

  in the Great Lakes Region, silence of this kind was evident.

  Up to the late 1994s, during scholarly conferences, in various

  academic journals, in the media, and elsewhere, the events of April

  to July 1994 were still called a civil war, ethnic massacres or other

  terms that avoided use of the of the word “genocide”. Those who

  termed it genocide were still in a minority at that time, and were

  even claimed to be propagating a genocide myth.

  Transitional government members mostly stuck to the literal denial

  narrative of the April–July 1994 period. They even claimed to have

  done nothing wrong, and that most of those killed were Hutu, killed

  by the ‘ethnic’ enemy, the Rwanda Patriotic Army.

  This literal genocide denial was in line with the ideology that

  Hutu power ideologies represented the heroic little men against

  a cunning enemy, the Tutsi, who it was claimed were determined

  to slaughter every last Hutu man, woman and child. Killings

  were presented as mostly spontaneous, to centuries of feudal

  oppression by Tutsi overlords. Literal denial was evident during the

  early years of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, in the

  accounts used by defence lawyers. Genocide was thus transformed

  into something else—killings based on mutual and long-standing

  ethnic hatred, or ancient rivalries of clans and castes. The fact that

  genocide had been planned well in advance was denied, and so

  it could be claimed that the killings were just killings, and not a

  deliberate genocide of a minority, the Tutsi.

  In 1997 one organisation, called Africa Direct, organised a

  conference in London entitled ‘The Great Genocide Debate’.

  The programme and presenters suggested that since there were

  massacres on ‘all sides’ in Rwanda in 1994, this was a civil war

  and not genocide. Aidan Campbell, in the now defunct Trotskyist

  magazine, Living Marxism, claimed this too.

  At the same time Luc de Temmerman, the Belgian defence lawyer

  of some leading genocide suspects at the International Criminal

  Tribunal for Rwanda, simply claimed: “…there was no genocide.

  It was a situation of mass killings in a state of war, everyone was

  killing their enemies”.

  This civil war thesis was common in the media too, especially

  in the early post-genocide years. The situation changed when the former minister Jean Kambanda set a historical precedent being

  the first accused person to acknowledge and affirm his guilt for

  the crime of genocide before an international criminal tribunal. He

  therefore became the first political leader to take responsibility for

  the deliberate planning of genocide, and for its implementation.

  Although he much later appealed, this was a turning point and

  marked an end to widespread individual literal denial among

  perpetrators, who would now find it much harder to sustain

  silence in the face of such a senior administrators’ admissions of

  responsibility. As head of the provisional government, his guilty

  plea departed from the prevalence of literal genocide denial among

  the others appearing at the International Criminal Tribunal for

  Rwanda at that time.

  Through the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, a

  broadly-shared legal and academic consensus emerged that

  genocide had indeed taken place in Rwanda, and was targeted

  against the Tutsi population and those who supported them. The

  International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda proceedings, from each

  region of the country, witness and expert testimony soon filtered

  into academic research, and literal genocide denial started to be

  challenged and gradually gave way to more subtle, interpretative

  forms of genocide denial after 1998 or so. Since then, it was

  obvious to most impartial observers, to most legal experts and to

  emerging historians of the genocide period to conclude that what

  happened in Rwanda in 1994 was the intent to destroy the Tutsi

  as a people.

  The historical evidence of genocide was thus overwhelming, and

  the one-sided killings of April 6–July 1994 within Rwanda started

  to be widely referred to as genocide.

  In response, a gradual shift took place from literal to more

  interpretative forms of genocide denial. These started with the

  familiar argument that this was not one-sided genocide but twosided civil war, 

  an argument later developed into the so-called double genocide thesis.

  
  

  Interpretative denial 1998–2003

  Civil war in Rwanda as elsewhere provides a convenient cover for

  one-sided genocide to be planned and implemented. In the case

  of Rwanda, the evidence is that the machinery of genocide was geared around targeted killings well before 6 April 1994, when

  killings started, triggered by the shooting down of the president’s

  plane.

  Interpretative denial involves distancing, and sometimes even

  victim-blaming, as in this statement to an African Rights

  researcher: “It wasn’t genocide, but rather a civil war. The people

  defended themselves. It was bad luck if you were Tutsi because it

  meant certain death, and therefore you were eliminated”.

  Several key elements of interpretative denial appear in this single

  statement. First, the speaker regards genocide as simply part of

  war and claims those who died were not targeted but were simply

  unlucky.

  The general effect of his words is to suggest that perpetrators were

  not responsible for the outcome of the killings of the unfortunate

  victims. Interpretative genocide denial can thus appear to

  render victims responsible for their own deaths.

  The statement shows how literal denial says it was not genocide.

  For instance, Rene Lemarchand has claimed that the genocide

  against the Tutsi was a retributive genocide, a punishment for past

  atrocities committed by the Tutsi elsewhere. However, in that case,

  he is viewing motivations for genocide as somehow genuine causes.

  The double genocide thesis goes further than the civil war argument,

  and moves from interpretative towards more implicatory forms

  of genocide denial. The double genocide thesis is not supported

  by empirical evidence about patterns of killings inside Rwanda

  between April and July 1994. Verwimp’s study, for example,

  confirms that killings in Rwanda during this period fitted with

  the definition of genocide as an organised, systematic attempt to

  eliminate a specific and targeted population.

  Interpreting data in order to ‘prove’ the double genocide thesis is part

  of interpretative genocide denial, therefore. And such accusations

  of double genocide started even before the genocide began. In fact,

  there is no doubt that genocide denial has been a political weapon

  of perpetrators even before the genocide against the Tutsi took place

  in 1994. Legal instruments alone are not enough to tackle genocide

  denial, and yet such instruments also can be instrumentalised

  in a highly polarised political climate when open criticism and

  implicatory denial may, from some angles, look surprisingly similar. 

  Some scholars suggest that marked social conflicts between classes

  and castes were not invented by European colonisers, and were

  already firmly embedded into Rwanda’s pre-colonial social fabric.

  Implicatory denial: 2003 onwards

  Implicatory denial explicitly accuses the other of being behind

  the genocide all along and thus seeks to lay the blame on others

  instead of those already accused of genocide. Implicatory denial

  turns around the existing legal and political accusations of victims,

  prosecutors and researchers, and suggests that those who claimed

  to end the genocide and to support victims of genocide are in reality

  perpetrators of genocide themselves.

  The general message is that things are not always what they seem,

  a message conveyed by theories that the Rwanda Patriotic Front

  was involved in a conspiracy at the start of the genocide. At an

  individual level, a perpetrator engaged in this kind of implicatory

  denial claims the survivors associations only exist to persecute the

  Hutu in general, and the prisoners in particular.

  Implicatory denial thus involves accusing victims in some cases,

  and the Rwanda Patriotic Front government in other cases, of being

  the real perpetrators behind the scenes.

  Ways of Fighting Against Different Forms and channels 

  of Genocide Denial and Ideology

  Activity 8

  Conduct research on the 1994 genocide against Tutsi and

  discuss different ways that have been proposed to fight against

  the different forms and channels of genocide denial and ideology

  at the African level. Present the results of your discussion to the

  class.

  Activity 9

  Conduct research on the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and

  debate the different ways that had been proposed to fight

  against the different forms and channels of genocide denial and

  ideology at national level. Present the results of your findings

  to the class.

  At African level

  Before speaking of the strategies or ways of fighting against the

  different forms and channels of genocide denial and ideology, it is

  essential to reflect on the real or perceived causes of genocide. In

  fact, the perceived or real causes of genocide provide the foundation

  for the peddling of genocide ideology by extremists in our society.

  What then is genocide ideology? Whether genocide is an actual

  ideology or not is debatable but it is certainly a developing stream

  of ideas rooted in fear and thirst for power usually in the context

  of a history where the people are of different origin. Genocide is

  an extermination or destruction of the other who has been part

  of a whole but is now being separated and targeted as an enemy

  (and man’s spontaneous reaction to the enemy, as we have learnt

  through history, is to eliminate the enemy).

  So the genocide ideology begins with the process of identification

  and stigmatisation of the ‘other’ that is, labelling of the ‘other’

  and eventually the separation of the ‘other’ from the rest of ‘us’.

  The cumulative process of segregation of the ‘other’ is initiated

  by the political leadership and disseminated through various

  means including addressing the public at political rallies, teaching

  students at schools, universities and other institutions of learning

  and indoctrinating the general public including party militants

  through the radio and television broadcasts and dissemination of

  disinformation and propaganda through print and electronic media.

  The ‘other’ is presented by ‘us’ as dangerous, unreliable, and, like

  a dangerous virus, must be destroyed.

  The separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ or ‘them’ is through racial or

  ethnic segregation which may then result in internment, lynching,

  proscription or exile. The process of separation begins when political

  leaders start to brand a section of their own population as the

  ‘other’, ‘these people’, ‘enemy of the state’, ‘enemy of the people’, ‘security risk’, ‘rebel sympathiser’, ‘accomplice’, ‘cockroaches’

  ‘Inyenzi’, or similar derogatory remarks. Cultural or racial branding

  like ‘atheist’, ‘communist’, ‘Muslim’, ‘Christian’ or ‘white’, ‘black’ or

  ‘Arab’ have also been known to have been used. The result of the

  separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ by the political leadership is the

  process through which genocide ideology evolves.

  These examples of the early warning signals at the formative

  stages of genocide ideology are not exhaustive. Extremists are very

  resourceful people and are constantly inventing new ways and

  vocabularies for identifying, stigmatising and dehumanising the

  ‘other’. Once the ‘other’ is sufficiently stigmatised and dehumanised,

  it becomes easy, and even necessary for ‘us’ to massacre ‘them’

  without any sense of guilt or remorse. Every African will recognise

  some or all of these processes either in their own national histories

  or elsewhere.

  Yet, it is not possible to construct the ‘other’ before establishing the

  identity of the ‘us’. The political leadership ensures that the public

  understands that the ‘us’ is more superior, intelligent and deserving

  of a better life, with higher dignity and respect than the useless and

  backward ‘others’. How can the law then deal with such situations

  and discourage or prevent the use of political demagoguery?

  It is important to understand how the ‘ideology’ of genocide becomes

  part of the dominant discourse of a society where the ‘other’ is

  terrorised by the ‘us’ into silence. The hand of the state is never

  far from any genocide or mass killings. The state plays a major

  role, either as active participant or silent supporter, accomplice

  or collaborator. To commit the crime of genocide, considering the

  scope and magnitude of mass murder that is required for it, also

  needs a monopoly of arms, of propaganda, of terror, of resources

  and of power. Only the state in modern history possesses such

  resources. To that extent, without the participation, complicity,

  collaboration or corroboration of the state, it is most unlikely

  that any group of individuals can commit the crime of genocide.

  Crimes of genocide have, in the past, been committed when the

  state refuses, declines or fails to meet its responsibility under both

  national and international law.

  The first duty of the state is to protect its entire citizenry without

  discrimination. Genocide or mass killing is either a failure of

  the state in the sense of an omission to protect or it is an act of the state as in commission of genocide and other crimes

  against humanity. However, as demonstrated at the International

  Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha, the participating citizenry

  is not entirely blameless either. The active participation of the

  Interahamwe (comprised not of drunken ill-disciplined men but

  of highly politicised, well-trained, armed youth responsive to the

  interim government’s demands) in the Rwanda genocide is well

  documented.

  The challenge of the law must be the establishment, through

  active parliamentary law or judicial law making, of laws and

  decisions that address the complex circumstances that permit

  ordinary people to turn against each other in mass killing sprees,

  and to identify mechanisms for acting on early warning signals

  to emerging discrimination and discriminatory practices of the

  state and its functionaries as well as the people themselves. Good

  governance demands that states’ have a ‘Best Practice’ standard

  operating procedure to which all member states of the African

  Union must comply with the possibility of effective sanctions for

  noncompliance.

  After the Second World War the international community

  recognised the dangers of these practices and adopted laws to

  prevent the development of a genocide ideology. However, after

  Europe’s pogroms, genocides and holocausts against each other

  and against the people they had colonised, they adopted the 1948

  Genocide Convention but not much appeared to have changed as

  is demonstrated by mass killings in the former Yugoslavia.

  For Africa, if the experiences of Rwanda, Darfur, Liberia, Sierra

  Leone, Democratic Republic of the Congo or Somalia are anything

  to go by, then Africa has a long way to go notwithstanding that the

  law has a definition for genocide.

  Africans must also sit down and agree to stop killing one other. At

  the street level, the discourse on the subject by ordinary citizens

  is at a different level. It is wrapped in the grasp of ‘victimhood’,

  packaged by the finery of racial, ethnic, religious and geographical

  trimmings. It is propelled by talk of ‘marginalisation’, ‘ethnic, racial

  or religious discrimination’, of ‘lack of equal access to the national

  cake’. It speaks the language of power and counter-force, through

  legal as well as undemocratic and unlawful means. It is this arena

  of discourse that the state must seriously address. 

  What politicians say to the people, what professional and civil

  society leaders interpret from the actions of political leaders, what

  idioms and sound-bytes the media exploits and what language

  religious and cultural leaders utilise in sensitising people about

  the dangers of targeting and segregation of the ‘other’ should be

  the stuff of concern to African leaders – both political and civic.

  The lessons of Rwanda relate to ensuring that all Africans do not

  have to undergo pogroms in order to emerge from the fire of sociopolitical change.

  Besides, countries have to adopt the good governance and anticorruption principles. What socio-legal, political and cultural

  mechanisms should also be adopted to further promote unity a life

  that is, at the very least, in consonance with human dignity.

  Ethnicity will not disappear anytime soon in Africa given our racist

  colonial history, and the selective rewarding of a few against the

  interests of the majority.

  There is an on-going challenge with privatisation, globalisation,

  and death of socialism and shunning of socialist ideals, the

  marginalisation of egalitarian ideas rooted in social worth and

  equity and the rejection of most African customs, values and family

  structures. These factors have exacerbated or halted prompt and

  effective response to genocide ideology.

  These differences, including focusing on individual rather than

  group rights, have been taken to an extreme length, resulting in

  breeding segregationist ideals leading to power struggles, coups,

  election rigging and denial of political space to the ‘other’ as the

  ‘us’ continues to monopolise state power and the means of inflicting

  violence on the ‘other’.

  Continued control of state power using all means necessary

  often results in an acute politicisation of ethnicity and the rise of

  repression on the one hand and resistance on the other. The signs

  are always there for the keen observer to notice. When political

  and military leaders begin to address a section of society as

  cockroaches, pigs, criminals, backward elements, and biological

  substance, it is important that these utterances are taken seriously

  as warning signs suggesting that part of the population is being

  classified as the ‘other’. 

  These express classifications are a prelude to genocide, signifying

  that genocide is being gradually implanted in the minds of the

  unsuspecting population. Left to continue unabated, unchallenged

  and unrestrained, this behaviour will snowball into a fully-fledged

  genocide ideology.

  In view of the human rights jurisprudence read together with the

  jurisprudence developed at the International Criminal Tribunal for

  Rwanda, International Criminal Tribunal for ex-Yugoslavia and

  Special Court for Sierra Leone, the courts should take greater

  liberty in interpretation of social policies, read into legislation the

  requirement for social justice and re-interpret law in consonance

  with social equity and fair distribution of natural and other resources

  in order to counter the development of genocidal ideologies.

  Efficient nation building and the treatment of citizens on an equal,

  fair and non discriminatory basis, the essence of good governance,

  is a positive counter mechanism to the rise of segregationist ideas.

  All ethnic groups in a state should in theory and practice feel

  represented in government and other state institutions. Loyalty

  must be to the state and not to particular ethnic groups or only

  to governments of the day simply because the leadership of that

  government is military. Leaders must therefore treat their citizens

  in a manner that they themselves would wish to be treated after

  they have left office.

  Abuse of judicial process by prosecuting the ‘other’, or opposition

  leaders or former heads of state without sufficient evidence or

  reasonable cause undermine efforts to fight genocide ideology.

  Governments have to make efforts to eradicate such bad practice.

  It is also important and necessary to domesticate decisions and

  judgments of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. In

  fact, knowledge of conditions that lead to genocide is helpful

  and can be used to fight genocide ideology. It is our collective

  responsibility to ensure that at the national level, the jurisprudence

  of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda is understood and

  used as one of the tools for effectively fighting genocide ideology.

  African governments must recognise the state’s internal propensity

  for abuse of the monopoly of power and its use against the people.

  To counter this inherent difficulty, it is suggested that constitutions

  of different countries and their laws establish adequate and selfmanaging monitoring and checking mechanisms that act as an 

  early warning system to the rise of a genocidal ideology or any

  other tendency that can lead to crimes against humanity. Such

  a system, with the assistance and support of the African Union

  for example, should incorporate within it independent institutions

  through which the citizens can intervene to raise the alarm against

  segregation and targeting of a section of the population as the

  ‘other’.

  The African judiciary must be equipped with additional powers

  to interpret and restrain actual or potential mischief brewing in

  the society. African states would benefit by creating propaganda

  mechanism aimed at warning the people that state functionaries

  can also become monsters.

  Such self-governing mechanisms arouse citizen consciousness

  to remain vigilant against the self as well as against others who

  profit from death and destruction. Domesticating international

  jurisprudence taken from African situations like Rwanda, Sudan,

  Democratic Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone, to name but

  a few, and establishing national and regional policies, with laws

  against hate speech, anti-discriminatory behaviour, for equitable

  measures in resource allocations, checking of abuse of power,

  controlling ethnic, religious or other segregationist mass social

  arrangements is perhaps one of the best ways of telling ourselves

  “Never again”.

  At national level

  The law related to the punishment of the crime of genocide ideology

  has to be applied not only to punish but also to discourage all

  the persons in Rwanda found guilty with the crime of genocide

  ideology.

  Apart from punishing, a campaign of sensitisation has to be led

  to educate the Rwandans about the evils of the genocide ideology

  and denial and the negative impact on the policy of the unity and

  reconciliation, the pillar of the development of the country.

  Rwandan and foreign scholars have also to write to combat

  genocide ideology and denial spread in different written documents

  like the media of different types, books, and internet. 

  The decent conservation of existent genocide memorials of the

  genocide against the Tutsi and the construction of others will

  constitute a permanent evidence to challenge the revisionists of

  the genocide against Tutsi.

  

  Recognising the massive killing of the Tutsi as genocide was not

  easy. Main perpetrators of the genocide planned before hand how

  to deny that they had prepared for a genocide against the Tutsi.

  Three forms of genocide denial had been used in most cases.

  The first form, the literal genocide denial involved negating the facts

  of genocide, silencing talk of genocidal plans and killings. Literal

  denial has been combated by showing evidence which proved that

  genocide had been planned and was executed right across Rwanda.

  The second form, interpretative genocide denial viewed the

  events of the genocide as a civil war, rather than genocide,

  whereas the implicatory genocide denial advanced the idea that

  the genocide was planned by those previously seen as saving the

  victims. Therefore, the Rwanda Patriotic Front government was

  accused of having planned the genocide, not only in Rwanda but

  also in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The thesis of a

  double genocide was also part of the interpretative and implicatory

  forms of genocide denial.

  All these forms of the genocide denial were fought and the

  international community finally accepted that in Rwanda a genocide

  had been committed against the Tutsi in 1994. Testimonies given

  and confessions made by the prisoners at the International Criminal

  Tribunal for Rwanda at Arusha played a great role in this struggle

  against genocide denial.

  However, even if the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has been

  recognised as such, there are still many people who still deny

  it. Different ways of fighting genocide denial and ideology have

  been proposed at the African and national levels. These include

  the respect of international conventions, adoption of the good

  governance and anti-corruption principles and establishment of

  related institutions, and the punishment of the crime of genocide

  ideology.

  Glossary

  Banal: repeated too often; overfamiliar through overuse

  Discourse: extended verbal expression in speech or writing

  Fantasy: fiction with a large amount of imagination in it

  Inconsonance: a state which is characterised by the absence

  of harmony

  Indoctrinating: teach doctrines (a belief or system of beliefs)

  accepted as authoritative by some group or

  school; teach uncritically

  Internment: the act of confining someone in a prison (or as

  if in a prison)

  Labelling: assign a label to; designate with a label (mark)

  Lynching: putting a person to death by mob action

  without due process of law

  Plea: (law) a defendant’s answer by a factual matter

  Pogrom: organised persecution of an ethnic group

  (especially Jews)

  Spree: a brief indulgence of your impulses, a period of

  activity, especially a criminal activity

  Trigger: put in motion or move to act

  Revision questions

  1. Define the following terms: genocide denial, genocide ideology

  2. Describe different forms of genocide denial that have been

  manifested in Rwanda and outside the country.

  3. What are the strategies adopted by the government of Rwanda

  to fight the genocide denial and ideology.

  4. Find out, what the African community has already done to

  prevent genocide denial and ideology from spreading.

• Unit 3: Origin of Islam and its Impact in West Africa

  Key unit competence

  Explain the origin of Islam, its role in the expansion of West African

  empires and its impact

  Introduction

  Islam was founded by Muhammad Ibn Abdullah in Saudi Arabia in

  622 ad. Islam is a monotheist religion and its followers are called

  Muslims. This religion has five pillars: charity to the poor, fasting

  during Ramadhan, making a pilgrimage to Mecca, praying five

  times a day, and cleanliness.

  Islam was spread in Asia before being imposed on the people of

  North Africa by Arabs between 639 and 708 ad. From this region,

  Islam spread to West Africa. Different methods were used to spread

  Islam. These included the Trans Saharan Trade and jihads. The

  spread of Islam was influenced by religious fanatics and commercial

  traders.

  In West Africa, jihads mainly aimed at purifying Islam and

  converting the pagans. At the end of the jihads, immense regions

  of West Africa were transformed into Muslim empires and were

  ruled according to the Sharia. 

  Links to other subjects

  Migration in Geography, wars and conflicts in General Studies and

  Communication Skills, commercial relations in Economics

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Origin of Islam

  ࿤ Role of Islam in the expansion of empires of West Africa

  ࿤ Spread of Islamic civilisation and its effects

  ࿤ Causes and consequences of Jihad movements

  ࿤ Role of Islam in the expansion of empires in West Africa

  ࿤ Spread of Islamic civilisation and its effects

  ࿤ Causes of jihad movements

  ࿤ Examples of jihad leaders

  ࿤ Consequences of jihad movements

  Birth of Islam and its Spread in West Africa

  Activity 1

  Carry out research on the origins of Islam and answer the

  following questions. Present results of your findings to the class.

  1. Locate on a map the two main cities of Medina and Mecca.

  2. Explain the following terms: Islam and Muslim.

  3. Who is the founder of Islam?

  4. Describe the childhood of the founder of Islam.

  Activity 2

  Carry out research on the founding of Islam and answer the

  following questions. Present the results of your findings to the

  class.

  1. Who was Khadijah?

  2. Describe the main events in the founding of Islam.

  3. Explain the following terms: Hegira, Kaaba and Caliph.

  Activity 3

  Carry out research on the Koran and pillars of faith and answer

  the following questions. Present the results of your findings to

  the class.

  1. Explain each of the five pillars of Islam.

  2. List down the other obligations of Muslims.

  3. Explain the following terms; Koran, Sura.

  4. Identify the role played by angel Gabriel in the founding of

  Islam.

  Activity 4

  Carry out research on the spread of Islam and answer the

  following questions. Present the results of your study to the

  class.

  1. Which methods did the followers of Muhammad use to

  spread Islam?

  2. List down the regions that were conquered by Muslims up

  to the 15th century.

  Activity 5

  Examine the factors that favoured the Arabs in their conquests.

  Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 6

  Conduct research on the spread of Islam in West Africa. Present

  the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 7

  Conduct research on the first five methods that were used in

  the spread of Islam in West Africa. Present the results of your

  findings to the class.

  Activity 8

  Conduct research on the effects of the spread of Islam in West

  Africa. Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Origin of Islam

  The religion of Islam started in Saudi Arabia in the Middle East

  in 622 ad. The word Islam means the act of submitting, or giving

  oneself over, to God (Allah); the followers of Islam are called

  Muslims, which means believers.

  Islam was founded by an Arab merchant named Muhammad Ibn

  Abdullah. He came to be known as the Prophet of Allah or God.

  Muhammad the founder of Islam

  In 571 ad, a child named Muhammad was born to a poor widow

  in Mecca. When he was six, his mother died and he went to live

  with his poor uncle. He worked as a camel driver when he reached

  his teens. At the age of 25, he married a rich 40 year old widow

  named Khadijah, who ran a rich caravan.

  According to Islam, the prophet Muhammad received many divine

  revelations during his life. These revelations were written down and

  together make up the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam.

  Muhammad was very successful in the caravan business. Then

  he became troubled by the drinking, gambling and corruption in

  Mecca. He began to spend a lot of time alone in a cave on a hillside

  outside the city. There, he thought and fasted and he decided that

  all the Meccans had been led to evil by their belief in false gods. 

  He concluded that there was only one God, Allah, the same God as

  the God of the Jews and Christians.

  In 610 ad, when he was about 39 years old, Muhammad had

  a revelation or vision. In 613 he began to preach to the people

  of Mecca, telling them that the only God was the all-powerful

  Allah before whom all believers were equal. In 620, Muhammad

  preached to a group of pilgrims from Yatrib. They invited him to

  come to Yatrib and be their leader. 

  

  The al-Haram Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, holds the holiest

  shrine of Islam, the Kaaba. As the birthplace of Islam’s founder,

  the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca is considered as a holy city. It is

  a pilgrimage point for Muslims worldwide, who are expected to

  visit the city at least once in there life if they are able to do so.

  During the summer of 622 several hundred of Muhammad’s

  followers fled from Mecca to Yatrib. The year 622, called Anno

  Hegira or “The year of the Flight”, became the first year of the

  Muslim calendar. Yatrib became Medina al Munawara, the City of

  the Prophet. From Medina, Muslims launched attacks on Meccan

  caravans and defeated the Meccans in battle. Finally, in 630,

  Muhammad returned in triumph to Mecca where he destroyed the

  idols in the Kaaba and dedicated the black stone to Allah.

  

  Medina, in western Saudi Arabia, is a sacred city that only Muslims

  are permitted to visit. The Prophet Muhammad took refuge in

  Medina after fleeing Mecca in 622 ad, and the city’s numerous

  mosques remain a destination for large numbers of Muslims on

  their annual pilgrimage. The income derived from visiting pilgrims

  forms the basis of Medina’s economy.

  In 632 ad, after 10 years, Muhammad fell ill and died. He was

  succeeded by a leader called Khalifa or Caliph, successor. The first

  Khalifa was Abu Bakar, Muhammad’s father – in-law. The Khalifa ruled

  from Medina. Mecca in Saudi Arabia became the holy city of Islam.

  Koran and Pillars of faith

  The heart of Islam is the Koran (Qur’an) or Muslim holy scriptures.

  Muslims believe it was directly revealed to Muslims by Allah. The

  Koran is written in Arabic, and consists of 114 chapter, called

  Suras. Each chapter is divided into verses called Ayat (singular Aya

  which means sign or proof). It contains stories, legends, philosophy,

  and the advice given to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel.

  

  This beautifully decorated page comes from a Qur’an of the late

  8th Century or early 9th Century. Muslims believe that the Qur’an

  is an infallible transcription of God’s message to Muhammad.

  As the messenger of God and seal of the prophets, Muhammad

  was charged with the responsibility of relaying this message to

  all believers. Divided into 114 suras, or chapters, the Qur’an is

  meant to be recited or chanted as part of Islamic worship.

  The Koran identifies the basic beliefs of Islam and tells how good

  Muslims should live. It describes the pillars of faith, or the five

  duties all Muslims must fulfill.

  1. The confession of faith (shahada), “There is no god but God,

  Muhammad is the messenger of God, Allah” (La ilala illa Allah;

  Muhammadun rasulu Allah).

  2. To pray five times a day while facing Mecca at dawn, noon, late

  afternoon, sunset and evening (salat).

  3. To give charity to the poor (zakat)

  4. To fast from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of

  Ramadhan (sawm)

  5. To do pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca two months after Ramadhan.

  Every able bodied Muslim is obliged to make pilgrimage to

  Mecca, at least once in their lifetime.

  Spread of Islam

  When Muhammad died in 632, his followers needed a new leader.

  A group of Muslims chose a new leader whom they called Khalifa.

  The first Khalifa was Abu Bakar and the next three Khalifas were

  elected for life. They kept in close touch with the people and took

  advice from their most trusted friends.

  For this reason, they were called the Rightly Guided Caliphs. They

  honoured Muhammad’s wish to carry the word of God to other people.

  They did this by fighting jihads or holy wars, against infidels or non

  believers. They sent Muslims warriors into Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Persia,

  Egypt, North Africa and south Europe; and conquered them.

  

  In the 7th and 8th centuries, the religion of Islam spread through

  conversion and military conquest throughout the Middle East and

  North Africa. By 733, just 100 years after the death of Muhammad,

  the Islamic state stretched from India in the east to Spain in the

  west.

  Their conquest of Spain brought them into Europe. They advanced

  into France where they were defeated at Tours in 732 by

  Charlemagne, the king of the Franks.

  In Spain, the Muslims established their own society at Cordoba and

  Granada. But these communities were conquered by Christians in

  1492.

  The Arabs were successful in their conquests for many reasons:

  ࿤ Islam, as their religion, united them.

  ࿤ They believed those who died while fighting infidels went to

  paradise, which encouraged them to fight so hard.

  ࿤ The Arabs were fearless fighters and were led by strong leaders.

  ࿤ Their leaders planned and carried out surprise attacks on their

  enemies.

  ࿤ They were skilled in fighting using camels and horses.

  ࿤ They promised protection to the people who surrendered without

  a fight and allowed them to keep their land.

  Spread of Islam in West Africa

  Activity 9

  Carry out research on the methods used to spread Islam in

  West Africa. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 10

  Analyse the first five effects of the spread of Islam in West

  Africa. Present the results of your analysis to the class.

  Activity 11

  Analyse the last five effects of the spread of Islam in West

  Africa. Present the results of your analysis to the class.

  Activity 12

  Carry out research on jihad movements in West Africa and

  answer the following questions. Present the results of your

  research to the class.

  1. What is a jihad?

  2. Which regions of West Africa experienced jihads?

  3. Who were the main jihad leaders in West Africa?

  4. Discuss the main causes of the jihad movements in West

  Africa.

  Activity 13

  Examine the reasons why Uthman Dan Fodio declared a jihad in

  Hausaland. Present the results of your study to the class.

  Activity 14

  Conduct research on the jihad movements in West Africa and

  describe the course of the jihad fought by Uthman Dan Fodio

  in Hausaland. Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 15

  Conduct research on jihad movements in West Africa and

  comment on the life of Al Hajj Umar before his jihads. Present

  the results of your research to the class.

  Activity 16

  Conduct research on jihad movements in West Africa and

  analyse the reasons that encouraged Al Hajj Umar to declare

  a jihad on infidels in the Sudan. Present the results of your

  research to the class.

  Activity 17

  Conduct research on the reasons for the success of jihads in

  West Africa. Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 18

  Carry out research on the consequences of jihads in West

  Africa. Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Islam started slowly in Arabia and later spread to other parts of

  the world including the African continent. It first spread in North

  Africa by about the 14th century. By 1850, it had spread to most parts of West Africa through the early trade contacts between the

  Arabs and the Berbers and the Turkish occupation of North and

  West Africa.

  Methods used in the spread of Islam in West Africa

  Islam spread in West Africa in the 19th century through both

  peaceful means and by force (jihads). The following methods were

  used:

  ࿤ Commercial activities: Trade between North Africa and West

  Africa involved the Berbers who were Muslims. They converted

  the West Africans to Islam. This trade is also known as the

  Trans Saharan Trade. Sahara refers to Dar-Al-Islam, meaning

  the country of Islam.

  ࿤ Migration: Due to hot climate, some communities from North

  Africa and the Sahara migrated to western Sudan and the forest

  region of West Africa e.g. the Berbers, the Wolof, the Serere and

  the Fulani who were mainly Muslims. They integrated with the

  people of West Africa who also joined Islam.

  ࿤ Muslim missionaries: Muslim fanatics came to West Africa

  to convert people to Islam through preaching and building

  mosques. For example, a Creole missionary Muhammad Shita

  converted many people and built mosques in Freetown, Furah

  Bay and Lagos.

  ࿤ Education: Muslim schools were built in West Africa and many

  Arab scholars arrived to teach Islamic principles to the children

  of West Africa who eventually converted to the faith.

  ࿤ Conversion of local leaders: Some African kings and chiefs who

  joined Islam encouraged their subjects to convert. Those who

  got interested in leadership joined Islam as a symbol of loyalty.

  ࿤ Jihads: Muslim fanatics declared a holy war in order to reform

  Islam which was declining in the region e.g. the Fulani jihads in

  Hausaland, Macina, Tukolar, and the Mandika Empire etc.

  ࿤ Prestige: Those who made pilgrimages to Mecca came back

  with wealth, and new ideas. They were considered heroes in

  their communities. This inspired others to convert in order to

  enjoy such status.

  ࿤ Muslim solidarity: Islam was based on the simple theology of

  brotherhood which won the admiration of other non-Muslims

  who joined in order to be integrated into the society by sharing

  the brotherhood in problems and happiness.

  ࿤ Similarity with African culture: Islam tolerated similar African

  practices. It accepted polygamy, discourage immorality and it

  also tolerated traditional African religion.

  ࿤ Oppression from African leaders: People from the Hausa states

  faced a lot of oppression and brutality from their leaders. They

  decided to join the jihad movements, hence they voluntarily

  accepted Islam faith.

  Effects of the spread of Islam in West Africa

  The spread of Islam affected West Africa as follows:

  ࿤ The rulers who undertook pilgrimages to Mecca brought with

  them technology and scholars from the Muslim world. These

  influenced and changed the political, economic and social life

  in West Africa.

  ࿤ Many people abandoned their traditional ways and adopted

  Islamic practices such as attending Juma prayers, fasting and

  pilgrimages to Mecca.

  ࿤ Islam introduced literacy as well as Islamic education; for

  example, Arabic language and scripts were taught. As a result

  the cities of the Niger became great centres of learning, e.g.

  Timbuktu University.

  ࿤ Islam helped to unite empires with different tribes, culture,

  language and customs. Different ethnic groups united under one

  religion.

  ࿤ The leaders employed educated Muslims such as secretaries,

  administrators and judges. These were conversant with Arabic

  writing and reading.

  ࿤ The coming of Islam increased and strengthened trade links

  between West and North Africa; the Arab World and Europe.

  ࿤ Islam gave rise to the growth of small states which developed

  into large empires which used the Islamic system of government

  and laws.

  ࿤ The Sharia was law introduced into West African states.

  ࿤ It discouraged slave trade among Muslims in West African states

  though in western Sudan it encouraged slavery.

  ࿤ It affected African culture by eroding African traditional cultural

  practices like taking alcohol, taming dogs, etc. So many Africans

  abandoned their traditional ways.

  Jihad Movements in West Africa

  A jihad is an Islamic religious movement or a holy war that is

  fought by fanatic Muslims against those who do not believe in their

  faith. It aims at spreading, purifying and strengthening Islam.

  The 19th century saw a wave of jihads or Islamic movements in

  northern Sudan. Although, the causes were religious, they had a

  mixture of political, economic and intellectual causes.

  The first jihads in West Africa took place in Guinea in Futa Jallon in

  1720s. They were led by Ibrahim Musa. In the 1770s there was

  yet another jihad in Senegal in Futa Toro led by Sulayman Bal. In

  1808, Uthman Dan Fadio started holy wars in the Hausa states

  (Daura, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Rano, Gobir and Hiram). Other West

  African jihadists were Seku Ahmadu of Macina, Al Hajj Umar of

  Tukolor and Ahmed Bello.

  Causes of Jihads in West Africa

  ࿤ To purify Islam: After the decline of Mali and Songhai, there

  was a decline in Islam in western Sudan. Islam was mixed with

  pagan practices. Therefore, there was a need to revive Islam.

  ࿤ To stop unfair judgments in courts of law: There was a lot of

  corruption and bribery in the courts which were against the

  teaching of Islam.

  ࿤ Local political competition: The Fulani were discriminated.

  The Fulani leaders of the jihads aimed at overthrowing the

  government of the Hausa people and to establish a government

  favourable to their people.

  ࿤ Widespread belief in the Mahdi (Saviour): According to the

  Muslims, a Madhi was supposed to emerge during the 13th

  century of the Islamic calendar. This started from 1785 to 1882.

  ࿤ To overthrow pagan governments: The jihadists wanted to

  establish governments based on Islamic rule. Strict Muslims in

  West Africa could not tolerate rule by pagans. Muslims were also

  forced to go to war against fellow Muslims which was contrary

  to Islamic practice.

  ࿤ To spread Islam: This was aimed at the people who had resisted

  conversion to Islam. Thus they would be forced to join Islam.

  ࿤ Desire to spread Islamic education: Through the conversion of

  pagans who were against Islamic education, the jihadists hoped

  to build an ideal Islamic society through education. 

  ࿤ Overtaxation: Governments in western Sudan imposed heavy

  taxes on the Fulani town merchants while the Fulani pastoralists

  or nomads were opposed to the heavy taxation.

  ࿤ Methods used to collect taxes: The tax collectors were harsh.

  They whiped and imprisoned the people who failed to pay.

  Some of the property was confiscated. This is why the people

  welcomed Islam.

  ࿤ Defence of African independence: The West Africans joined

  jihads in order to protect their independence and fight against

  slave trade. This was because according to Sharia, no Muslim is

  supposed to enslave or sell another Muslim.

  Therefore, the time was right for a revolution that only needed

  someone to start it. This was provided by the arrival of men filled

  with religious zeal and reformist ideas and with the ability to lead

  and organise. For example, Uthman Dan Fodio, Al Hajji Umar,

  Seku Ahmadu among others. 

  

  Uthman Dan Fodio

  The first jihad in western Sudan took place in Hausaland in 1804.

  This jihad was led by Uthman Dan Fodio. He was a Fulani and a

  scholar. He was born in 1754 at Martha in Gobir.

  He received Islamic education from various teachers but finally he

  ended up in Agades under the famous Islamic teacher Jibril Ibn

  Umar. At the age of 20, he started his career as a writer and teacher

  in Senegal. From here, he started missionary tours in Hausaland,

  especially Zamfara, Kebbi and Daura.

  In his preaching and writing, he attacked all unreligious tendencies.

  He condemned corrupt and unjust governments, and illegal

  taxation. He insisted on complete acceptance of the spiritual and

  moral values of Islam.

  He soon mobilised a large number of followers. Most of these

  believed that he was the Mahdi or the saviour. His fame attracted

  the administration of Sultan Bawa, the leader of Gobir. He was

  employed as the tutor of the Sultan’s son. All these increased

  Fodio’s influence.Because of this influence, he successfully negotiated with Sultan

  Bawa of Gobir to release all Muslim prisoners. He also requested

  the king to grant freedom of worship and also exempt Muslims

  from un-Islamic taxes.

  Unfortunately, Bawa was succeeded by Sultan Nafata and later

  Yunfa who did not support Uthman Dan Fodio. Because of Uthman’s

  growing influence, Yunfa arranged the assassination of Fodio but

  he managed to escape.

  Along with his brother Abdullah and son Mohammed Bello, Fodio

  escaped to Gudu outside Gobir.

  At Gudu, many Fulani tribesmen joined him and he was elected

  commander of the faithful, Amir Al Munimin. He then, declared a

  jihad on the non believers in 1804 and confronted Yunfa’s army.

  After a prolonged fight, Yunfa’s army was defeated and he was

  killed at Akolawa. Serious resistance against Fodio’s army collapsed

  in 1809. Immediately, Fodio declared the Sokoto Caliphate and he

  became the undisputed caliph.

  Once the conquest period was over, Fodio returned to his work of

  writing books since he was basically an Islamic scholar.

  He divided the empire between his son and his brother. Mohammed

  Bello his son was in charge of the eastern region and Abdullah

  his brother the western region. Fodio died in 1817 and his son

  Mohammed Bello was recognised as the caliph of the Sokoto

  Caliphate. 

  

  Al Hajj Umar was born in 1794 in Futa Toro. His father was a

  Tukolor scholar. Umar belonged to the Tijaniyya brotherhood and

  his first teacher was Abd Al Karim. Umar was also a disciple of

  Uthman Dan Fodio.

  In 1825, he made a pilgrimage to Mecca. The Tijani authorities

  were impressed with the works of Umar and he was appointed

  the Khalifa or religious leader of the Tijaniyya in western Sudan

  in 1831. He was charged with the duty of reviving and spreading

  Islam in the region.

  While away, he was impressed by the reformist ideas of the day.

  He witnessed Mohammed Ali’s revolution in Egypt. He also spent

  sometime in Bornu, Sokoto.

  In Sokoto, he was impressed by the leadership possibilities opened

  by jihad. He married the daughters of both Alkanem of Bornu and

  Mohammed of Sokoto.

  He witnessed the expansion and spread of Islam through a jihad.

  He was also convinced that the revival and purification and spread

  of Islam would be possible through embracing Tijaniyya ideas.

  In 1838, he returned home with even greater inspiration and

  determination to purify and spread Islam.

  He settled at a place called Fouta Djalon. From here he made

  extensive tours, teaching, preaching and converting.

  In his book “Rinah”, he attacked evil and illegal tendencies. He

  condemned mixed Islam. He appealed to the masses, assuring

  them of favoured treatment on the day of judgement as members

  of the Tijaniyya. His teachings were well received by the ordinary

  persons. These had been alienated by the Quadiriyya. His fame as

  a scholar and teacher attracted a large following. He was regarded

  as the Mujahidin (soldiers fighting in support of their strong Muslim

  beliefs).

  His growing fame and influence alarmed the Quadiriyya scholars

  and Fouta Djalon political authorities. In 1851, he fled to Dinguiray.

  Here, he established an armed camp with his faithful disciples as

  well as students attracted from West Africa. These were mainly

  from the lower classes.

  He equipped the army with European weapons bought from the

  coastal towns of West Africa. He even established a workshop of

  gun smiths who could repair guns. At a later stage, Al Hajj Umar

  was able to manufacture some of these arms, thus supplying his

  army.

  In 1852, Umar declared a holy war on infidels in the Sudan. In

  1854, he conquered the Wangara states. By 1857, he was ready

  to attack the Bambara of Segu. Nevertheless, this brought him into

  conflict with the Muslim state of Massina.

  After this, Umar diverted his attention against French imperialists.

  This was a mistake that he would regret later. By 1863, the Tukolor

  Empire extended from Futa Djalon to Timbuktu.

  In February 1863, Al Hajj Umar was killed in the famous Massina

  uprising. This was spear-headed by the Quadiriyya leaders who

  were opposed to his Tijaniyya principles. But the empire under his

  eldest son and successor Ahmadi Bin Sheikh, survived till it was

  over-run by the French in 1893.

  Umar strengthened Islam expanded the borders of the Tukolar

  Empire, and promoted Islamic literacy. For example, he set up new

  centres of Islamic education in western Sudan.

  Lastly, in his efforts he made the Tijaniyya sect more popular than

  the Quadiriyya. Today, the Tijaniyya is more dominant in West

  Africa.

  Success of Jihads in West Africa

  The jihad leaders succeeded in their holy wars due to the

  following factors:

  ࿤ Disunity among non-Islamic states in West Africa against fanatic

  Muslims.

  ࿤ Jihad movement in West Africa enjoyed good leadership.

  ࿤ These jihads were led by elites who had very convincing rhetoric

  or persuasive speech that won then big numbers of followers.

  ࿤ The possession of fire arms by the jihadists.

  ࿤ The hope to gain economic achievements. The non-Muslims

  who were poor supported the jihads with hope of raiding for

  wealth.

  Consequences of Jihads in West Africa

  ࿤ The jihads led to closer contacts with the outside world. This was

  true with Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. In fact a pilgrimage

  made by Al Hajji Umar to Mecca in 1825 further exposed the

  Sudan to the outside world.

  ࿤ They led to the spread and revival of Islamic culture for example

  the way of dressing with items such as the veil, the turban and

  the daily prayers and the hijja.

  ࿤ Literate Muslim officials were employed by kings and emperors

  as clerks, secretaries, judges, auditors, inspectors and teachers.

  This strengthened Islamic way of life.

  ࿤ Large and powerful Islamic states were formed under Muslim

  rulers like Uthman Dan Fodio of Sokoto, Muhammad Bello of

  Sokoto, Seku Ahmad of Macina, Al Hajji Umar of Tokolar and Al

  Kanemi of Dinguiray.

  ࿤ They caused clashes and conflicts between the pagans and the

  Muslims. For example there was enslavement of non-Muslims as

  permitted by the Koran. This led to tribal wars and antagonism.

  ࿤ Strong states emerged to resist European infiltration. Jihads

  united the masses and their leaders against French colonialists.

  ࿤ A centralised system of administration was introduced and

  managed according to the Koran.

  ࿤ There was the stabilisation and efficient management of the

  economy in the Islamic states. They abolished unlawful taxes

  and levied taxes as stipulated in the holy Koran.

  ࿤ They led to the decline of the African traditional religions. This

  is because leaders of traditional religion and people who refused

  to change to Islam were executed.

  ࿤ The jihads, checked the spread of Christianity in West Africa.

  This is because the Christian Missionaries were not allowed to

  enter Muslim lands.

  

  Islam is a monotheist religion that was founded by Mohammed in

  Saudi Arabia in 622 ad. After his return to Mecca from Medina,

  Mohammed was occupied with the spread of Islam within the

  neighboring countries. After his death, his successors called caliphs

  continued to expand Islam and conquered almost the whole part

  of the Middle East.

  With the occupation and conversion of the Ottomans or Turks,

  Islam had found the dynamic people who contributed later to its

  expansion to North Africa and Europe.

  Once Islam was adopted by North Africans namely the Berbers, it

  then spread to West Africa through firstly, the Trans Saharan Trade

  and secondly, the jihad movements. The jihads aimed at purifying

  Islam, stopping unfair judgments in courts of law, spreading

  Islamic education, overthrowing pagan governments. The main

  jihad leaders were Uthman Dan Fadio in the Hausa States, Seku

  Ahmadu of Macina, Al Hajj Umar of Tukolor and Ahmed Bello.

  The spread of Islam to West Africa led to the spread and revival

  of Islamic culture. Other effects include, the decline of African

  traditional religions, the creation of a new order of administration

  known as a centralised system of administration and administration

  in accordance to the requirement of Koran, large and powerful

  political states were formed as Islamic were.

  Glossary

  Antagonism: the relations between opposing principles,

  forces or factors, e.g. the inherent antagonism

  of capitalism and socialism

  Bribery: the practice of offering something (usually

  money) in order to gain an illicit advantage

  Creole: of or relating to a language that arises from

  contact between two other languages and has

  features of both or a person whose parents

  have different races

  Elitism: the attitude that society should be governed by

  an elite group of individuals

  Enslavement: the act of making slaves of your captives or the

  state of being a slave

  Gunsmith: someone who makes or repairs guns

  Hegira: the flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in

  622 which marked the beginning of the Muslim

  era; the Muslim calendar begins in that year

  Infidel: a person who does not acknowledge your god

  Retrieving: get or get back; recover the use of or go for and

  bring back

  Tutor: a person who gives private instruction

  Zeal: excessive fervour to do something or accomplish

  some end

  Revision questions

  
  

  A. Multiple Choice Questions

  1. The following are the pillars of Islam except:

  a) Confession of faith (shahada

  b) Praying five times a day at down, noon, late afternoon,

  sunset and evening; they pray facing Mecca (salat)

  c) Giving charity to the poor (zakat)

  d) Fasting from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of

  Ramadhan (sawm)

  e) Fighting a jihad war 

  2. The following are Hausa States except:

  a) Daura,

  b) Kano,

  c) Katsina,

  d) Zaria,

  e) Bornu

  3. The success of Jihads in West Africa was due to the following

  factors:

  a) Disunity among non-Islamic States in West Africa against

  fanatic Muslims

  b) Jihad movement in West Africa enjoyed good leadership;

  c) These jihads were led by elites who had very convincing

  rhetoric or persuasive speech that won then big numbers

  of followers

  d) The possession of fire arms by the jihadists

  e) All of them.

  4. The causes of jihads in West Africa are the following

  a) To purify Islam

  b) Methods used to collect taxes

  c) Defence of African independence

  d) Over taxation

  e) Methods used to collect taxes

  f) All of them

  5. The Arabs were successful in their conquests for many reasons

  except the following:

  a) They believed those who fought infidels went to paradise,

  which encouraged fighting.

  b) The Arabs were fearless fighters and were led by strong

  leaders.

  c) Their leaders planned and carried out attacks on their

  enemies completely by surprise.

  d) They were skilled in fighting using camels and horses.

  e) They ensured the protection to the people who gave in

  without a fight and allowed them to keep their land.

  f) The possession of nuclear bombs.

  B. Fill in the Blanks:

  1. In 610 ad, when he was about 39 years old, Muhammad had

  a revelation or__________.

  2. The Muslims call their God with the name of __________.

  3. In Saudi Arabia, the holiest shrine of Islam is called __________.

  4. Finally, in 630, Muhammad returned in triumph to Mecca;

  where he destroyed the idols in the Kaaba and dedicated the

  black stone to__________.

  5. The first Khalifa was Abu Bakar, Muhammad’s __________.

  6. Jihads were launched to stop unfair judgments in courts of law.

  These courts were full of __________and __________ which

  were against the teaching of Islam.

  7. Uthman Dan Fodio went on missionary tours through out

  Hausaland especially __________, __________and __________.

  C. Answer True or False

  1. Islam has five pillars including fighting a holy, a jihad war

  against infidels.

  2. Eating pork is not forbidden by Islam Religion.

  3. The successors of Muhammad have the title of caliph.

  4. Only two jihad leaders existed in West Africa.

  5. Yatrib was the former name of Medina.

  6. In West Africa two brotherhoods were in a great antagonism:

  Quadiriyya and Tijaniyya.

  Open questions

  1. Describe the birth and spread of Islam.

  2. Account for the means used in the spread of Islam in West

  Africa.

  3. Analyse the factors for the success of jihadists in West Africa.

  4. Examine the causes of the outbreak of the jihad movements in

  West Africa.

  5. Evaluate the achievements of the jihad leaders: Uthman Dan

  Fodio and Al Hajj Umar.

  6. Examine the effects of the jihad movements in West Africa. 

• Unit 4: European Domination and Exploitation of Africa in the 19th Century

  Key unit competence

  Describe European domination, exploitation in Africa and its

  consequences in the 19th century.

  Introduction

  In the 19th century, due to a number of factors many European

  countries conquered and began to control the African continent.

  After the occupation of the so-called dark continent, European

  countries used different methods to exploit their colonies. This

  included taxation, forced cash crop growing, forced labour, land

  alienation, development of legitimate trade, and discouraging of

  industrialisation.

  Such European practices negatively affected African countries in

  diverse ways. Economically, the European colonial methods led

  to the following effects: forced labour, migration of labour force,

  resettlement of Africans, over exploitation of Africans and over

  dependence of the African economy on Europeans.

  At the socio-political level, the domination of Africa by European

  masters also negatively affected African countries. Colonisation led

  to the disruption of the traditional African cultures and introduction

  of Christianity, the creation of new political and administrative

  entities and the authoritarian rule.

  Links to other subjects

  Migration in Geography, wars and conflicts in General Studies and

  Communication Skills, commercial relations in Economics.

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ European domination in the 19th century

  ࿤ Colonial methods of African exploitation

  ࿤ Consequences of European domination and exploitation of Africa

  in the19th century

  European Colonial Methods used in the Economic Exploitation of African Countries

  
  

  Activity 1

  Carry out research on the colonial conquest and domination of

  Africa and answer the following questions. Then, present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  1. What are the main factors that motivated European

  imperialists to come to Africa?

  2. Explain the different reasons that led Otto von Bismarck

  to convene a diplomatic summit of European powers in

  the late nineteenth Century.

  Activity 2

  Explain the European colonial methods of taxation and forced

  cash crop growing in the economic exploitation of Africa.

  Present the results of your discussion to the class. 

  Activity 3

  Analyse the European colonial methods of forced labour and

  land alienation in the economic exploitation of the African

  countries. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 4

  Examine the use of legitimate trade in the economic exploitation

  of African countries. Present the results of your discussion to

  the class.

  Activity 5

  Discuss the colonial method of discouraging industrialisation

  in the economic exploitation of African countries. Present the

  results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 6

  Describe the colonial transport policy in the economic

  exploitation of Africa. Present the results of your discussion to

  the class.

  Activity 7

  Discuss the colonial education policies in the economic

  exploitation of the African countries. Present the results of your

  discussion to the class. 

  The Colonial Conquest and Domination of theAfrican continent

  
  

  Between the 1870s and 1900, Africa faced European imperialist

  aggression, diplomatic pressures, military invasions, and eventual

  conquest and colonisation. At the same time, African societies put

  up various forms of resistance against the attempt to colonise their

  countries and impose foreign domination.

  By the early twentieth century, however, much of Africa, except

  Ethiopia and Liberia, had been colonised by European powers.

  European imperialists push into Africa was motivated by three

  main factors: economic, political, and social.

  Colonisation developed in the nineteenth century following the

  collapse of the profitability of the slave trade, its abolition and

  suppression, as well as the expansion of the European capitalist

  industrial revolution.

  The imperatives of capitalist industrialisation—including the

  demand for assured sources of raw materials, the search for

  guaranteed markets and profitable investment outlets—spurred

  the European scramble and the partition and eventual conquest

  of Africa. Thus the primary motivation for European intrusion was

  economic.

  

  The Scramble for Africa

  But other factors played an important role in the process. Britain,

  France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were competing

  for power within European power politics. One way to demonstrate

  a country’s power was through the acquisition of territories around

  the world, including Africa. The social factor was the third major 

  element. As a result of industrialisation, major social problems

  emerged in Europe: unemployment, poverty, homelessness, social

  displacement from rural areas, and so on. These social problems

  developed partly because not all people could be absorbed by the

  new capitalist industries. One way to resolve this problem was

  to acquire colonies and export this “surplus population.” This led

  to the establishment of settler-colonies in Algeria, Tunisia, South

  Africa, Namibia, Angola, Mozambique, and central African areas

  like Zimbabwe and Zambia. Eventually the overriding economic

  factors led to the colonisation of other parts of Africa.

  Thus it was the economic, political, and social factors and forces

  that led to the scramble for Africa and the attempts by European

  commercial, military, and political agents to declare and establish

  control in different parts of Africa through commercial competition,

  the declaration of exclusive claims to particular territories for

  trade, the imposition of tariffs against other European traders, and

  claims to exclusive control of waterways and commercial routes in

  different parts of Africa.

  This scramble was so intense that there were fears that it could

  lead to inter-imperialist conflicts and even wars. To prevent this,

  the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck convened a diplomatic

  summit of European powers in the late nineteenth century. This

  was the Berlin Conference, held from November 1884 to February

  1885. The conference produced a treaty known as the Berlin

  Act, with provisions to guide the conduct of the European interimperialist competition in Africa. Some of its major articles were

  as follows:

  ࿤ Notification (notifying) other powers of a territorial annexation

  ࿤ Effective occupation

  ࿤ Freedom of trade in the Congo basin

  ࿤ Freedom of navigation on the Niger and Congo Rivers

  ࿤ Freedom of trade to all nations

  ࿤ Suppression of slave trade by land and sea

  This treaty, drawn up without African participation, provided the

  basis for the subsequent partition, invasion, and colonisation of

  Africa by various European powers.

  Causes of scramble and partition

  
  Need for raw materials for European industries

  There was need for raw materials to supply European industries

  which had grown as a result of industrial revolution. The raw

  materials included gold, diamonds, copper, iron ore, cotton, coffee,

  cacoa, tea and palm oil.

  Market for the manufactured goods

  There was mass production of goods by European industries and

  European countries could not provide market to all the commodities.

  European countries were also practicing protectionism in order to

  protect their markets. They thus came to Africa to get markets; e.g.

  the occupation of Senegal by the French.

  Need for areas where to invest their surplus capital

  European countries had accumulated a lot of capital from their

  industrial products; they had to look for areas outside Europe

  where they could invest their surplus capital.

  Need to control economically strategic areas to improve trade

  In order to be sure of their improvement of trade, the European

  countries were ambitious to control the economically strategic

  areas. For example, the occupation of Egypt by the British was for

  such reasons.

  Discovery of minerals in most parts of Africa

  This encouraged the Europeans to come and control some parts of

  Africa in order to be the masters of those areas rich in minerals.

  There was gold in Ghana, diamonds and gold in South Africa,

  copper and diamonds in Congo.

  To give protection to European traders and trading companies

  European traders asked their home governments to come and

  occupy areas in Africa where they operated in order to protect them

  from hostile tribes and chiefs who had created insecurity to their

  business.

  To resettle high population from Europe and provide them with jobs

  The need to settle the unemployed, criminals and people who

  were suffering from chronic diseases and undesirable in Europe

  forced European countries to get lands to settle them in Africa.

  E.g. Occupation of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and South Africa

  respectively by the French and the British.

  To control strategic areas

  European countries got involved in occupying strategic areas for

  their defense; e.g the occupation of the Suez Canal and the straight

  of Gibraltar by Britain.

  British occupation of Egypt in 1882

  Britain got interested in controlling the Suez Canal in 1882 after

  pushing France out. The French decided to avenge against the

  British by occupying the Upper Nile and the land from Senegal to

  Djibouti in the east. To pre-empt this plan, the British took over

  Kenya, Uganda and Sudan before the French could come in.

  French occupation of Tunisia and Morocco

  The French occupation of Tunisia and Morocco due to their

  proximity to Europe, astride the Mediterranean Sea and the straight

  of Gibraltar encouraged other powers to join the race for colonies.

  Growth of nationalism and jingoism

  Colonisation was a sign of prestige and glory for the Europeans and

  in order to show their power, Europeans had to occupy large areas

  as colonies. This was why the great European powers got large

  lands in Africa.

  Compensation for major losses

  Britain had lost America after the American war of independence in

  1776. Their pride, prestige and major source of their raw materials

  and wealth was lost. France lost Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia in

  1871 after the 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war. After achieving

  some degree of stability, the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry

  began to look for colonies in Africa as compensation.

  Activities of King Leopold II of Belgium in Congo

  He took over Congo for himself and not for Belgium his country.

  As means of counteracting Leopold’s activities, the French took

  over Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville) while British also declared the

  lower Niger regions as their protectorate.

  The activities of Pierre Savrogna de Brazza in Congo and Ivory Coast

  He was a French explorer who signed colonial treaties with African

  local leaders. This forced other European powers to also look for

  colonies in Africa.

  The influence of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference

  It had given a green light to colonisation by outlining procedures for

  the partition of Africa.

  Humanitarian factors

  Humanitarians in Europe urged their countries to occupy territory in

  Africa to stop slave trade and improve the way of living for Africans.

  

  Colonial Methods of African Exploitation

  Taxation

  It was the main method of generating revenue for supporting

  colonial administration. The commonest were the hut and gun

  taxes. The method of collection was brutal and harsh, and often

  caused resistance wars. For instance, the Hut Tax War of 1898 in

  Sierra Leone.

  Taxation was also important to force or condition Africans either to

  grow cash crops or to work on European farms. This was because

  in order to get money for paying taxes these were the only possible

  alternatives. In some areas like the Congo Free State and Angola,

  taxes were paid in form of natural products and animals. Failure to

  pay taxes in these areas would lead to confiscation of property and

  sometimes mutilation.

  
  

  Forced cash crop growing

  To meet the primary demand for colonisation of Africa, cash crop

  growing had to be boosted. Some crops like rubber were grown

  traditionally, some were grown such as pyrethrum by Europeans

  while others like coffee and cotton were grown by Africans under

  the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops were needed to

  supply raw material to industries in Europe.

  Europeans did not encourage the production of food. Forced labour

  undermined the production of food crops. This led to famine in

  African societies which had been traditionally self sufficient in

  food. The African economies were developed as producers of raw

  materials in form of cash crops and minerals, and as consumers of

  European manufactured goods.

  Forced labour

  Africans were forced to work on European farms, mines and

  construction sites of colonial offices and roads. Their labour was

  either paid cheaply or not paid at all. In the Portuguese colonies of

  Angola and Mozambique there was a unique form of forced labour

  called contract labour. Africans were rounded up and taken to

  Principle and Sao Tome to work in sugar cane plantations.

  Due to this forced labour, African societies experienced famine. A

  lot of time was spent on work for Europeans.

  Land alienation

  This was the most evil form of exploitation of natural resources.

  Africans in settler colonies were hit hardest by this practice, for

  example in Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria, Angola and

  Mozambique. In some areas of Africa, Africans were forced to settle

  in reserve camps leaving fertile and mineralised plots of lands to

  Europeans. This policy caused resistance in many areas of Africa. 

  In Rwanda, the church alienated huge chunks of land to build

  churches, schools and people were forced out of their land.

  Development of legitimate trade

  After realising the benefits of slave trade and its abolition, they

  introduced legitimate trade. This form of trade is said to have

  brought peace and stability as it eliminated the raids and suffering

  caused by slave trade.

  Legitimate trade was monopolised by Europeans who transferred

  all the profits to their countries. They paid low prices for African

  products and highly priced their exports to Africa. Worse still,

  the legitimate trade involved the exchange of high valued African

  products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber, and

  palm oil among others. Exports to Africa included beads, used

  clothes, bangles, spices and glassware.

  In Rwanda, the European trader named Borgrave d’Altena purchased

  cows at very low prices so as to supply beef to the colonialists.

  Discouraged industrialisation

  To control the monopoly for trade in raw materials and market

  for their manufactured goods in Africa, Europeans extremely

  discouraged manufacturing industries. In Egypt, Lord Cromer

  established processing plants for cotton lint while cotton cloth

  production was done in Britain.

  Cromer also set up tariffs on locally manufactured foods and on

  imported coal. He also set up heavy fines on smokers to kill the

  tobacco industry.

  In Senegal, the French never set up any industries to the extent

  that even groundnuts were exported in the shells. Only primary

  processing industries were set up to reduce the volume of raw

  materials. The prices for raw materials were very low while the

  manufactured goods from Europe were sold at high prices. This

  was a clear indication of colonial exploitation.

  Development of road and railway transport

  To support legitimate trade, road and railway transport networks

  were established. These networks connected the interior of African

  colonies to the coast. 

  Roads were mainly established in areas rich in resources where

  colonialists had direct gains. The main purpose was to facilitate

  the effective exploitation of raw materials.

  In Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named them

  according to the produce they were meant to carry such as Cotton

  line, Palm oil line and Iron line.

  In Rwanda, the railway project planned by the Germans from Dares-Salaam via Tabora to Rusumo stopped because of World War I.

  Education system

  The colonial education system was controlled by Christian

  missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans were trained to

  serve as lower cadres, known as “colonial auxiliaries”. The main

  products of these schools best suited the posts of houseboys, house

  girls and clerks. They could not make engineers, doctors and other

  professional careers.

  The colonial education system produced people who liked European

  ways of life. As a result they exploited fellow Africans. In Rwanda,

  education was exclusively given to the sons of chiefs. In French,

  Portuguese and Italian colonies education was used for assimilation

  purposes.

  Liberal subjects such as, political science, literature and history

  were neglected in order to keep Africans away from forming

  revolutionary movements against colonialists. To colonialists, the

  best subjects fit for Africans were bible study, reading and writing

  of languages.

  Consequences of European domination and exploitation of African countries

  Activity 8

  Organise a debate on the consequences of migration as a result

  of the colonial economy. Present the results of your debate to

  the class.

  Activity 9

  Organise a debate on the following consequences of the

  colonial economy: exploitation of Africans and dependence of

  the African economy on Europeans. Present the results of your

  debate to the class.

  Activity 10

  Discuss the consequences of colonial infrastructures. Thereafter,

  present the results of your debate to the class.

  Activity 11

  Carry out research on the disruption of the traditional African

  cultures and introduction of Christianity as a consequence of

  colonial domination. Present the results of your debate to the class.

  Activity 12

  Debate on the creation of new political and administrative

  entities. Present the results of your debate to the class.

  Activity 13

  Debate on the introduction of authoritarian rule. Present the

  results of your debate to the class.

  Consequences of colonial economy

  Migration

  The colonial powers used forced labour in the exploitation of Africa.

  This economic policy was introduced in order to exploit Africa.

  All adults were subjected to forced labour. Those who failed to

  accomplish it were punished. Africans were also beaten or had

  their properties confiscated. 

  As result of this forced labour, some Africans resisted European

  colonialists. Others preferred to migrate to the neighbouring

  countries where the situation was quite different. E.g. Some

  Rwandans migrated to Uganda which was under British control.

  Others were forced to migrate to Democratic Republic of Congo as

  workers in mines.

  Resettlement of Africans

  Another consequence of colonial economic policies was the

  resettlement of Africans due to land alienation. They were displaced

  from their fertile soils to provide space for colonial economic

  projects such as infrastructure.

  Exploitation of Africans

  All colonial economic policies resulted in the exploitation of

  Africans. Examples include taxation and labour policies.

  Dependence of African economy on Europeans

  The over dependence of the African economy was due to poor

  colonial economic policy. This policy discouraged industralisation

  and also destroyed local African industry. The African economy

  was reduced to a market for European goods. The Europeans got

  the raw materials at low prices while their manufactured goods

  were sold at high prices in Africa.

  Development of infrastructure

  Europeans colonialists succeeded in the development of

  communication lines. Railways were constructed in many parts of

  Africa to connect the interior of Africa to the coast. The aim was to

  facilitate the economic exploitation of Africa. Communication lines

  only extended to areas rich in resources; for example, minerals.

  Consequences of European domination in Africa

  
  

  Disruption of traditional African cultures and introduction of Christianity

  
  

  Colonialism affected African societies in various ways. It disrupted

  the traditional tribal cultures and religions and introduced

  Christianity and subjugated Africans to European rule.

  The introduction of Christianity led to suppression of many ancient

  practices, although some survived. Some had already been

  introduced to the Caribbean islands by African slaves. Tribes often

  competed for colonial industrial products. In some cases, tribes

  still warred among each other as before colonialism. An aristocratic

  class of European managers and directors sprang up to operate

  the colonies. Like the American Indians, many African tribes lost

  their lands, were mistreated, or became second-class citizens in a

  segregated society.

  Creation of new political and administrative entities

  European colonisation of Africa led to the demise of old African

  kingdoms and empires and the emergence of new political entities.

  Some of the old societies were reconstructed and new African

  societies were founded on different ideological and social premises.

  Consequently, African societies were in a state of flux, and many

  were organisationally weak and politically unstable. They were

  therefore too weak to resist the European invaders.

  As a result of poor technology, Africans were defeated by colonalists.

  African forces in general fought with bows, arrows, spears, swords,

  old rifles, and cavalries while the European forces, fought with

  more deadly firearms, machines guns, new rifles, and artillery

  guns. Thus in direct encounters European forces often won the day.

  However Africans put up the best resistance with the resources

  they had.

  By 1900 most of Africa had been colonised by European powers.

  After the conquest of African states, the European powers set about

  establishing colonial state systems.

  The introduction of authoritarian rule

  The colonial state was established to facilitate effective control and

  exploitation of the colonised societies. As a result of their origins

  in military conquest and because of the racist ideology of the

  colonialists, the colonial states were authoritarian. Because they

  were imposed and maintained by force, without the consent of

  the governed, the colonial states never had the effective legitimacy

  of normal governments. Second, they were authoritarian because

  they were administered by military officers and civil servants

  appointed by the colonial power. While they were all authoritarian,

  bureaucratic state systems, their forms of administration varied, 

  partly due to the different national administrative traditions and

  specific imperialist ideologies of the colonisers and partly because

  of the political conditions in the various territories that they

  conquered.

  

  During the 19th century, some European countries were interested

  in the colonisation of Africa. The main reason for their scramble for

  African continent was the search for raw material and market for

  their manufactured products. In order to exploit African countries,

  Europeans used different methods including taxation, forced cash

  crop growing, forced labour, land alienation, development of

  legitimate trade, discouraging of industrialisation, development of

  road and railway transport, and the education system.

  The activities of Europeans in Africa had a great impact on African

  societies. The dimensions of that impact are both socio-political

  and economic. This includes migration of labour force, resettlement

  of Africans, development of communication infrastructures, the

  introduction of authoritarian rule, disruption of the traditional

  African cultures and introduction of Christianity.

  Glossary

  Bangle: jewelry worn around the wrist for decoration

  Disparity: inequality or difference in some respect

  Frenzied: 1. affected with or marked by frenzy or mania

  uncontrolled by reason.

  2. excessively agitated; distraught with fear or

  other violent emotion

  Interplay: reciprocal action and reaction or interaction

  Intrusion: 1. entry to another’s property without right or

  permission

  2. entrance by force or without permission or

  welcome

  Mutilation: an injury that causes disfigurement or that

  deprives you of a limb or other important body

  part

  Rubber: an elastic material obtained from the latex sap

  of trees (especially trees of the genera hevea

  and ficus) that can be vulcanised and finished

  into a variety of products

  Scramble: to move hurriedly

  Stake: put at risk or place a bet on

  Revision questions

  1. What are the main reasons for European colonisation of Africa?

  2. Explain the term “scramble”.

  3. Describe the features of the colonial economy.

  4. The colonial African economy was said to be unfair. Explain

  how true this assertion is.

  5. The colonial activities in Africa were only profitable to Africans

  to a small extent. Discuss.

• Unit 5: Impact of Colonial Rule on African Societies

  Key unit competence

  Assess the political, economic and social transformations brought

  about by colonial rule in Africa

  Introduction

  The 19th and 20th centuries have been marked by the domination

  and exploitation of Africa by European countries. The coming of

  Europeans to Africa was aimed at the economic gains they expected

  to obtain from selling their manufactured commodities and the raw

  materials they intended to get from African countries.

  Europeans had to establish their control in order to achieve their

  economic objectives. This resulted in European domination of

  Africans. In most cases, the colonial activities benefited Europeans

  and not the Africans. Consequently, this impacted African societies

  negatively.

  Links to other subjects

  Wars and conflict in General Studies and Communication Skills

  and migration in Geography

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Colonial activities in Africa

  ࿤ Impact of colonial rule in Africa

  Colonialism and Capitalism

  Activity 1

  Define the terms colonialism and capitalism and then present

  your work to the class.

  Activity 2

  With examples discuss the different types of colonialism and

  present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 3

  Examine the following negative effects of Colonisation on

  African societies: loss of independence and division of African

  peoples. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 4

  Evaluate the following negative effects of Colonisation on the

  African societies: loss of political power, killings, and sexual

  abuse. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 5

  Assess the following negative effect of Colonisation on African

  societies: Change of African ways of life. Present the results of

  your discussion to the class.

  Activity 6

  Organise a debate on the following negative effect of Colonisation

  on African societies: Exploitation of African resources. Present

  the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 7

  Discuss the following negative effect of Colonisation on the

  African societies. Introduction of taxes and forced labour.

  Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 8

  Explain the following negative effect of Colonisation on the

  African societies: extraversion of the African economy. Present

  the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 9

  Account for the following negative effect of Colonisation on the

  African societies: colonialism retarded development. Present

  the results of your discussion to the class.

  During the 19th century and early 20th century, imperialism started

  in Europe as a result of industrialisation in order to sustain economic

  prosperity. Protectionist policies in many countries limited the

  markets and the demand for manufactured products.

  Therefore, the European powers considered imperialism as a

  means to secure foreign markets and guarantee consumption

  for their products by monopolising trade with their colonies.

  Additionally, the rapid industrialisation made it necessary to seek

  cheap sources of raw materials to supply their businesses at home.

  These economic interests, and nationalism, called for the building 

  of huge worldwide empires, where imperial powers established

  their control over vast territories, including most of Asia, Africa,

  Polynesia, and the Americas.

  Colonialism aimed at the economic exploitation of colonised nations

  to benefit the mother country. As colonial states began controlling

  the economy of the colonised territory, the economic interests of the

  colonised were ignored. Instead, colonialists wanted to maximise

  their profits and gains, regardless of the consequences on the

  colonised areas. In most cases, the colonial economic policies had

  negative effects.

  In order to have a common understanding of the aims of colonial powers

  in Africa, the definitions colonialism and capitalism are essential.

  Definition of the Concepts: Colonialism and Capitalism

  Colonialism and capitalism cannot be understood separately

  especially when it is a matter of finding answers to the impact that

  the two practices had on African society.

  Colonialism is the policy and practice of a power in extending

  control over weaker people or areas. Colonialism is also defined

  as a relationship of domination between an indigenous (or forcibly

  imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders.

  The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonised

  people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit

  of interests that are often defined in a distant capital. Rejecting

  cultural compromises with the colonised population, the colonisers

  are convinced of their own superiority and of their mandate to rule.

  Capitalism is defined as the possession of capital or wealth; a

  system in which private capital or wealth is used in the production

  or distribution of goods; the dominance of private owners of capital

  and of production for profit.

  This definition shows that capitalism is a system in which only

  those with the rights to capital and machinery can produce for the

  whole society while the rest of the people who have no business

  skills or interests remain dependent on the owners of capital who

  decide on the fate of the lives of the masses. This is the same as colonialism whereby the political, social and economic powers are

  in the hands of the minority colonial administrators.

  Types of Colonialism

  Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of

  colonialism:

  Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated

  by religious, political, or economic reasons.

  Exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses

  on access to resources for export, typically to the mother

  country. This category includes trading posts as well as larger

  colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political

  and economic administration. However they rely on indigenous

  resources for labour and material. Prior to the end of the slave

  trade and widespread abolition, when indigenous labour was

  unavailable, slaves were often imported to the Americas, first by

  the Portuguese Empire, and later by the Spanish, Dutch, French

  and British.

  Plantation colonies would be considered exploitation colonialism.

  However, colonising powers would utilise either type for different

  territories depending on various social and economic factors as

  well as climate and geographic conditions.

  Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by

  a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from

  the ruling power.

  Internal colonialism refers to inequalities in power between areas of

  a nation state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state.

  Negative Effects of Colonisation on African Societies

  Loss of African independence

  African communities lost their independence because they ceased

  to be self-governing states. They were brought under colonial

  administration either through peaceful signing of agreements or

  military conquest.

  Division of African tribes

  People from the same tribes were divided by colonial boundaries

  drawn arbitrarily. They lived under different political, economic and

  social systems. For instance, a big group of Banyarwanda lives in

  the Democratic Republic of Congo.

  Europeans caused conflicts among social groups. For example, the

  Belgian rulers of Rwanda-Urundi provided identity cards indicating

  social groups.

  In addition, the partitioning of colonies of imperial powers created

  territories that encompassed numerous ethnic, linguistic, and

  religious groups into single political entities. The partitioning did

  not correspond to the historical, cultural, or ethnic boundaries

  of pre-colonial African societies. Such states had diverse ethnic

  populations which were forced to join single political entities.

  The artificially-formed states had no historic or cultural similarities

  to legitimatise their existence. This has led to political

  instability based on ethnic, religious, and linguistic differences.

  Countries deeply divided among ethnic lines, a result of imperialism,

  not only led to the political instability of the former colonies, but

  also, in some cases, led to serious violence. In Kenya the

  competition of two different ethnic groups for the control of the

  government has led to a situation comparable to a civil war.

  

  

  Change of African lifestyle

  The arrival of Europeans in Africa introduced radical change in African

  societies. History has proven that the changes that Europeans brought

  did not do any good to Africans. The environment became that of

  “survival of the fittest” which the indigenous people were not used to.

  The colonial conquest had a twofold impact: it forcibly seized rural

  means of production, and it pursued agrarian commercialisation.

  African communal life has suddenly turned out to be individualistic.

  The people had to adapt to the changes although not all societies

  could completely transform successfully. Most of the land was

  taken by Europeans through tricky treaties that illiterate chiefs and

  kings blindly signed. For example, some Nama and Herero Chiefs

  like Samuel Maherero signed treaties and entered into land sale

  business that in the end resulted in the loss of huge chunks of land.

  Exploitation of African resources

  The long-term well-being of the colonised nation was of no interest

  for the imperial state. Any form of sustainable development

  was unnecessary for colonialists. This is the reason why deforestation is a serious problem for many nations which had

  been under colonial rule.

  Colonial powers, in their quest for economic prosperity,

  disregarded the need for the sustainable management of forest

  areas and established minimally-regulated lumber industries. These

  sought only short-term profits for colonialists and their mother

  country. Thus, unsustainable overexploitation of natural resources

  followed. The effects are clear. The environmental degradation

  caused by the self-interest of colonialists is now difficult to reverse.

  It is connected with the rampant poverty and hunger in former

  colonies.

  Introduction of taxes and forced labour

  Africans were forced to pay taxes like hut tax, gun tax and later on

  poll tax was introduced by the colonial government to force Africans

  to provide labour for colonial governments and for European settlers

  and to make their colonies financially self-reliant.

  Africans were frequently forced to provide labour for European

  settlers and for government building and agricultural programmes.

  Forced labour resulted in widespread African discontent and

  migration to areas where the Africans hoped to get paid work.

  Distortion of the African economy

  Colonial investment and construction focused on the development

  and construction of communication lines, railways, plantations

  and mines. However, these investments did not contribute to the

  economic transformation of the colonies into industrialised nations.

  These investments were only intended to support the exploitation

  of natural resources and agricultural capacities. Colonialists

  established an economy which depended on the export of a few

  selected natural resources and agricultural products. This exposed

  the economy to market price fluctuations.

  The unwillingness of imperial powers to reinvest the profits

  gained from their colonies in colonial industrial development

  kept colonies under a weak agricultural economy. This also deprived

  them of their natural resources. 

  Retarding of development

  In colonies with centralised states and white settlement colonialism

  retarted development. In centralised states colonialism not only

  blocked further political development, but also indirect rule made

  local elites less accountable to their citizens.

  After independence, these states were ruled by selfish rulers. These

  states suffered from racism, stereotypes and misconceptions which

  have caused problems, especially in Burundi and Rwanda.

  In settler colonies, there was exploitation of the people and loss of

  land. This caused the impoverishment of Africans. The evolution

  and spread of technology plus the absence of slavery makes it likely

  that, without colonialism, African ways of life would have slowly

  improved. Increase in inequality and the racial and ethnic conflicts

  intensified by colonialism, show that African countries would be

  better off today if they had not been colonised.

  All in all, there is no country today in sub-Saharan Africa that is

  more developed because it was colonised by Europeans. 

  Positive Effects of Colonisation on the African Societies

  Activity 10

  Discuss the following positive effect of Colonisation on African

  societies: development of the education system. Present the

  results of your discussion to the class. 

  Activity 11

  Organise a debate on the following positive effect of Colonisation

  on African societies: development of modern transport

  infrastructures. Present the results of your discussion to the

  class.

  Activity 12

  Assess the following positive effects of Colonisation on the

  African societies: Introduction of new crops and agricultural

  methods. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

  Activity 13

  Find out the benefits of the modern medicine introduced in

  Africa by Europeans. Present your findings to the class.

  Positive Effects of Colonisation on AfricanSocieties

  Development of education system

  The colonial governments supported education services which

  were mainly managed by missionaries. The missionaries founded

  the first primary and secondary schools which still play leading

  role in development. The colonial governments carried the financial

  burden of supporting mission schools.

  Development of modern transport infrastructure

  The modern transport and communication network and facilities

  were developed in many parts of Africa. Railway networks and

  roads, and bridges were built. Motor vehicles, bicycles, steamers

  and air planes were introduced.

  Introduction of new crops

  New cash crops were introduced and promoted. They included

  cotton, tea, coffee, sisal, rubber, pyrethrum and wheat. Experiments

  were made on new species of both crops and livestock which were

  adapted to the local conditions.

  Africans adopted the new agricultural methods introduced by

  the colonial governments such as plantation farming, cash crop

  growing and terracing, etc.

  Development of the health system

  Europeans introduced modern medicine in Africa. They constructed

  hospitals, health centres and dispensaries. They also organised

  programmes to fight against killer diseases by vaccination. These

  diseases include polio, pneumonia, measles, tuberculosis, leprosy

  and small pox.

  

  The colonisation of Africa by European countries during the 19th

  and 20th centuries led to negative and positive consequences.

  These effects resulted from the activities of European colonial

  masters. The few positive colonial effects on African societies

  include the introduction of new agricultural methods and new crops

  in Africa, development of modern transport and communication

  lines, introduction of modern education and the development of the

  modern health system.

  It should be noted that colonisation was generally marked by

  the preoccupation of serving European interest, leaving aside the

  African cause. Thus, the European relations with Africans during the

  colonial period were at a large scale negative. The latter comprised

  the extraversion of the African economy, introduction of forced

  labour, introduction of taxes, over exploitation of African resources,

  loss of land, loss of Africans’ judicial power, disruption of African

  governments, loss of African identity and the disappearance of

  African civilisations, etc.

  Glossary

  Cluster: a group of similar things

  Predatory: living by or given to victimising others for

  personal gain

  Plausible: reasonable, valid, and truthful

  Surrogate: providing or receiving parental care though not

  related by blood or legal ties

  Modus Vivendi: a temporary accommodation of a disagreement

  between parties pending a permanent

  settlement or a manner of living that reflects

  the person’s values and attitudes

  Revision questions

  1. Define the concepts of colonialism and imperialism and find

  out the differences.

  2. Describe the types of colonialism.

  3. In what way was the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi a result

  of colonialism?

  4. Demonstrate how the modus Vivendi of Africans was far

  different on eve of the colonial period from that of after the

  arrival of Europeans.

  5. Explain at least ten negative effects of colonisation on African

  societies.

  6. Find out and explain at least six positive effects of colonisation

  on African societies.

• Unit 6 Major European Events: 1836 – 1878

  Key unit competence

  Evaluate the major events that took place in Europe between 1836

  and 1878, their causes, course and effects.

  Introduction

  The history of Europe from 1836 up to 1878 was characterised

  by many revolutions and wars. Congresses were organised and

  treaties signed to address the conflicts.

  The 1848 revolutions affected diplomatic relations in Europe. The

  congress system was weakened. It had been formed as an alliance

  to maintain the peace in Europe. The success of these revolutions

  inspired other people for example Italians, Germans and Greeks

  who were under foreign domination to fight for their independence.

  The weakness and collapse of the Congress system in Europe led to

  conflicts between the European powers as a result of disagreement

  on the Eastern question of 1815–1878. During the Berlin Congress

  of 1878, organised by the German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck,

  European powers redefined the diplomatic principles and revised

  their diplomacy. As a result of this congress, Bismarck maintained

  peace in Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

  Links to other subjects

  This unit can be linked to other units like Wars and conflicts in

  General Studies and Communication and Skills.

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Causes and effects of the 1848 European revolutions

  ࿤ Reasons for the success and the failure of the 1848 European

  revolutions

  ࿤ Reasons why the 1848 European revolutions did not take place

  in some countries

  ࿤ Italian unification

  ࿤ German unification

  ࿤ Eastern question

  ࿤ Berlin Congress

  Part One

  The 1848 European Revolutions

  Activity 1

  Carry out research on the possible reasons for the outbreak

  of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Present the results of your

  research to the class.

  The 1848 European revolutions were a series of uprisings in Europe.

  The revolutions were started by the middle class and nobility who

  demanded constitutional and representative governments, and by

  workers and peasants who revolted against capitalist practices that

  were responsible for poverty.

  The revolutions broke out in France, Austria, and the Italian and

  German states. People rose against conservative governments

  and demanded for political, social and economic reforms. Those

  revolutions were also against the negative consequences of the

  Vienna settlement and Metternich system.

  

  Despite the violent efforts of governments to crash the revolutions,

  new revolutionary ideas such as democracy, liberalism, nationalism

  and socialism gained popularity.

  Causes of the 1848 Revolutions

  The need to end the unfair decisions of the Vienna Settlement

  The Vienna Settlement aimed at safeguarding against future French

  aggression and formed buffer states by bringing the Italian and

  German states under the control of Austria. This did not respect the

  principle of nationalism. For this reason the Italians and Germans

  revolted in 1848.

  The oppressive regime of Metternich

  Metternich the chancellor of Austria used a harsh-spy network that

  terrorised people. This forced, the Germans and Italians to rise up

  for independence.

  The collapse of the Congress System

  The success of the 1830 Belgian revolution marked the end of the

  Congress System. This provided an opportunity for the oppressed

  people to revolt against their leaders.

  The growth of nationalism

  Because of nationalistic feelings, the German and Italian states

  rose up to demand for respective national unifications. Elsewhere

  in Europe people demanded for constitutional rule and an end to

  despotism.

  The rise of new personalities in European politics

  They included Mazzini and Garibaldi of Italy, Louis Kossuth of

  Hungary, Von Bismarck and Stephen Baron of Prussia and Louis

  Blanc and Lamartine in France. New personalities mobilised

  support against the oppressive rulers of Austria.

  The effects of epidemic diseases

  The poor people were affected by diseases like cholera, typhoid

  and tuberculosis and died in large numbers. The leaders provided

  no solution to the situation. They became unpopular leading to the

  outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

  The negative effects of the rapid population growth

  In eastern and central Europe the rapid population growth led to

  urban congestion, food shortage and unemployment. The masses

  blamed this on their respective governments. This led to the

  revolutions of 1848.

  The corruption and inefficiency of the rulers

  In many states of eastern and central Europe, the rulers were

  corrupt and inefficient. This compelled the masses to revolt against

  Louis Philippe for instance in 1848.

  The influence of socialist ideas

  Socialist ideas were initiated by Karl Marx. Socialists argued

  that capitalism was responsible for unemployment, inflation and exploitation of the employees. This encouraged the people to join

  the 1848 revolutions.

  The success of the previous revolutions

  The French revolution of 1789 and the 1830 Belgian revolution

  encouraged the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions. The oppressed

  people believed their struggle would be successful like in France

  and in Belgium.

  The negative impact of industrialisation

  The spread of industrialisation to many European countries created

  many economic and social problems like unemployment, low

  wages, long hours of work, poor accommodation, rural-urban

  migration, inflation, and starvation. These problems forced the

  poor populations in urban areas to join the 1848 revolutions.

  The long term effects of the 1789 French revolution

  The French revolution had left behind strong ideas of liberty,

  equality and fraternity. It had also overthrown dictatorship and

  bad governance in France. Therefore, people in different European

  states in 1848 were guided by those ideas and wanted to achieve

  what the French had witnessed in 1789.

  
  

  The Common Characteristics of the 1848

  Revolutions

  
  

  Activity 2

  Examine the characteristics of the 1848 European

  revolutions. Present your work to the class.

  All the 1848 revolutions were urban based, meaning that they were

  concentrated in cities and towns, while the countryside remained

  peaceful.

  Many of the 1848 revolutions were led by educated people like

  professors, doctors, lecturers, lawyers, journalists and even teachers

  who understood the weaknesses of their home governments. E.g. Mazzini in Italy, Louis Blanc and Lamartine in France and Kossuth

  in Hungary.

  The revolutions of 1848 lacked foreign assistance because they

  occurred at the same time and each country was busy suppressing

  its own revolution. This also explains why they were defeated.

  Almost all the revolutions of 1848, except in France, were against

  the unfairness of the Vienna Settlement which restored bad

  leaders, neglected the principles of nationalism, and encouraged

  domination of small countries by the big powers.

  The 1848 revolutions took place at the same time: from January

  to March 1848.

  The revolutions took place in less industrialised and agricultural

  states like Italy, German, Hungary and France.

  All of them had an element of the French revolution of 1789: the

  demand for constitutional changes.

  All the revolutions failed, except in France where King Louis

  Philippe was removed.

  The revolutions, except the revolution in France, were organised

  and carried out against the common enemy: Metternich of Austria

  and his spy network system.

  The revolutions were partly caused by the effects of natural

  disasters like bad weather, epidemics, starvation and scarcity.

  This explains why there were no revolutions in Britain where these

  natural disasters did not occur.

  The revolutions except in France lacked the support of the

  national armies. For instance in Germany, Italy and Hungary the

  revolutionaries were not supported by their national armies. This

  was due to the ignorance of revolutionaries about the use of the

  army. In Italy, and Austria the soldiers feared to participate because

  their kings were dictators.

  The revolutions had similar effects such as loss of lives, destruction

  of property and exiling of the leading politicians except in France.

  The Effects of the 1848 Revolutions

  Activity 3

  Analyse the effects of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Present

  the result of your analysis to the class.

  The 1848 revolutions which occurred mainly in central and eastern

  Europe resulted in positive and negative effects:

  The 1848 revolutions caused loss of lives on a large scale. More

  than 500 people were killed in France. In Berlin over 300 and

  3000–5000 in Austria. In Hungary 13 generals and 1000 other

  politicians were killed.

  The 1848 revolutions caused many demonstrations against

  Metternich who fled to exile in London. This led to the decline and

  collapse of his system.

  Apart from Metternich, many other people were forced into exile.

  These included Louis Philippe, Mazzini, Kossuth, Garibaldi, Prince

  Metternich and Charles Albert. In addtion, ordinary people rose to

  high positions.

  The 1848 revolutionary movements contributed to the Italian and

  German unification in 1871 because the Metternich system which

  posed obstacles to the unification had collapsed. In addition the

  revolutions led to the rise of new men who provided able leadership

  that led to the unifications. These included Otto Von Bismarck

  and Stephen in Germany, and Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont,

  Gavainag and Louis Blanc in France.

  The revolutions ended feudalism and serfdom. In September 1848,

  Emperor Francis I of Austria passed the Emancipation Act under which

  peasants were permitted to own land. Serfdom was also brought to

  an end in Hungary. This improved lives of peasants in Europe.

  This marked the end of privileges for the nobles and clergy in many

  parts of Europe.

  The 1848 revolutions taught revolutionaries a lesson that for any

  revolution to be successful it should be militarily strong instead of

  relying solely on intellectual ideas.

  The 1848 revolutions were successful for a short time in some

  states. For example in Hungary, Lajos Kossuth established the

  Hungarian republic and a parliament at Budapest in March 1849;

  the Frankfurt Assembly was established in May 1848 for the

  German states; in Italy, Garibaldi and Mazzini set up a Roman

  republic in 1849. However, these republics were shortly lived.

  The 1848 revolutions in central Europe marked the awakening of

  various peoples to national consciousness. In that year the Germans

  and the Italians started their movements for the unification and

  creation of nation-states.

  Although the attempts at revolution failed in 1848, the movements

  gathered strength in subsequent years. After a long struggle, an

  Italian kingdom was created in 1861 and a German empire in 1871.

  Other European peoples who agitated for national independence

  in 1848 include the Poles, the Czechs, the Hungarians, and the

  Christian peoples in the Balkans under the rule of the Ottoman

  sultan.

  The 1848 revolutions led to the success of socialism in Europe.

  The socialists successfully organised the workers and peasants

  to fight against capitalism. Although socialism was suppressed,

  it later dominated eastern Europe, divided Europe into the two

  ideologies of communism and capitalism up to 1989 and beyond.

  The 1848 revolutions also led to the rise of dictatorial governments

  and the politics of revenge in the countries where they failed. For

  example in Hungary and Austria, the constitutional reforms were

  canceled. General Haynau forced Kossuth into exile and killed

  many Hungarians. In Bohemia Winschgratz killed many Czech

  rebels as revenge.

  The Success of the 1848 Revolutions

  Activity 4

  Debate the different factors which made the 1848 revolutions

  successful in some European countries. Consider France as a

  case study. Present the outcome of your debate to the class.

  Factors for the success of the 1848 Revolutions in France

  Good leadership: Louis Blanc and Alphonse Marie Lamartine were

  good leaders who mobilised the masses and demanded for change

  during the 1848 revolution in France.

  Support from the army: Like during the previous revolution of

  1789, the revolutionaries in France were supported by the army.

  This support encouraged the revolutionaries to succeed.

  War experience: Most of the revolutionaries who fought in the

  February revolution in France had also participated in the 1789

  revolution where they got experience in fighting. This enabled them

  to be successful in the 1848 revolution.

  Support from the masses: Due to the poor social conditions, effects

  of the bad weather and outbreak of epidemic diseases, the masses

  supported the revolutionaries who promised them rapid reforms.

  Nationalism and unity: Like in 1789, the people were strongly

  united. They were determined to overthrow Louis Philippe who had

  became unpopular.

  Financial support from the middle class: Due to the economic

  problems France was facing which included unemployment, low

  wages, inflation, corruption and embezzlement of public funds, the

  middle class preferred to support the revolutionaries who promised

  better conditions.

  

  Failure of the 1848 Revolutions

  
  

  Activity 5

  While the 1848 revolutions succeeded in France, they failed in

  other countries. Analyse the reasons for the failure and present

  the summary of your assessment to the class.

  The 1848 revolutions failed in most of the European states like

  Austria, Hungary, Italian and German states, except in France. The

  failure of these revolutions was due to the following factors:

  The revolutions were not supported by the peasants and lacked

  foreign support because most countries were facing the same

  situation.

  As a result of economic hardships, the revolutionary leaders and

  their supporters were very poor and could not finance a prolonged

  struggle or afford to purchase fire arms.

  Ideological conflicts and lack of proper common strategy weakened

  the revolutions. For example in Germany the northern states wanted

  a little Germany under Prussia while the southern states wanted a

  big Germany under Austria.

  Austria had a song army led by efficient army commanders like

  General Windschgratz who defeated revolutionaries in Vienna and

  Hungary, and Raditsky who defeated the Italian revolutionaries at

  Novaro and Custozza.

  The revolutionaries failed to fulfill the promise made to their

  supporters. They concentrated on talking and failed to deliver what

  they had promised, for example in the German and Italian states.

  Poor mass mobilisation also contributed to the failure of the

  revolutions. They were urban centred and failed to involve people

  in rural areas.

  Religious differences among the revolutionaries weakened the

  revolutions. In Germany the southern states supported Austria,

  a fellow Catholic state, while the northern states which were Protestant supported Prussia. Charles Albert, a Catholic did not

  want to attack Austria while Pope Pius IX supported Austria against

  the revolutionaries.

  The dismissal of liberal ministers in September 1848 by King

  Fredrick William IV also played a role in the failure of the revolution

  in Prussia.

  Unfair representation in the constituent assembly mainly in Prussia

  also contributed to the failure of the revolutions in the German

  states.

  Why the 1848 European Revolutions did not

  take Place in some Countries

  Activity 6

  Analyse why some countries did not experience the 1848

  revolutions. Present the results to the class.

  The 1848 revolutions mainly affected the central areas of Europe

  which were under the control of Metternich and did not extend to

  all European countries. Britain, Belgium, Holland and Russia did

  not experience revolutions due to the following reasons:

  In Belgium, a revolution was not possible because of the

  constitutional arrangements achieved as a result of the 1830

  revolution. For instance, the right to vote was already extended to

  include members of the middle class. There was also improvement

  in public works.

  Britain and Belgium had already established the parliamentary

  system. Many constitutional changes had taken place and they

  were also easily implemented by parliament without the use of

  force like in other countries.

  In Britain the parliamentary system had focused on improving

  working conditions. The working day was already shortened. The

  working conditions of women and children were also addressed. 

  In 1834, the British parliament passed a law to improve the living

  conditions of the poor.

  Britain was a more advanced industrialised society. It was able to

  meet the needs of the growing population, especially employment,

  compared to other European countries where the effects of

  industrialisation caused political instability.

  By 1846 Britain had a law to improve the living conditions in

  slums. Improvements in sanitation, drainage, street lighting and

  medical services led to better conditions of living in comparison to

  central Europe.

  Britain was also never affected by the Vienna settlement which

  created a lot of political dissatisfaction in Europe. This helped

  Britain to escape the revolutions of 1848.

  Part Two

  The Italian Unification

  Activity 7

  Analyse the political situation in Italy before 1815 and prepare

  an essay to present to the class.

  Italian unification refers to the amalgamation or union of various

  Italian states to form one Italian kingdom in 1871. The various

  states that formed a united Italy include Piedmont, Lombardy,

  central states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany, Naples and Sicily,

  Nice, Venetia, Savoy and the papal states.

  Before 1815, Italians were under the control of Austria. In 1805,

  Napoleon I forced Austria out of Italy in the famous “Italian

  Campaign”. He divided the Italian states in three parts: the kingdom

  of Italy in the north, kingdom of Naples in the south and central

  Italian states. Many Italians had admired Napoleon for his victories

  over the Austrians, and for the republican ideas that took root in

  the parts of Italy under French control during the Napoleonic wars.

  After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, the Italian states

  had high hopes for regaining their independence and freedom.

  However, by the Vienna Settlement these Italian states were put

  under foreign domination as follows:

  ࿤ Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and Tuscany under Austria.

  ࿤ Papal states under Pope Pius IX.

  ࿤ Naples and Sicily under the Spanish King.

  ࿤ Piedmont and Sardinia were left under the Italian King Victor

  Emmanuel II.

  The Italian nationals hated foreign domination and they started

  several nationalistic movements. In 1820, a secret society called

  Carbonari Movement was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini. He believed

  that Italy should not only be independent, but also a united republic.

  

  However, due to the lack of massive mobilisation, the movement

  failed to unify Italy before 1850. Even the 1848 revolutionaries

  failed to unify the Italian states until 1871.

  Factors that had Delayed the Italian Unification before 1850

  
  

  Activity 8

  Examine the obstacles to Italian unification. Present your work

  to the class.

  Several obstacles explain why the Italian unification failed before

  1850.

  Economic backwardness: The Italian economy lacked industries,

  it was poor, and transport and communication networks were not

  well developed. Therefore, without a strong economic base, Italian

  unification was always frustrated.

  Austria and Metternich system: Austria had a very large, well

  trained, organised and equipped army which was effectively

  commanded. Metternich had established a strong spy network,

  and used a policy of divide and rule. The Italians were not militarily

  strong by 1848 and that is why the Carbonari Movement and the

  Young Italian Movement failed to unify Italy.

  The Vienna Settlement of 1815: The Vienna settlement negatively

  affected the unification of Italy, because the peacemakers enlarged

  the Italian states and again put them under foreign control. This

  made unification difficult.

  Lack of strong leaders: Italian unification delayed because of lack

  of capable leaders. The leaders who had tried like Mazzini and

  Garibaldi did not get support from the nobles and clergy because

  they were from peasant families.

  Problem of Pope Pius IX: Pope Pius IX did not have the vision of

  a united Italy. He was greatly opposed to the unification of Italy

  because he did not want the two Catholic countries to go to war.

  However, he had encouraged liberalism and nationalism to grow

  throughout the Italian peninsula.

  Foreign interference: In 1848 Mazzini and Garibaldi attacked the

  papal states and formed the Roman republic. But in 1849, France

  under Napoleon III intervened and the pope was restored by the

  French troops under General Cudinol.

  Geographical terrain: The Italian terrain made movement and

  communication difficult. Communication across the rivers

  was impossible as they freeze in winter. So, the movements of

  nationalists spreading the ideas of unification were hindered.

  High level of illiteracy: About 90 per cent of Italians were not

  educated and therefore had no political ideas which made it difficult for the masses to understand the struggle for unification. This is

  why, the struggle for unification only took place around urban areas

  as the rural people were not actively involved.

  Ideological differences: Many Italians lacked a common stand

  while others served in the army. They had no common language

  which made it hard to criticise and mobilise other Italian states for

  unification.

  Divisions among Italian nationalists: The Italians in piedmont

  supported monarchism and used French as their language, while

  Garibaldi and Mazzini who spoke Italian supported republicanism.

  As a result they did not unite in their struggle and they were

  defeated.

  Lack of secrecy: As a result of Metternich’s spy network, the Austrian

  police penetrated the secret societies by pretending to support the

  Italian cause. The Austrian Secret Police was so effective that it

  leaked the plans and activities of the Italian movements before

  hand and as a result they were suppressed.

  Military weaknesses: The Italians were militarily weak; they lacked

  good weapons, military leaders, military bases and good military

  tactics.

  Anti-reform leaders: The leaders who led the different stages

  during the early days of the unification never wanted to support

  the struggle for the unification. In addition, some Italian kings

  collaborated with Austrian rulers to persecute Italian nationalists

  who wanted unification.

  Negative attitude of European powers: Some European powers

  had a negative attitude towards the Italian unification. France

  feared an independent Italy as her neighbour. Austria never wanted

  to allow Italians to get independence because Italy was her colony,

  while Britain was indifferent about Italian unification.

  Violet methods: The leaders of the unification process used a lot

  of force to achieve their goal. This forced Austrian rulers to also

  react violently. The use of violence scared away many Italians

  who supported the unification struggle. This weakened the Italian

  struggle.

  Factors that Facilitated the Italian Unification Process of 1850–1870

  
  

  Activity 9

  Analyse the factors that favoured Italian unification by 1871.

  Present the results of your analysis to the class.

  The unification of Italy which was finally completed in 1871 was

  as a result of a number of factors. These factors include:

  Collapse of the Congress system: After 1856, there were no more

  congresses in Europe because the big powers fought each other

  during the Crimean War. Therefore, the revolutionary struggles in

  Italy could not easily be suppressed due to the lack of unity among

  European powers.

  Downfall of Metternich: As a leader of the Austrian Empire,

  Metternich had used Austrian spies and army to stop Italian

  unification. However, in 1848 he was overthrown and exiled to

  London. The collapse of Metternich’s system enabled Italian

  freedom fighters to succeed.

  Eatablishment of an internal base in Italy: Before 1848, there was

  lack of an internal base for the unification struggle. However, after

  1849, Piedmont was used as an internal base to coordinate the

  unification activities. Therefore, the return of the nationalists from

  exile to operate from Italy allowed unification activities to move

  faster.

  Support from foreign countries: During the Italian unification

  process, the foreign powers supported Italy in the following ways:

  ࿤ France: The Italians received direct assistance from France in

  1859 by which Lombardy was liberated from Austria. However,

  Garibaldi disliked this because Italy lost Nice to France.

  ࿤ Britain: Britain extended loans which helped Piedmont to

  overcome the economic crisis. Britain also maintained the

  policy of non-intervention which helped Garibaldi to liberate

  Naples and Sicily in 1860.

  ࿤ Belgium: Like Britain, Belgium had financially supported the

  struggle for Italian Unification.

  ࿤ Prussia: In 1866 Prussia assisted in the liberation of Venetia

  from Austria.

  Emergence of capable leaders after 1848: Before 1850, Italian

  leaders failed to lead unification. After 1850 new leaders who

  provided strong leadership emerged. Victor Emmanuel and Cavour

  strengthened the army and the economy and secured foreign

  assistance. In addition Charles Albert helped emancipate Venitia

  and Rome.

  Change of government in Britain: This favoured the unification in

  Italy because the coming to power of Gladstone as prime minister

  of Britain and Lord John Russell helped the Italians as they assisted

  them in the liberation of Parma, Modena and Tuscany through a

  referendum in 1860.

  Activities of the Carbonari and the Young Italian Movement:

  The Carbonari and Young Italian Movement established a strong

  foundation for the unification of Italy. They encouraged the growth of

  nationalism, unity and the idea for independence. They mobilised

  Italians against Austrian foreign rule. Those activities united

  Italians, prepared them for the struggle and reduced ostacles to

  unification.

  The 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war: During this war, Napoleon

  III was forced to withdraw the French troops from Rome in 1870.

  This enabled the Italian patriots to take over Rome and this marked

  the completion of the Italian unification in 1871.

  Role of the Italian scholars: The Italian philosophers, lecturers,

  teachers and writers wrote publications which encouraged

  nationalism, they condemned Austrian domination and revealed

  atrocities committed against the Italians. This created the spirit

  of nationalism and Italian nationalists decided to fight against the

  Austrian domination.

  Role of Pope Pius IX: Pope Pius IX rose to power in 1848 and

  unlike Pope Grégoire he was a liberal. He supported libralism

  and nationalism and liked the idea of Italian unification. It also

  weakened Metternich who was an obstacle to unification.

  Role of press: The Risogrimento which was a newspaper

  introduced by Cavour exposed Austrian atrocities against Italians

  and sensitised Italians about the importance of unity. 

  Reform of Piedmont’s economy: By 1860, the economy of Piedmont

  had been reformed and grown to the level of competing with the

  Austrian economy and to challenge Austria. It became possible to

  access adequate resources to support unification. Piedmont also

  became strong enough to lead the unification process.

  Reduction of the powers of the Catholic Church in Italy: The

  Catholic Church was a big barrier in the unification of Italy because

  it was opposed to fighting Austria a fellow Catholic country. In

  1850, Camillo Benso di Cavour brought to an end the powers of the

  Catholic Church. He stopped church control of politics, education,

  and land. Thus, this allowed many liberal Catholics to fight against

  Austria without condemnation from the Catholic Church.

  Outbreak of the Franco–Prussian war of 1870–1: It was fought

  between France and Prussia. Due to this war, France was forced

  to withdraw her soldiers from Rome to go and fight in Prussia in

  1870. This provided an opportunity for liberation forces to take

  over control of Rome. This marked the completion of the Italian

  unification in 1871.

  The Role Played by Giuseppe Mazzini in Italian Unification

  Activity 10

  Evaluate the role played by Giuseppe Mazzini during the

  struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

  your work to the class.

  Giuseppe Mazzini (22 June 1805 10 March 1872), nicknamed

  “The Beating Heart of Italy”, was an Italian politician, journalist

  and activist for the unification of Italy.

  His efforts helped create the independent and unified Italy

  composed of several separate states, that had been dominated by

  foreign powers.

  Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who fought to oust

  the Italian nobles and expel the Austrians from his country. He lived in France where he organised uprisings in Italy. While in exile

  he was sentenced to death in absentia in 1832.

  He helped define the modern European movement for popular

  democracy in a republican state.

  He bitterly resented the absorption of his native republic of Genoa

  into the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1815.

  In 1827 he joined the revolutionary Carbonari Movement, but

  after his imprisonment at Savona (1830-31) he abandoned that

  organisation as ineffective.

  Exiled, he founded the Young Italy Movement (La Giovine Italia) in

  Marseille, France, in July 1831. It established branches in many

  Italian cities. Mazzini argued that through coordinated uprisings,

  the people could drive the Italian princes from their thrones and

  oust the Austrians from the Italian peninsula.

  He used propaganda to mobilise and sensitise the Italians. This

  is why they called him a “Prophet of the Italian unification”. By

  1833 his movement had about 60,000 members.

  On March 8,1848, Mazzini launched a new political

  association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana in Paris.

  The high point of Mazzini’s career was the revolutions of 1848-49,

  when he returned to Italy and was elected one of the leaders of the

  new Roman republic. But when the republic fell in July 1849 to an

  invading French army, Mazzini once again had to flee.

  His efforts to spark republican uprisings in Mantua (Mantova)

  (1852) and Milan in 1853 were unsuccessful. The leadership

  of the Italian nationalist movement was taken over by Camillo di

  Cavour of Sardinia-Piedmont who supported a liberal monarchy.

  Mazzini came back to Italy during the wars of 1859 and 1860 but

  took no pleasure in seeing the establishment in 1861 of a unified

  Italian kingdom rather than a republic.

  In 1862 he again joined Garibaldi during his failed attempt to free

  Rome. In 1866 Venetia was ceded by France, which had obtained

  it from Austria at the end of the Austro-Prussian war, to the new

  kingdom of Italy, which had been created in 1861 under the Savoy

  monarchy. In 1867 he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of

  Deputies. He was still plotting to gain Venice and Rome when he

  was jailed in Gaeta from August to October 1870 at the time King

  Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was seizing Rome. 

  In failing health, Mazzini retired to Pisa, where he died on March

  10, 1872.

  The Role Played by Giuseppe Garibaldi in Italian Unification

  Activity 11

  Evaluate the role played by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the

  struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

  your work to the class.

  Content

  

  Garibaldi was a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento. He

  personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns

  that led eventually to the formation of a unified Italy. He generally

  tried to act on behalf of a legitimate power, which does not make

  him exactly a revolutionary. He joined the Young Italian Movement

  in 1833 and become a follower of Mazzini.

  

  

  In 1848, after a long period in exile in Tunisia, Brazil, Cuba, Uruguay

  and USA, Garibaldi returned to Italy. Together with Mazzini they

  participated in the 1848 revolution in the papal states, leading

  to the formation of the Roman republic where he was appointed

  general by the provisional government of Milan in 1848.

  Emmanuel defeated Garibaldi at the battle of Aspromonte on

  August 29, 1862. Garibaldi was wounded and captured in that

  battle but was soon pardoned and released.

  Despite the Aspromonte incident, the government went to Garibaldi

  again in 1866. Italy had made an alliance with Prussia to defeat the

  Austrians. Italy was promised Venice if the alliance was victorious.

  Garibaldi successfully invaded Tyrol with a volunteer force. 

  This was one of the few Italian victories in a war won primarily on the

  strength of the Prussian army. Venice became part of Italy in 1866.

  In 1867 Garibaldi again raised a volunteer force with the aim of

  annexing the papal states to the kingdom of Italy. After a number

  of initial engagements, he was defeated by combined papal and

  French forces at the battle of Mentana on November 3, 1867. He

  was taken prisoner to Varignano, near La Spezia but was held for

  only a short time.

  In 1870 he offered his services to the French government and

  fought with his two sons in the Franco-Prussian war. Rome was

  annexed to Italy in October 1870, and Garibaldi was elected a

  member of the Italian parliament in 1874. In his last years he

  sympathized with the developing socialist movement in Italy

  and other countries. Garibaldi’s autobiography, Autobiography of

  Giuseppe Garibaldi, was published in 1887.

  In 1879 he founded the League of Democracy, which advocated

  universal suffrage, abolition of ecclesiastical property, emancipation

  of women, and maintenance of a standing army.

  The Role Played by Camillo Benso di Cavour in Italian Unification

  
  

  Activity 12

  Evaluate the role played by Benso di Cavour during the struggle

  for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present your

  work to the class.

  

  Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month

  resignation) throughout the second Italian war of independence

  and Garibaldi’s campaigns to unite Italy.

  Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in

  attempts to solve economic problems in his area. Firstly he

  experimented with different agricultural techniques on his estate,

  such as the use of sugar beet, and was one of the first Italian

  landowners to use chemical fertilisers. He also founded the

  Piedmontese Agricultural Society. 

  

  Cavour’s long term goal was to expel Austrian power from Italy

  and expand Italy by annexing Lombardy and Venetia to Sardinia. In

  1858, he negotiated a secret deal with Napoleon III who promised

  to support Sardinia in case it faced a war with Austria.

  A year later, he provoked that war. With the French help, Piedmont

  - Sardinia defeated Austria and annexed Lombardy.

  After his death on June 6, 1861, his successors completed his

  dream by negotiating with Bismarck and Italy acquired Venetia in

  a Peace Treaty that ended the Austro-Prussian war in 1866.

  He is remembered for the following contributions during Italian

  unification:

  He founded a newspaper called Risorgimento which means

  “resurrection” or “renewal”. In his newspaper, he published the

  need for constitutional and parliamentary democracy. He also

  exposed the oppressive administration of Austrian rulers. This

  created nationalism and attracted support for independence from

  Austria.

  He solicited for funds from foreign powers especially from Britain

  and France.

  He improved the economy of Piedmont by signing commercial

  treaties with Britain, France and Belgium which made it easy for

  Piedmont to benefit from free trade with European countries.

  He carried out military reforms in Piedmont which strengthened the

  military base of Piedmont. This helped address military obstacles

  to Italian unification.

  He abolished the powers of the pope and Catholic Church in Italy

  by stopping the church from controlling politics, education and

  land. This encouraged the liberal Catholics to support the idea of

  unification.

  He reconciled revolutionary fighters like Mazzini, Garibaldi and

  King Victor Emmanuel II.

  He introduced political reforms like drafting of the constitution

  for Piedmont which created a political base that favoured the

  unification of Italy.

  He fought against illiteracy and ignorance in Italy by introducing

  learning centres in Piedmont. These schools acted as mobilisation

  centres for supporting the unification struggle.

  He improved the economy, trade and transport of Piedmont by

  encouraging agriculture, industrialisation, building of roads,

  railways, telegraph lines and canals. This partly solved economic

  backwardness and supported the movement of nationalists and

  troops.

  He is credited for introducing civil reforms in land, education and

  finance in the state of Piedmont which reduced the power and

  influence of the church.

  Cavour engaged European powers to provide diplomatic support

  for the unification. He supported the allies against Russia in the

  crimean war. He also supported France and Prussia against Austria.

  This helped him get support against Austria which was an obstacle

  to Italian unification.

  The Role Played by Victor Emanuel II in Italian Unification

  Activity 13

  Examine the role played by King Victor Emmanuel II in the

  struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

  your work to the class.

  King Victor Emanuel II (14 March 1820 – 9 January 1878) was

  the eldest son of Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano and Maria

  Theresa of Austria. His father succeeded a distant cousin as king

  of Sardinia in 1831. 

  

  Lastly, he continued with the struggle for the unification of Italy

  after the death of Cavour in 1861. His role led to the liberation of

  Rome and Venetia which completed the unification. He is credited

  for the following contributions:

  He accepted leadership of the struggle for Italian unification as

  proposed by Cavour.

  He appointed Cavour to various ministerial positions which enabled

  Cavour to introduce economic and political reforms that helped the

  Italians to attain their independence.

  He accepted to use Piedmont as the centre of the unification; hence

  he solved the problem of lack of an internal base from which the

  Italians achieved their unification.

  His foreign policy won for Piedmont foreign support and prestige.

  He allied with Bismarck in 1866, and agreed to remain neutral

  when Bismarck fought Austria and in return he would be supported

  to liberate Venetia.

  After the withdrawal of Cavour from the struggle in 1859, Victor

  Emmanuel maintained the gains of the struggle. This encouraged

  the central states to join Piedmont.

  He marched his troops to occupy Rome after France had withdrawn

  her soldiers to go and fight in the Franco - Prussian war of 1870– 1871.

  
  

  Roles of Foreign Powers

  
  

  Activity 14

  Assess the role of the foreign powers in the Italian unification.

  Present the results of your assessment to the class.

  Besides the roles played by Italian nationalists to attain the Italian

  unification, foreign powers also supported the Italians during their

  struggle for their unification. 

  They inspired the Italians as united monarchies like Britain and

  France among others.

  Britain and France supported the Piedmontees to annex the central

  duchies of the Italian states i.e. Parma, Modena and Tuscany in

  1860.

  France provided military support of 200 000 troops to Piedmont in

  the liberation of Lombardy from Austria in 1859.

  Britain remained neutral during the liberation of Lombardy in 1859,

  Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870. This allowed the Italians to

  carry out the liberation.

  Prussia assisted the Italians in the liberation of Venetia in 1866

  when Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian war.

  Disagreement between the great powers served the interests of the

  Italians. These included Russia vs. Austria from 1820 onwards,

  Britain, France and Turkey vs. Russia in the Crimean War of 1854–

  1856, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871.

  Foreign powers provided financial support. Britain and Prussia

  financed some of the expeditions of Piedmont.

  France, Britain and Switzerland provided asylum to Italian

  revolutionaries and patriots.

  There was neutrality of the foreign powers following the invasion

  and the annexation of the papal states (Rome).

  Some European powers like France, Britain and Belgium concluded

  economic ties and exchange of technology with Piedmont.

  Different Stages in the Italian Unification

  
  

  Activity 15

  Describe the different stages taken to achieve the Italian

  unification by 1871. Present your work to the class.

  

  The Prombières pact and liberation of Lombardy

  After the 1856 Paris treaty, France delayed to assist Italians.

  However an attempt by an Italian patriot called Felice Orsini to

  assassinate Napoleon III, forced Napoleon III to form a military

  alliance with Cavour.

  In 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III of France signed a secret military

  agreement at Prombières known as the Pact of Plombières. Cavour

  and Napoleon III agreed to a joint war against Austria. Piedmont

  would gain the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia and

  some territories of the former Venetian Commonwealth in the

  Adriatic, as well as the duchies of Parma and Modena, while

  France would be rewarded with Piedmont’s territories in Savoy and

  Nice. Central and southern Italy, being largely under-developed and

  of little interest to the wealthier north, would remain largely as it

  was, although it was suggested that the emperor’s cousin Prince

  Napoleon would replace the Habsburgs in Tuscany. To allow the

  French to intervene without appearing as aggressors, Cavour was

  to provoke the Austrians by encouraging revolutionary activity in

  Lombardy.

  By this first stage, Austrian troops under Emperor Francis Joseph

  I had been defeated by the French forces led by Napoleon III

  at the battle of Solferino on June 24th, 1859. The Piedmontese

  forces commanded by Victor Emmanuel II later had the better of

  the Austrians at San Martino. The Austrians accepted to sign the

  armistice of Villafranca on July 12th 1859 and Piedmont annexed

  Milan and Lombardy. Austria left the peninsula and there was a

  creation of a confederation of seven states of northern Italy.

  The revolt of the central states and their annexation to Piedmont

  In December 1859, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the papal

  states were unified into the United Provinces of Central Italy,

  and, encouraged by the British, began seeking annexation by the

  kingdom of Sardinia. Cavour, who triumphantly returned to power

  in January 1860, wished to annex the territories, but realised that

  French cooperation was necessary. Napoleon III agreed to recognise

  the Piedmontese annexation in exchange for Savoy and Nice. On

  March 20, 1860, the annexations occurred. Now the kingdom of

  Sardinia controlled most of northern and central Italy.

  Liberation of Naples and Sicily and annexation to Piedmont

  Garibaldi, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French

  annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to

  regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war

  with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead concentrate his forces

  on the Sicilian rebellions. On May 6, 1860, Garibaldi and his force

  of about a thousand Italian volunteers landed near Marsala on the

  west coast of Sicily.

  Garibaldi’s army attracted bands of rebels, and the combined

  forces defeated the opposing army at Calatafimi on May 13. Within

  three days, the invading force increased to 4,000 men. On May

  14, Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily, in the name of

  Victor Emmanuel. With the support of the population he captured

  Palermo, the capital of sicily at the end of May.

  Garibaldi then crossed over to the mainland and entered Naples

  where he declared himself dictator of the two sicilies, a territory

  that covered Italy and the Island of sicily.

  After organising a plebiscite in both southern Italy and Naples,

  Garibaldi handed over the territory to Victor Emmanuel whom he

  gave the title of king of Italy.

  

  Garibaldi then retired to the Island of Caprera, while the remaining

  work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.

  Liberation of Venetia

  In the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 known as The Seven Weeks

  War, Austria contested with Prussia the position of leadership among

  the German states. The kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to

  capture Venetia from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia.

  Austria tried to persuade the Italian government to accept Venetia

  in exchange for non-intervention. However, on April 8, 1866 Italy

  and Prussia signed an agreement that supported Italy’s acquisition

  of Venetia, and on June 20, 1866 Italy declared war on Austria.

  Victor Emmanuel led the Italian army but it was defeated by the

  Austrian army at the battle of Custrea on June 24. Garibaldi’s

  volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca,

  and moved toward Trento.

  Meanwhile, Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck saw that his own

  ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with

  Austria on July 27, 1866. Italy officially laid down its arms on

  August 12, 1866.

  Prussia’s success on the northern front obliged Austria to cede

  Venetia. Under the terms of a Peace Treaty signed in Vienna on

  October 12, 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph had already agreed

  to cede Venetia to Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention

  in the Austro-Prussian war and thus Napoleon III ceded Venetia

  to Italy on October 19, 1866 in exchange for the earlier Italian

  acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice.

  Annexation of Rome

  Victor Emmanuel negotiated the removal of the French troops from

  Rome through a treaty, with Napoleon III in September 1864, by

  which the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops within two years.

  The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as

  to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French

  troops departed from Rome. After their withdrawal, Italy excluding

  Venetia and Savoy, was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.

  In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian war began. Napoleon III recalled

  his army from Rome.

  In September Victor Emmanuel took over control of Rome after the

  French withdrawal. A plebisute was held that supported annexation

  of Rome by the kingdom of Italy. This marked the completion of the

  unification of Italy.

  The German Empire and Otto Von Bismarck

  Activity 16

  Examine the contributions of Otto Von Bismarck to the rise and

  consolidation of the German Empire. Present your work to the

  class.

  The German Empire was born in 1871 after the defeat of France

  during the Franco-Prussian war. It was proclaimed at the Hall of

  Mirrors in France by Emperor William I and survived for 47 years 

  under the three emperors. These include William I who reigned

  from 1871 up to 1888, Emperor Fredrick William III in 1888 and

  Kaiser William II who reigned from 1888 up to 1918. Bismarck

  was chancellor from 1871 until 1890.

  Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815, in a wealthy family in the

  Prussian province of Saxony. His father, was a junker estate owner

  and a former Prussian military officer. Bismarck was well educated

  and fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish, and Russian.

  He was a conservative German statesman who dominated European

  affairs from the 1860s to 1890. After a series of short victorious

  wars he unified numerous German states into a powerful German

  Empire under Prussian leadership, and then created a “balance of

  power” that preserved peace in Europe from 1871 until 1914.

  In 1871, Otto von Bismarck was chancellor of the German Empire,

  but retained his Prussian offices (including those of ministerPresident and Foreign Minister). 

  

  Bismarck’s domestic and foreign policies 1871–1890

  
  

  Internal policy

  Bismarck’s internal policy had the following features:

  The policy against Catholics: The Catholics were not in good

  relationship with the new German Empire because it was led by

  Protestant Prussia. They wanted to teach the dogma of papal

  infallibility in schools while Bismarck could not accept this.

  To solve this problem, Bismarck introduced the May Law in 1873

  by which he expelled stubborn Catholics from Germany, imprisoned

  and killed some Catholic bishops, took over the authority to appoint

  priests and bishops, withdrew the German ambassador from the

  Vatican, and forced Catholic schools to sit examinations set by the

  state.

  However, this law caused much criticism from socialists so that he

  was forced to repeal it.

  The constitution of 1871: Bismarck introduced a new constitution

  which guaranteed the freedoms and rights for all the Germans and

  provided for two assemblies in the parliament, i.e. the Bundesrat

  (lawmaking body) and the Reichstag (for debating and suggesting

  amendments to the laws).

  The policy against socialists: The socialists were another problem

  in the new empire of Germany. They demanded the abolition of

  capitalism, introduction of state socialism and for more powers to

  vote in the parliament.

  To solve this problem, Bismarck introduced the exceptional laws in

  which he exiled the stubborn socialists, arrested and killed some of

  them, and banned socialist meetings and newspapers.

  However, these laws failed and Bismarck was forced to withdraw

  them. He introduced sickness insurance in industries, old age

  insurance for workers, laws against child labour and the public

  employment board to supervise the working conditions.

  Military reorganisation: Bismarck introduced compulsory military

  service and built new military industries to produce new military

  equipment. He also nominated able military commanders. This

  strengthened the German army which helped him to prevent a war

  of revenge from France.

  Administrative policy: Bismarck introduced a federal government

  in which he allowed states to control their own local affairs in

  education, religion and culture among others. The central

  government controlled taxation, army, trade and foreign affairs

  among others.

  External policy

  After the German unification with the defeat of France during the

  Franco-Prussian war, the main aim of Bismarck’s foreign policy 

  was to focus on the isolation of France and prevent her from getting

  allies and preventing a war of revenge. To do so, he implemented

  the following policies:

  Maintaining an occupation army in France: After the defeat of

  France in 1871, Otto Von Bismarck sent an army to occupy France

  with the purpose of ensuring that France paid the war reparation

  and to intimidate France so that she did not fight the war of

  revenge. In 1873, he withdrew this army which showed that he

  was a peacemaker in Europe.

  Formation of the Dreikaiserbund in 1872: This was a league based

  on agreement of the three emperors of Austria, Russia and Germany

  formed in 1872. This term Drei Kaiser bund is a German term that

  means the three (drei) emperors (kaiser) and league (bund).

  The objective of this agreement was to allow Bismarck capture the

  friendship of Austria and Russia in order to isolate France. In this

  agreement, all members accepted to support one another in case

  of a war from a non-member. It was to be renewed every year. By

  this league, Bismarck succeeded in keeping France isolated and

  therefore prevented the French war of revenge.

  Maintaining good relationship with Britain: In order to keep good

  terms with Britain, Bismarck sent his son Herbert Bismarck to

  London as an ambassador. This way he won the attention of Britain

  and ensured that Britain could not ally with France, leading to the

  isolation of France.

  Calling of the 1878 Berlin Congress: In 1878, there was a crisis

  in the Balkans resulting into potential conflicts between Britain and

  Austria on one side and Russia on the other side. Bismarck who

  now never wanted to lose friendship with both sides got involved

  and called the Berlin congress to settle the conflict.

  In this congress, Bismarck tried to support British interests in the

  region, he supported Austrian control in Bosnia and Herzegovina

  and also supported France in Tunisia.

  Consequently, Bismarck succeeded in preventing war between

  Britain, Austria and Russia but he was under the risk of losing

  Russia because he never supported her. He also succeeded in

  diverting French attention in Tunisia and prevented any war of

  revenge from France.

  Formation of the Dual alliance in 1879: After the 1878 Berlin

  Congress, Bismarck feared the possible alliance between Russia

  and France. He concluded an agreement with Austria in 1879

  known as the dual alliance.

  In this alliance, Austria agreed to support Germany if France,

  Russia and any other power attacked her. In case France alone

  attacked Germany, Austria would remain neutral. Equally, Germany

  accepted to support Austria if Russia and France and any other

  power attacked her, while in case Austria was attacked by Russia

  alone, Germany would remain neutral. This alliance enabled

  Germany to maintain a strong relationship with Austria up to 1914.

  The formation of the Triple alliance in 1882: This alliance was an

  agreement between Germany, Austria and Italy. The triple alliance

  was signed because Bismarck never wanted France to ally with

  Italy and he wanted to convince Italy to abandon Tunisia for France

  as one way to divert French attention from the war of revenge.

  In this triple alliance, Germany, Austria and Italy accepted to

  support one another in case of war from a non-member. Again,

  Bismarck succeeded in isolating France in Europe.

  Renewal of the Dreikaiserbund in 1883: Attempts to renew this

  agreement had been failing since 1878 due to misunderstandings

  between Russia and Germany in the 1878 Berlin Congress. However,

  Tsar Alexander II who had refused to renew the Dreikaiserbund

  died and was replaced by Tsar Alexander III who accepted to renew

  the Dreikaiserbund with Bismarck.

  As a result, Tsar Alexander III promised to support Germany in case

  of war with France. Bismarck also promised to assist Alexander III to

  recover Bulgaria. By this renewal of the Dreikaiserbund, Bismarck

  succeeded in winning back Russia to his side hence leaving France

  further isolated.

  Calling of the Berlin Conference (1884–1885): This conference

  was called by Bismarck in order to prevent any war between

  European powers during the partition of Africa. He also called this

  conference to announce that Germany had intentions of occupying

  some territories in Africa like other European powers. But

  strategically, he called the conference to divert French attention to

  her colonies through the principle of effective occupation. 

  Factors that Delayed German Unification

  Activity 17

  Examine the factors that delayed German unification. Present

  your work to the class.

  

  Attempts to form the German-speaking populations into a federation

  lasted for nearly a century. Unification exposed religious, linguistic,

  social, and cultural differences between and among the inhabitants

  of the new nation.

  After the Napoleonic era, the Vienna settlement created The

  German Confederation of States. States like Bohemia, Moravia,

  Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Holstein, Schleswig, Baden,

  Hesse, Silesia and Posen among others were subjected to foreign

  rule except Prussia which remained under the control of the German

  King Frederick William I.

  The German states that were under Austrian foreign rule, were

  brought together to form a single German state in 1871. However,

  before attaining this unification, the Germans had encountered the

  following obstacles:

  Economic hardships: The Germans were poor with no industries,

  low income and low levels of education. Such an economic status

  could not challenge Austria.

  Role of Prince Metternich of Austria: Metternich had spies in

  Germany and in 1819 he passed The Carlsbad Decrees that

  stopped political activities in German universities. This made it

  impossible for the Germans to unify themselves. Germans were not

  willing to identify with in the revolutionary movement in order to

  liberate Germany and this was because of the fear of Austrian spies.

  Effect of the Reformation: The reformation which was championed

  by Martin Luther in 1517 led to the breakup of the Catholic

  Church and, consequently, the Protestant Church. This divided

  the Germans. The northern Germans were Protestants. While the

  southern states were Catholic. These religious differences were a

  hindrance to German unification.

  Lack of strong army: Germany didn’t have a well trained single

  army for all states to fight Austria. All states except Prussia never

  had an army and even the Prussian army was too weak to challenge

  Austrians. This delayed German’s unification.

  Lack of foreign support: The Germans did not get external support

  like the Italians and this made it difficult for them to address the

  major obstacle which was Austrian military strength.

  Social class differences: The difference between the poor working

  class and the middle class undermined the success of the German

  unification. On December 15, 1848 the middle class supported

  Austria against the Frankfurt parliament members who wanted a

  socialist revolution.

  Poor mass mobilisation: Before the year 1860, majority of the

  Germans were not informed about the importance of the German

  unification because of poor mobilisation due to the lack of mass

  media to sensitise the people.

  Opposition from the conservatives: The conservative Prussian

  junkers and liberals at the May 1848 Frankfurt Assembly ignored

  the establishment of a strong army against Austria and concentrated

  more on patriotic issues.

  Lack of good leadership: The German states agreed to unite

  but lacked strong leaders who would challenge Metternich and

  Austria. Frederick William IV believed in unification but he was a

  supporter of Austria while leaders of other states wanted to remain

  independent.

  Factors that enabled German unification

  
  

  Activity 18

  Discuss the factors that enabled the Germans to achieve their

  unification in 1871. Present the outcomes of your discussion

  to the class.

  The collapse of the Congress system by 1830 left Austria with no

  foreign assistance to check German nationalism.

  The downfall of Metternich and his system which were the greatest

  obstacles in 1848 favoured unification because his successors

  were weak. They were not strong enough to maintain Metterich’s

  regressive system.

  Military reforms like increasing the Prussian army from 500,000

  to 750 000 under the effective command of Von Roon and Von

  Moltke provided military power to challenge Austrian control of

  German states.

  Improvements in the Prussian education system greatly solved the

  problem of ignorance and disunity that had hindered the unification

  among the Germans.

  Prussia introduced reforms in industry, transport and military

  theology from 1860 onwards. This enabled her to finance the

  unification activities and also get modern weapons of war.

  Improvements in transport, trade, agriculture, industry and

  military technology strengthened Prussia’s economy and army

  which helped support unification activities, especially wars with

  Denmark, Austria and France.

  The rise of King William I in 1855 in Prussia. He appointed

  Bismarck a minister president in 1861 who used his position to

  fight for German unification. William also strengthened the army

  and the economy and this supported unification efforts.

  The 1848 revolutions exposed the weaknesses of the army and

  disunity as obstacles to unification. This enabled the Germans to

  address the obstacles to unification.

  Foreign support enabled unification efforts because in 1863

  Bismarck allied with Austria and Russia to defeat Denmark.

  With Napoleon III of France and Alexander II of Russia, Bismarck

  defeated Austria in 1866. With Belgium and the southern German

  states Bismarck defeated France in 1871.

  Mistakes and military weakness of the German enemies favoured

  unification. For example, the annexation of Schleswig by Denmark

  violated the 1852 London Treaty and left Denmark isolated in

  international affairs making it easy to defeat Denmark.

  Role of Field Marshal Von Roon and Von Maltke who commanded

  the Prussian army that defeated Denmark in 1864, Austria in

  1866 and France in 1871 contributed to success of the German

  unification.

  Improvements in the transport and communication network like

  the construction of roads, railways and bridges facilitated the

  movements of Germans patriots from one place or state to another

  while spreading the propaganda and message of unification. This

  also explains the success of German unification.

  Role Played by Otto Von Bismarck in German Unification

  Activity 19

  Evaluate the role played by Otto Von Bismarck in the struggle

  for German unification, from 1850s to 1871. Present your

  work to the class.

  To achieve the German unification, Bismarck played the following

  roles:

  He advised King William I of Prussia not to resign and encouraged

  him to implement fundamental reforms in Prussia.

  He suppressed the Prussian liberals from the Frankfurt parliament.

  They had spent much time in making speeches and opposed the

  coalition of a strong army.

  He carried out fundamental reforms in the Prussian educational

  system which reduced on the illiteracy levels that had hindered

  mobilisation efforts.

  He increased the Prussian army from 500,000 to 750,000 under

  the efficient command of Field Marshal Von Moltke and Von Roon.

  He won diplomatic relations with European statesmen and states

  like Benjamin Disraeli of Britain in 1861 and in 1863 with Russia

  which enabled Prussia to defeat her enemies without Russia and

  Britain interfering.

  He prepared Germany for the 1866 Austro-Prussian war through the

  Biarritz treaty with Napoleon III by which France promised neutrality

  hence facilitated the German unification in 1871.

  In 1864 he defeated Denmark in an attempt to liberate Schleswig

  which was added to Prussia in 1865 following the August 1865

  Gerstein convention.

  Through his efforts, Prussia defeated Austria at Sadowa in 1866

  and this resulted into the liberation of Holstein.

  In 1869 he completed the unification of the northern German

  states and, as a result, a new constitution was promulgated which

  eliminated Austria from German affairs.

  In the 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war was led by Von Bismarck,

  Prussia defeated France at Sedan and the German unification was

  officially proclaimed at Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors.

  Stages in the German Unification

  Activity 20

  Describe the different stages taken by the Germans to attain

  their unification in 1871. Present your work the class.

  Defeat of Denmark and annexation of Schleswig

  From the late 15th century, Schleswig-Holstein was controlled

  by Denmark. In 1852, the great powers had agreed to continue

  this status, but in 1863 the Danish king, Christian IX, annexed

  Schleswig-Holstein and integrated it more closely into Denmark.

  Bismarck feared the Schleswig-Holstein question would unite

  German nationalists and also strengthen liberal and parliamentary

  forces in Prussia. He also had a conflict between Prussia and

  Austria, that would allow foreigners to intervene and determine the

  fate of the German states. Bismarck took the lead in denouncing

  Denmark’s behaviour. He also turned to Austria and stressed the

  merits of Austrian-Prussian cooperation both to pre-empt the

  German nationalists and to forestall possible action by Britain,

  France, and Russia.

  Austria was convinced by Bismarck’s arguments and issued a joint

  demand with Prussia in January 1864 that Denmark restore the

  status quo. When Denmark refused, a joint Austrian-Prussian force

  occupied Holstein, and then invaded Schleswig. The Danish army

  was easily crushed by the combined Austrian and Prussian forces.

  Denmark’s refusal to compromise, combined with the fact that its

  position was not legal, kept the rest of Europe from intervening.

  By midsummer 1864 the fighting was over. By the Gerstein

  Convention, of August 1865, Holstein was given to Austria as a

  reward while Schleswig was added to Prussia. 

  

  Defeat of Austria and annexation of Holstein

  In 1866, Bismarck planned a war against Austria by forming the

  German Confederation which eliminated Austria. He had asked

  the Italians to unite with Germany against a common enemy and

  promised that at the end of the war he would hand over Venetia

  to Italy.

  Besides, Bismarck secretly met Napoleon III and requested him to

  remain neutral in case war broke out between Austria and Prussia.

  Napoleon was promised territories along River Rhine but with no

  written document. Russia had insured Bismarck support because

  he had chased the Russian rebels who were in Prussia.

  In June 1866, Austria declared war on Prussia. Prussia defeated

  Austria at the battle of Königgrätz. The king and his generals

  wanted to push on, conquer Bohemia and march to Vienna, but

  Bismarck, worried that Prussia might be defeated or that France

  might intervene on Austria’s side, decided to make peace with

  Austria.

  By the Peace of Prague of 1866, the German Confederation

  was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt,

  Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), and Nassau; and Austria

  promised not to intervene in German affairs.

  To strengthen Prussian influence, Prussia and several other north

  German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867. King

  Wilhelm I served as its president, and Bismarck as its chancellor.

  Annexation of south German states

  After the victory in Austro-Prussian war and creation of North

  Rhine Confederation, Bismarck planned for the annexation of

  German states south of Rhine River. He had disappointed and

  humiliated Napoleon III by refusing to respect the agreement of

  1865. Napoleon III requested Bismarck to support him to annex

  Belgium and Luxembourg. However, his request was rejected.

  Bismarck used this opportunity to publicise French intentions to

  the German states. As a result he won the economic and military

  alliance with southern German states.

  At this stage, the unification of Germany was almost completed

  because all German states were now under a single administration

  by 1868.

  Isolation and defeat of France in the Franco – Prussian war

  (1870–1871)

  A suitable situation for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince

  Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish

  throne, which had been vacant since 1868. France blocked the

  candidacy and demanded assurances that no members of the House

  of Hohenzollern become king of Spain. To provoke France into

  declaring war with Prussia, Bismarck published the Ems Telegram, a

  carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and

  the French ambassador to Prussia. This conversation had been edited

  so that each nation felt that its ambassador had been disrespected,

  thus provoking anger on both sides in favour of war.

  France mobilised and declared war on 19 July. The German states

  saw France as the aggressor. Swept up by nationalism and patriotic

  fanaticism, they rallied to Prussia’s side and provided troops. The

  Franco-Prussian war (1870) was a great success for Prussia. The

  German army under the command of the king but controlled by

  Helmuth von Moltke, won victory. France was defeated at the

  battle of Sedan.

  

  By the Frankfurt Treaty, all the southern states and the French

  provinces of Alsace and Loraine were annexed to the northern

  German states to form the United German Empire. King William of

  Prussia was proclaimed German emperor on 18 January 1871 in

  the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles.

  Similarities and Differences in Italian and German Unification

  Activity 21

  Compare and contrast the Italian unification to the German

  unification. Present the results of your work to the class.

  Similarities

  Both unifications had Austria as a common obstacle in their

  unification struggle.

  Both unifications had the Franco-Prussian war as the final event

  after which they concluded the unification.

  Both unification struggles were an attempt to overthrow the

  arrangement of the 1815 Vienna Settlement which had put both

  German and Italian states under foreign domination.

  Both unifications used force and violence to accomplish the goal.

  Both unifications were held and delayed by the Metternich system

  where it was not possible to organise revolutions.

  In both unifications, there was one state that led the struggle. That

  was Piedmont in Italy and Prussia in German.

  In both unifications there was one outstanding leader who played

  a big role, Cavour in Italy and Bismarck in Germany.

  Both unifications were frustrated by their kings, Charles Albert of

  Piedmont and Frederick William I of Prussia.

  To some extent, all the unifications used diplomacy by their leaders;

  Bismarck and Cavour.

  Both unifications were achieved in the same year: 1871.

  Differences

  While the unification of Italy was achieved mainly through foreign

  assistance, that of Germany was achieved by the military strength

  of the Prussian army.

  The unification of Germany was supported by the economic unity

  of the German states as a result of the customs union which was

  established by 1844. This was not the case in Italy.

  The sensitivity of the pope’s position, which was an obstacle in the

  Italian unification was absent in the German unification.

  The Italian unification struggle took a long time (1859 – 1871)

  while the German unification struggle took a shorter time (1864

  – 1871).

  The Italian unification was achieved at the expense of some Italian

  states like Nice which was given to France while no German state

  was lost during unification efforts.

  In the German unification, the capital of Prussia, Berlin, remained

  the capital of the united Germany while the capital of Piedmont

  Turino was changed and Rome became the capital of united Italy.

  Part Three

  The Eastern Question

  Activity 22

  Analyse the factors that led to decline of the Ottoman Empire

  in 1820s. Present your work to the class.

  The Eastern Question was a term by European powers to refer to

  the problems in the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) from 1815 to 1878.

  During this period various European powers struggled to control

  Turkish territories.

  From the 14th century, Turkey became aggressive and conquered a

  large area that included part of north Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco,

  Algeria and Libya), and eastern Europe (such as Romania, Bulgaria,

  Serbia, Greece and Crete). It further expanded to cover Walachia,

  Moldavia and Arabian states up to Mesopotamia and the Indian Ocean.

  Within these boundaries, Turkey had many nationalities including

  Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and Africans. This made Turkey a

  very heterogeneous nation with many races.

  Most of these were Christians under Muslim rule. They took

  advantage of internal administrative problems to demand for their

  independence.

  

  The Eastern Question started with the decline of the Ottoman

  Empire and this decline was due to the following factors:

  Big size: The Ottoman Empire had become too large to be effectively

  controlled by one administration based at Constantinople. This

  encouraged the captured states to break away and get their

  independence.

  Growth of nationalism: This was prompted by the desire of

  different nationalities to struggle for independence from Turkey. For example, Serbia and Egypt became independent in 1805, Algeria

  in 1807, and Greece in 1832.

  Financial crises: The Turkish administrators were corrupt and

  embezzled funds which led to a financial crisis, and the decline of

  the empire.

  Decline of military strength: The empire had lost its military

  strength by the end of the 18th century. That was why revolts like

  the 1821 Greek war of independence were successful.

  Religious differences: The Muslims leaders exposed Christians to

  a lot of suffering and discrimination in education, administration

  and unfair taxation. Most of the revolts against Turkey were caused

  by the persecution of Christians. Revolts of Christians in Greece

  and Bulgaria weakened Turkey. The persecutions attracted the

  attention of the Christian countries of Russia, Austria and France.

  Their intervention worsened the problem leading to the success of

  the revolts in Greek and Bulgaria.

  Influence of French revolutionary ideas: The states under the

  Turkish domination took advantage of the success of the French

  revolution to also demand for their independence.

  Presence of powerful rival states: The interests of the big powers

  also contributed to the collapse of the Turkish Empire. Britain

  competed with Turkey in international trade while Austria and

  France were opposed to the influence of Turkey over the many

  states that it controlled.

  Weak leaders: After its expansion to the Middle East, the Ottoman

  empire was ruled by weak sultans such as Muhammad and Abdul

  Al Madjid.

  Rise of influential personalities: Popular leaders in Greece like

  Prince Alexander Hypslant and Capdistrious who challenged the

  sultans of the Ottoman Empire led to conflicts.

  European selfish interests: European major powers like Britain,

  France and Russia aimed to break up the Ottoman Empire so as to

  expand their influence.

  Russia constantly attacked Turkey and even exaggerated the

  problems in Turkey to the extent of referring to Turkey as “the

  sick man of Europe”. This was because of the various political,

  economic, military and administrative weaknesses. Russia and other foreign powers incited and supported the Greeks, the Wallachians,

  Moldavians, Bosnians and Bulgarians to revolt against Turkey.

  The Greek War of Independence

  Activity 23

  Examine the reasons for the Greek war of independence against

  Turkey. Present your work to the class.

  Nationalism: The Greeks were part of the Ottoman Empire since

  the 14th century when the Turks conquered and colonised them. By

  the beginning of the 19th century, nationalism had grown in Greece.

  In 1821 the Greeks started demanding for their independence in

  one of the districts called Morea where the Christians started killing

  Muslims and Muslims reacted by killing Christians. This led to the

  war for Greek independence.

  The Greeks revolted against Turkish administration because of the

  desire for self rule and liberation from Turkish domination.

  Greek ancient glory: The Greeks are credited with the beginning

  of modern civilisation. They believed in their superiority over the

  Turkish colonial masters. They revolted against Turkey in order to

  revive their ancient glory.

  Level of literacy: Greece was the most civilised of Turkey’s colonies.

  The Greeks were well educated. Because of their education, they

  were able to organise a rebellion against the Turkey.

  Religious persecutions: The Ottoman Empire consisted of different

  religious groups that often turned against one another and the

  Muslim leaders of the empire did not respect other religions. There

  was no freedom of worship and many Christians were killed by the

  Muslims. The Greeks rose up in 1821 in order to get freedom of

  worship.

  Influence of the French revolution of 1789: The success of the

  French revolution and the spread of revolutionary ideas in the

  empire inspired the Greeks to revolt. The Greek nationalists used

  the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity to mobilise

  the Greeks to fight for their independence.

  Foreign assistance: The Greeks were supported by other European

  countries like France, Britain and Russia which inspired them to

  fight Turkey for their independence.

  Collapse of the Congress System: The Congress System which was

  formed in 1815 as an association to fight the forces of nationalism

  and liberalism, had by 1821 started to collapse. The Greeks took

  advantage of this demand for their independence.

  Unfair taxation: The Muslims imposed unfair taxation on Greeks.

  Greeks paid a lot of taxes and Muslims benefited at the expense

  of taxpayers. The Greeks rose up to get their independence and to

  stop unfair taxation.

  Weaknesses of Turkey: In the 19th century, the Turkish military and

  political control weakened. This encouraged the Greeks to revolt

  against Turkish domination. The Greeks had also acquired naval

  supremacy over the Ottoman Empire and this encouraged them to

  go in for war to gain their independence.

  Birth of a secret society: This was known as Heteria Philika, or

  the association/society of friends, lead by Alexandros Ypsilantis

  and Capodistrous. It was founded in 1814 with the major aim

  of driving the Turkish administration from Greece. By 1821, the

  society had become the official mouthpiece of the Greek war of

  independence with over 20,000 members.

  Course of the Greek War of Independence

  Activity 24

  Describe the course of the Greek war of independence and

  present the result of your work to the class.

  In March 1821, Ypsilantis organised a revolt in Moldavia and

  Wallachia against the Turkish Ottoman Empire. His aim was to

  first liberate the two islands before embarking on Greece. He also

  wanted to divert Turkish attention to the two islands and give the

  Greeks chance to declare their independence. They massacred

  many Turkish officials and nationals.

  However, this revolt failed due to poor organisation and lack of

  full support from Wallachia. The result was that Ypsilantis was 

  defeated and fled to Austria where he was imprisoned for seven

  years by Metternich. Meanwhile, the Greeks massacred about 25

  000 Muslims. The sultan of Turkey retaliated by massacring about

  30 000 Greeks and hanged Bishop Gregorios in Constantinople on

  easter day. 

  

  In 1825, Tsar Alexander I of Russia called the Saint Petersburg

  Congress which was only attended by four powers over the Greek

  crisis and therefore failed to solve the crisis. The failure of the Saint

  Petersburg Congress to settle the Greek revolt and the continued

  massacring of Christians by Muhammad Ali gave Russia chance to

  openly assist the Greeks. Britain and France which were against

  this idea later joined Russia to assist the Greeks because they did

  not want to see Russia acting alone and increase her influence in

  the Balkan region to their disadvantage.

  Despite protests from Austria and Prussia which sympathised with

  Turkey, Britain, France and Russia signed a treaty with Turkey

  in which Greece was granted self rule, but under the Turkish

  overlordship. This treaty, however, insured that force had to be

  applied if Turkey failed to accept the terms. Turkey refused to

  accept these terms expecting support from Prussia and Austria.

  As a result, the French sent troops to Greece, the Russians marched

  an army to Turkey, and the British fleet sailed to Alexandria, Egypt.

  However, hostilities did not end until Russia and the Ottomans

  signed the treaty of Adrianople on September 14, 1829, and the

  Ottomans agreed to give up control of Greece. Britain, France, and

  Russia proclaimed Greece’s independence in the London Protocol, 

  signed in February 1830. In treaty of Constantinople in 1832, the

  powers formalised their protection of Greece. This treaty included

  only southern mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus, excluding

  vast areas that are now part of Greece, but its signing was of

  importance.

  Effects of the Greek War of Independence

  Activity 25

  Evaluate the consequences of the Greek war of independence.

  Present your work to the class.

  The Greek war of independence led to massive loss of life as it led

  to the death of soldiers and civilians.

  The Greeks got their independence in 1832. The Greeks together

  with the French and the British defeated the Turks at the battle

  of Navarino Bay in 1827 and in 1832 Greek independence was

  declared.

  The war forced the sultan of Turkey to get conditional support from

  Egypt. It was agreed that at the end of the war Egypt was to be

  rewarded with Syria.

  It contributed to the decline of Turkey and that was why Tsar

  Nicholas of Russia referred to Turkey as “a sick man of Europe”.

  It led to the Syrian question which was a result of sultan’s failure to

  reward Mohamed Ali of Egypt for his assistance against the Greeks.

  This forced Mohamed Ali to occupy Syria by force. This led to war

  between Turkey and Egypt.

  The Greek war increased the rise of nationalism in Turkey. The

  success of the Greek war of independence encouraged other small

  states in the Ottoman Empire to demand for independence like in

  Wallachia, Moldavia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Bosnia.

  The war led to the collapse of the Congress system. When the

  European powers met at Verona in 1822 and at Saint Petersburg

  in 1825, they were divided over the Greek war. Russia, France and

  Britain supported the Greeks while Austria and Prussia supported

  the Turks.

  The war increased Russian influence in the Balkans through

  different treaties signed with Turkey like the treaty of Adrianople

  in 1829 and the Unkiaar Skelessi treaty in 1833 in which Russia

  gained military control of some Turkish territories.

  The Greek war of independence led to hostility between European

  powers against Russia. Britain and France were not happy with the

  increase of Russian influence in the Balkans. Russian interests in

  Turkey also threatened the British and French economic interests

  in Turkey. Later this led to the Crimean war.

  The Syrian Question

  Activity 26

  Examine the causes of the Syrian question in 1832–1841.

  Present your work to the class.

  The Syrian question or the Second Egyptian–Ottoman War or

  Second Turco-Egyptian War lasted from 1832 until 1841 and was

  fought mainly in Syria. This is why it is called the (second) Syrian

  war. It was a conflict between the Sultan Mahmud II of Ottoman

  Turkey and Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt over the control of Syria,

  Morea and Damascus from 1832 to 1841. This war was caused

  by the following factors:

  The Greek war of independence: This war forced the sultan

  of Turkey, Mahmud II to request Egypt in 1822 to support him

  to suppress the Greek revolt in Morea. He promised him some

  territories as reward for this assistance. This is how Muhammad

  Ali Pasha of Egypt got involved in the Balkan affairs, leading to

  conflicts with sultan in Syria.

  The failure of Sultan Mahmud II of Turkey to honour his promise to

  Muhammad: Muhammad accepted to help the sultan in return for

  the territories of Morea, Damascus, Syria and Palestine. However,

  after the war with the Greeks, the sultan of Turkey failed to fulfill

  his promise. This caused the war between him and Muhammad

  resulting in the Syria question.

  The military weaknesses of Turkey: Turkey had become militarily

  weak and this encouraged the sultan of Egypt to send his army to

  occupy Syria. This resulted in the Syrian question.

  The economic strength of Egypt: Egypt was economically stronger

  than Turkey and this enabled her to arm her soldiers and capture

  Syria. Egypt also wanted to use Syria as her economic base in Turkey.

  The success of the Greek war of independence: The Greeks

  achieved their independence after defeating combined forces of the

  Turkey and Egypt. So, the sultan of Turkey did not see any reason

  to reward Egypt. This forced Egypt to capture Syria, leading to the

  Syrian question.

  The London treaty of 1827: This granted self-governance to

  Greece which meant that Muhammad Ali had not fully assisted

  the sultan to defeat the Greeks. The sultan of Turkey therefore

  refused to give Syria to Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, leading to

  misunderstanding between them.

  Course of the Syrian Question

  Activity 27

  Describe the course of the Syrian question. Present your work

  to the class.

  The Syrian question was caused by the failure of the sultan to

  Turkey respect the promise that he had made to Muhammad Ali

  after the Greek war of independence. He had promised Egypt the

  territories of Syria and Damascus as a reward for Egyptian military

  support against the Greeks.

  Muhammad Ali decided to occupy Syria by force. In 1832 Egyptian

  troops overran Syria. The Egyptian invasion forced Mahmud II to

  seek Russian assistance. Russian forces poured into the Balkans

  and this worried Austria, Britain and France. The three powers

  fearing Russian expansion were forced to put pressure on the

  sultan Mahmud II to surrender Syria to Muhammad Ali, which the

  Sultan did in April 1833.

  This was confirmed by the treaty of Unkiar Skellessi of July

  1833. This treaty placed the Ottoman Empire under the exclusive

  protection of the Russians. This allowed them to dominate the

  straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles. Britain, wanted to nullify any

  Russian gains, by seeking to internationalise the straits.

  Russia influenced the sultan to include a secret clause in the treaty

  which stated that the straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles would

  be closed in times of war to all ships except those of Russia. Thus

  Russia militarily and politically benefited to the disappointment of

  other European powers.

  On June 29, 1839 an invading Ottoman army was again destroyed

  in Syria by Muhammad’s general, Ibrahim Pasha at the battle

  of Nezib, putting him in possession of the whole of Syria. This

  threatened to place Istanbul and the entire eastern Mediterranean

  under his control. After the battle, the Ottoman fleet defected to

  Muhammad Ali. Britain, Russia and Austria promised to support

  the Ottoman Empire and to force Muhammad Ali (who had the

  support of France and Spain) to withdraw from Syria. Britain,

  Russia, France and Prussia signed the Straits Convention of London

  in 1841 by which the Syrian question was settled.

  Muhammad Ali was forced to denounce his claims in Syria. He was

  confirmed as the hereditary ruler of Egypt and Turkey recovered

  Crete and Arabia. This convention also forced Russia to denounce

  the treaty of Unkiar Skellessi of 1833. Turkey would close the

  straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles to the warships of all nations

  including Russia so that no state threatened her. This was a great

  diplomatic victory for the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerstone.

  Russia and France lost in the Syrian question and they were not

  to disturb Europe again. The situation remained calm and there

  was no war in the region up to 1853 when the Crimean war

  broke out in the Balkan region.

  Effects of the Syrian Question

  Activity 28

  Assess the impact of the Syrian question. Present the outcomes

  of your assessment to the class.

  It increased Russian imperialism in the Balkans: After taking Syria

  by force, Egypt threatened Constantinople and in order to save the

  city, Turkey requested for help from Russia. This enabled Russia to

  intervene in the Balkans.

  It led to the unpopularity of Louis Philippe in France: Philippe had

  achieved glory by helping Muhammad Ali of Egypt to control Syria.

  However, he later withdrew his troops from Egypt and this made

  the glory seekers unhappy with Louis Philippe and discredited him

  in France.

  Big powers intervention in the Balkans: This was when those

  big powers come as saviors, because Russia wanted to protect

  Constantinople while France and Britain wanted to stop Russia

  from dominating the Balkans.

  Rivalry and suspicion between European powers: Russian influence

  increased in the Balkans as a result of the Syrian question through

  the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi which allowed Russia to intervene in

  Balkan affairs. As a result, up to the 1870s, Britain and Austria

  threatened to declare war on Russia.

  Poor relations between Egypt, France and Britain, Russia, Austria

  and Prussia: The expulsion of France and Egypt by big powers from

  Syria in 1841 after signing the Straits Convention, caused tension

  among European powers.

  It worsened the conditions of the Ottoman Empire: It was another

  blow to the empire after the Greek war of independence which had

  hit the life of the empire. It weakened the Ottoman Empire because

  many small states also demanded for independence.

  Hatred between Egypt and Turkey: The two countries never

  reconciled until Turkey totally disintegrated in 1914.

  The Crimean War

  Activity 29

  Examine the causes of the Crimean war of 1854–1856. Present

  the result of your work to the class.

  

  The Crimean war was fought between Russia and the allied forces

  of the United Kingdom, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.

  It began on the Crimean peninsula in 1853. The allies objected to

  expanding Russian power in the Black Sea area and to the seizing

  of land from the Ottoman Empire. Russia was defeated in 1856.

  The war was part of a long-running contest between the major

  European powers for influence over territories of the declining

  Ottoman Empire. Most of the conflict took place in the Crimean

  peninsula, but there were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia,

  Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea.

  The Crimean War is known for the logistical and tactical errors

  during the land campaign on both sides (the naval side saw a

  successful allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of

  the Russian navy in the Black Sea). Nonetheless, it is sometimes

  considered to be one of the first modern wars as it “introduced

  technical changes which affected the future course of warfare,”

  including the first tactical use of railways and the electric telegraph.

  It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary

  Seacole, who pioneered modern nursing practices while caring for

  wounded British soldiers.

  Causes of the war

  Many factors contributed to the outbreak of the Crimean war.

  The violation of 1841 Straits Convention: Russia had violated

  this convention by capturing Wallachia and Moldavia which were

  Turkish territories.

  Guardianship of the holy places of Jerusalem and Bethlehem:

  France and Russia were struggling to control the holy places of

  Jerusalem and Bethlehem which made the outbreak of the Crimean

  war inevitable. The sultan of Turkey Abd al-Madjid refused to give

  the control of the holy lands to Russia, and gave them to France.

  This prompted Russia to invade the Turkish territories of Wallachia

  and Moldavia, leading to the Crimean war.

  Napoleon III of France: He wanted to revenge for his uncle’s defeat

  in the 1812 Moscow campaign and this led to the Crimean war

  where France got a chance of fighting with Russia in 1854.

  The refusal of Tsar Nicholas of Russia to recognise Napoleon III as

  an emperor: Napoleon III greatly detested the idea of Tsar Nicholas

  referring to him as “My friend” instead of “My dear brother” as was

  the norm of saluting fellow emperors in Europe. This worsened the

  conflict between them and lead to the war.

  The collapse of the Congress system: The idea of the congress

  system was promoted by Metternich. However, the 1830 and

  1848 revolutions led to the fall of Metternich and eventually

  the collapse of the congress system. European matters could no

  longer be diplomatically solved and that is why the conflict among

  European powers ended in war.

  Protection of British commercial interests: This forced the British

  ambassador in Constantinople to encourage the sultan of Turkey to

  stand firm in his decision to give the right to protect the holy places

  to France and not Russia. This forced Russia to occupy Turkish

  territories, leading to the war.

  The weakness of Turkey as the “sick man of Europe”: Turkey

  mistreated her subjects and this led to revolts. Those revolts

  attracted the attention of the big powers who intervened in the

  empire’s affairs. Besides, at the end of the 18th century the captured

  states of Turkey began breaking away. This encouraged Russia to

  occupy Wallachia and Moldavia leading to war in 1854.

  The Russian occupation of Wallachia in July 1853: Moldavia

  and Wallachia were semi independent provinces of the Ottoman

  Empire under the sultan of Turkey. Russia occupied them to force

  the sultan to accept her claim of protecting the holy places. The

  sultan protested Russian occupation and declared war against

  Russia in October 1853. France and Britain joined Turkey and they

  shifted the war from Wallachia and Moldavia to the Crimean Island

  in Russia.

  The role of some personalities: Strafford the British Ambassador in

  Constantinople encouraged the sultan of Turkey to give holy places to

  France and not Russia and this led to the war.

  The Sinope massacre 1853: It was the most immediate event

  that led to the Crimean war. When Turkey declared war on Russia,

  she reacted by bombing a Turkish warship at Sinope, a Turkish

  province, in the Black Sea, killing many Turks on board. This

  attracted France and Britain to help Turkey by declaring war on

  Russia in March 1854.

  Course of the Crimean War

  Activity 30

  Describe the course of the Crimean war, and then present your

  work to the class.

  The war in the Danubian provinces: March – August 1854

  The Danube campaign was opened when the Russians occupied

  the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in May

  1853, bringing their forces to the north bank of the river Danube.

  In response, the Ottoman Empire also moved their forces up to the

  river. This established monopolies at Vidin in the west, and Silistra,

  in the east, near the mouth of the Danube.

  An Anglo-French naval expedition went to the Baltic in August but

  this was not effective and the area was in any case irrelevant to the

  causes of the war. Troops were also sent to Gallipoli to make a thrust

  into the Balkans. However, in August the Russians withdrew from

  Moldavia and Wallachia because Austria threatened to intervene, but never actually intervened because she was internally too weak

  to risk war. Austria remained neutral in the Crimean war.

  The war in the Crimea: September 1854–January 1855

  The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the

  landing of the allied force of 50,000 soldiers at Eupatoria, north of

  Sevastopol. After crossing the Alma River on September 30, 1854,

  the allies under the command of the British and French generals,

  Raglan and Saint Arnauld moved on to invade Sevastopol. The

  Russian army retreated to the interior. A Russian assault on the

  allied supply base at Balaclava was repulsed on October 25, 1854.

  The failure of the British and French to follow up the battle of

  Balaclava led directly to another and much more bloody battle—

  the battle of Inkerman. On November 5, 1854, the Russians

  attempted to raise the siege at Sevastopol with an attack against

  the allies near the town of Inkerman which resulted in another

  victory for the allies.

  Meanwhile, at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city

  with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed an all–

  out bombardment (the first of many) against the city’s defenses.

  Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation on both sides, led to

  a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the

  allies, while the allied armies were hemmed in by the Russian

  army in the interior.

  The war in the Crimea: January–September 1855

  In February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria,

  where an Ottoman army had camped and was threatening Russian

  supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated, and led to

  a change in command. On the allied side the emphasis of the

  siege shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the

  fortifications on Malakoff hill. In March there was fighting over

  the fort at Mamelon, located on a hill in front of the Malakoff.

  Several weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the

  Mamelon remained in Russian hands.

  In April the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading

  to an artillery duel with the Russian guns, but no ground assault

  followed. In May the allies landed a force at Kerch, to the east,

  opening another front in the Crimea in an attempt to outflank the Russian army. The landings were successful, but the force made

  little progress thereafter. In June a third bombardment was followed

  by a successful attack on the Mamelon, but a follow-up assault on

  the Malakoff failed with heavy losses. During this time the garrison

  commander, Admiral Nakhimov, suffered a fatal bullet wound and

  died on 30 June 1855.

  In August the Russians again attacked the base at Balaclava. The

  resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defeat for the Russians, who

  suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5th

  September another bombardment was followed by an assault on 8th

  September resulting in the capture of Malakoff by the French, and

  the collapse of the Russian defenses. The city fell on 9th September

  1855, after about a year-long siege.

  At this point both sides were exhausted, and there were no further

  military operations in the Crimea before the onset of winter. In

  1856, the Crimean war ended with the signing of the Paris Peace

  Treaty between Russia and the allied powers.

  Effects of the Crimean War

  Activity 31

  Analyse the effects of the Crimean war in European politics.

  Present the results of your work to the class.

  The war and the treaty had political, social and economic effects

  on Europe.

  The war marked the highest loss of lives and massive destruction

  of property in the history of Europe, 300,000 – 375,000 on the

  side of the allied powers and 220,000 troops dead on the side of

  Russia.

  It marked the foundation of the nursing profession by English nurses,

  Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, and the establishment of

  the Red Cross Society 1864. This improved on medical services.

  

  During the Crimean war, from 1853 to 1856, many British

  soldiers died from wounds and disease. Florence Nightingale set

  up a hospital near the battlefront and helped reduce the death rate

  among the sick and wounded.

  The Russian revolution of 1917 broke out because the Tsar’s

  regime became unpopular due to the defeat.

  The war led Alexander II the successor of Nicholas I to start off

  efforts to overcome Russia’s backwardness so as to achieve high

  levels of development like other European powers, especially in

  agriculture and industry.

  The Italian unification efforts were boosted because Cavour was

  able to get assistance from France that helped in the liberation of

  Lombardy.

  Napoleon III’s prestige and popularity increased in France because

  of victory over Russia, their traditional enemy.

  The Orthodox Christians in the Balkans were exposed to harsh

  treatment under Turkish rule.

  The war marked the final collapse of the Congress System since the

  powers in the alliance fought against each other.

  Free navigation on big waters like Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea

  and Danube River was guaranteed as a result of this war.

  The independence of Turkey was guaranteed and was temporarily

  saved from Russian imperialism.

  Tsar Nicholas I of Russia was forced to resort to fundamental

  reforms mainly in agriculture and industry.

  The war led to the manufacture and use of more sophisticated

  weapons that were to be used during the world war II.

  Because of siding with Russia, Austria lost the support of France

  and Britian and this paved the way for the unification of Germany

  and Italy.

  The war attracted visitors from different parts of Europe. This

  changed the outlook towards political and social life in Turkey.

  The 1856 Paris Treaty and its Impact on Europe

  Activity 32

  Assess the impact of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty on European

  politics. Present your work to the class.

  The Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was a document that concluded

  the Crimean war of 1854–1856. It was signed by France, Britain,

  Turkey and Russia under the chairmanship of Napoleon III of

  France. It had the following impact on Europe.

  The Paris Peace Treaty ensured the integrity and independence of

  the Turkish Empire and admitted Turkey to the concert of Europe.

  This treaty forced the sultan of Turkey to grant fair treatment to

  his Orthodox Christian subjects and temporarily checked Russian

  ambitions in the Balkans.

  The Paris Peace Treaty also revised the Straits Convention of 1841

  declaring the Black Sea neutral. It also made territorial adjustments

  by giving Bessarabia to Moldavia from Russia.

  The treaty internationalised the navigation of Danube River and

  increased Napoleon III’s prestige and popularity both in France and

  in Europe.

  The treaty recognised Italy and Italy got support for her unification.

  The treaty humiliated Russia following her territorial losses and

  worsened relations between the European powers with Russia.

  Finally, the treaty led to the disintegration of the Turkish Empire by

  granting self governance to Moldavia and Wallachia. 

  

  The the Berlin Congress of 1878

  Activity 33

  Evaluate the reasons that led to the calling of the 1878 Berlin

  congress. Present your work to the class.

  The congress of Berlin, which lasted from June 13, 1878 to July

  13, 1878, was an assembly of representatives from Germany,

  Russia, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Italy, and the Ottoman

  Empire. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro

  attended the sessions concerning their states, but were not

  members of the congress. It was presided over by the German

  chancellor Otto Von Bismarck and called to resolve the problem

  of the Eastern Question by renegotiating the treaty of San Stefano.

  That treaty, which had concluded the Russo-Turkish war in 1878,

  imposed extremely harsh terms on the Ottoman Empire. The other

  European powers objected.

  

  After winning the Russo-Turkish war, Russia by the San Stefano

  treaty of 1878 imposed extremely severe terms on the Ottoman

  Empire. Other European powers, notably Austria-Hungary and

  Britain, were alarmed at the growth of Russia’s power and of the

  independent states created in the Balkans by the treaty. Concerned

  for their own interests in the Middle East, they insisted that the

  treaty be modified. Count Gyula Andrássy, foreign minister of

  Austria-Hungary, invited the European powers concerned to meet

  at Berlin.

  Reasons for the calling of Berlin Congress

  The failure of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 to settle revolts

  within the Balkans forced Otto Von Bismarck to organise the Berlin

  Congress in 1878.

  Sultan Abd al-Madjid of Turkey failed to treat Christians fairly as

  promised during the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856.

  Russian interests in the Ottoman Empire and the signing of the

  treaty of San Stefano in 1878 contributed to the calling of the

  congress.

  There was need to settle territorial disputes among the European

  powers; for example, those between Russia, Turkey and Austria in

  the Balkans.

  The congress was aimed at saving the Ottoman Empire from

  disintegrating as a result of Russia’s imperialism.

  The congress was also called to address the commercial rivalry

  between Russia, Britain and Russian imperialism which threatened

  Britain’s trade.

  Rebellions like in Bosnia and Herzegovina which were crashed

  with extreme brutality attracted the attention of the great powers.

  This led to the calling of the congress.

  There was need to address the complaints of different states which

  were struggling for independence. These included Serbia, Romania

  and Bulgaria which had been subjected to the oppressive rule of

  the Ottoman Turks for a long time.

  Bismarck wanted to maintain good relations with Austria-Hungary

  and Russia so as to maintain the balance of power in Europe.

  Bismarck’s desire to promote German supremacy and glory after

  unification in Europe also contributed to the calling of Berlin

  Congress in 1878.

  Impact of the Berlin Congress on Europe

  Activity 34

  Assess the impact of the Berlin congress on European affairs.

  Present your work to the class.

  France was given Tunisia in North Africa to compensate her for

  the loss of Alsace and Loraine during the 1870–1871 Franco –

  Prussian war.

  The congress forced the Turkish sultan to promise better treatment

  to his Christian subjects.

  The San Stefano treaty which was imposed on Turkey by Russia in

  March 1878 was brought to an end in order to save the Ottoman

  Empire from disintegrating.

  Otto Von Bismarck who chaired the Berlin Congress gained

  international influence as a peace loving figure.

  Italy lost her territory of Tunisia in North Africa which was handed

  over to France.

  Russia lost control over Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

  The congress ignored and suppressed nationalism in Bosnia and

  Herzegovina. This increased the conflicts in the Balkans in later

  years

  

  The relationship between Russia and Germany became worse as

  Russia refused to the renew the Dreikaiserbund League of 1872–

  1873 between Russia, Germany and Austria because Russia felt

  that Germany and Austria were not true friends.

  It greatly led to the outbreak of the 1912–1913 Balkan wars which

  left a lot of damages in central Europe.

  The Balkan wars broke out in two phases; the first in 1912 and the

  second in 1913. The first were organised by the Balkan Christians

  in mainly Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece against the

  oppressive policies of the Turkish Sultan. The second broke out

  mainly due to conflicts among the Christian states over sharing the

  disintegrating Ottoman Empire. 

  There was peace in Europe for about 30 years, from 1878 to 1914

  when world war I broke out.

  

  The period 1836–1878 was marked by great events in the history

  of Europe. It was a period dominated by revolutions, where almost

  all European countries were affected. Other major events were the

  unifications achieved by the Italians and the Germans in 1871 after

  defeating Austria. This inspired other oppressed people to demand

  for their independence. This led to the outbreak of a series of wars

  in the Balkans. For example, the Greek war of independence.

  Glossary

  Abdicate: to give up the position of being king or queen.

  Absorption: the process of a smaller country, group, etc.

  becoming part of a larger country or group.

  Activist: a person who works to achieve political or

  social change, especially as a member of an

  organisation with particular aims.

  Armistice: a formal agreement during a war to stop

  fighting and discuss making peace.

  Atrocity: a cruel and violent act, especially in a war.

  Bankruptcy: the state of being bankrupt; without enough

  money to pay what you owe.

  Buffer state: a small country between two powerful states

  that helps keep peace between them.

  Capitulation: act of agreeing to do something that you have

  been refusing to do for a long time. Act of

  ending resistance or accepting defeat.

  Claim: to demand or ask for something because you

  believe it is your legal right to own or to have it.

  Complain: to say that you are annoyed, unhappy or not

  satisfied with somebody/something.

  Confederation: an organisation consisting of countries,

  businesses, etc. that have joined together in order to help each other.

  Conservative: opposed to great or sudden change; showing

  that you prefer traditional styles and values.

  Convince: to make somebody/yourself believe something is true

  to persuade somebody to do something

  Dissatisfaction: a feeling that you are not pleased and satisfied.

  Divert: to make somebody/something change direction

  To take somebody’s thoughts or attention away

  from something

  Entrenchment: the fact of something being firmly established.

  Extravagancy: state of being extravagant; spending a lot more

  money or using a lot more of something than

  you can afford or than is necessary.

  Federation: a country consisting of a group of individual

  states that have control over their own affairs

  but are controlled by a central government for

  national decisions, etc.

  Forestall: to prevent something from happening or

  somebody from doing something by doing

  something first.

  Infallibility: act of never being wrong, never making mistakes

  or always doing what it is supposed to do.

  Interference: act of helping people by addressing problems

  they face.

  Nation-state: group of people with the same culture, language,

  etc. who have formed an independent country.

  Peacemaker: a person who tries to encourage people or

  countries to stop arguing or fighting and to

  make peace.

  Peninsula: an area of land that is almost surrounded by

  water but is joined to a larger piece of land.

  Persecution: act of treating somebody in a cruel and unfair

  way, especially because of their race, religion

  or political beliefs.

  Plebiscite: a vote by the people of a country or a region on

  an issue that is very important.

  Resign: to officially tell somebody that you are leaving

  your job, an organisation, etc.

  Slum: an area of a city that is very poor and where

  the settlements are dirty and in bad condition.

  Supremacy: a position in which you have more power,

  authority or status than anyone else.

  Unification: act of unity; to join people, things, parts of a

  country, etc. together so that they form a single

  unit or country.

  Uprising: a situation in which a group of people join

  together in order to fight against the people

  who are in power.

  Revision questions

  1. Account for the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

  2. What were the effects of the 1848 revolutions?

  3. What were the common characteristics of the 1848

  revolutions?

  4. Explain why Britain escaped the 1848 revolutions.

  5. All the 1848 revolutions in Europe failed with the exception

  of France. Why?

  6. Explain the factors which delayed the Italian unification.

  7. Why was the struggle for Italian unification successful between

  1850 and 1871?

  8. Explain the contribution of Camillo Benso di Cavour in the

  Italian Unification.

  9. Examine the role played by foreign powers in the unification

  of Italy.

  10. Assess the role of King Victor Emmanuel II in the unification

  of Italy.

  11. Explain the obstacles to the German unification before 1860.

  12. Account for the success of the unification of Germany.

  13. Describe the role played by the Prince Otto von Bismarck in

  the German unification.

  14. Compare and contrast the Italian unification with German

  unification.

  15. Why did Tsar Nicholas II of Russia describe the Turkish Empire

  as the ‘sick man of Europe’?

  16. Account for the outbreak of the Greek war of independence

  in 1821.

  17. Assess the impact of the 1821–1832 Greek war of

  independence on Europe.

  18. What were the causes of the Crimean war of 1854–1856?

  19. What were the effects of the 1854–1856 Crimean war?

  20. Assess the significance of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty in

  Europe.

  21. What were the reasons for summoning the Berlin Congress in

  1878?

  22. Assess the impact of the Berlin Congress of 1878 on Europe.

• Unit 7: National Duties and Obligations

  Key unit competence

  Analyse the national duties and obligations

  Introduction

  National Itorero Commission, Imihigo contract performances,

  umuganda community activities and community policing are

  some of the several other home-grown solutions chosen by the

  government of Rwanda to overcome problems in its recent history.

  After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the government of

  Rwanda decided to rebuild Rwanda and her economy using

  Rwandan cultural values and practices.

  It is in this regard that Itorero was restored in 2007 whereas

  Imihigo was initiated in 2006. To these two national duties

  and obligations, umuganda has also been added to enhance

  socio-economic development by using the Rwandan culture of

  volunteerism. Since peace is a major order of development, the

  government has introduced community policing which engages the

  community in ensuring peace.

  All these home-grown solutions have already helped the country

  to make tremendous achievements even if some challenges

  encountered in carrying out these policies are yet to be overcome.

  Links to other subjects

  This unit can be linked to other subjects like General Studies and

  Communication Skills

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Background of national duties and obligations

  ࿤ Structure of national duties and obligations

  ࿤ Role played by national duties and obligations in the development

  of the country

  ࿤ Contributions of Rwandan citizens and non-citizens towards

  national duties and obligations (Itorero, community policing,

  Imihigo and Umuganda)

  ࿤ Challenges faced during the implementation of national duties

  and obligations

  Activity 1

  Carry out research on national duties and describe the historical

  background of Itorero ry’Igihugu (National Itorero Commission).

  Thereafter, present the results of your findings to the class.

  1. Define the term “Itorero ry’Igihugu”.

  2. Describe the background of Itorero ry’Igihugu.

  Activity 2

  Analyse the specific objectives of Itorero ry’Igihugu. Present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 3

  Research on national duties and explain the vision and the

  mission of National Itorero Commission and evaluate the

  achievements of the National Itorero Commission. Present the

  results of your study to the class.

  Activity 4

  Conduct research on national duties and obligations and explain

  Rwanda’s national taboos. Present the results of your findings

  to the class.

  Activity 5

  Carry out a study on national duties and obligations and

  describe the background of Umuganda. Present the results of

  your findings to the class.

  Activity 6

  Evaluate the achievements of Umuganda activities. Present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 7

  Define the concept of Imihigo and describe its background.

  Present the results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 8

  Evaluate the impact of Imihigo. Present the results of your

  findings to the class.

  Activity 9

  Examine Imihigo challenges. Present the results of your findings

  to the class.

  Activity 10

  Assess the implementation of Imihigo. Thereafter, present the

  results of your findings to the class.

  Activity 11

  Describe the structure of the community policing and evaluate

  its contribution in ensuring security.

  Activity 12

  Explain the day-to-day activities of community policing

  initiatives.

  Itorero ry’Igihugu

  In precolonial Rwanda, the Itorero was a cultural school. It was

  also the channel through which the nation conveyed messages

  on national culture to the people. This included information on

  language, patriotism, social relations, sports, dances and songs,

  and defence of the nation. It also played the role of a national

  forum for grooming leaders. Itorero trainees would delve deeply in

  discussions relating to national programmes and Rwanda’s cultural

  values with the aim of reaching a common vision and instilling in

  themselves the virtues of humility, good conduct, and common

  understanding of what the country would expect of them, and the

  role of interdependence in the building of healthy socio-economic

  relations.

  Today, the Itorero is a Rwandan civic education institution which

  teaches Rwandese to preserve their culture by believing in national

  unity, social solidarity, patriotism, integrity, bravery, tolerance,

  and the dos and don’ts of the society. Through Itorero Rwandans

  are also informed of government policies and programmes. This

  strengthens ownership of government programmes and promotes

  the role of the population in their implementation.

  Historical background of Itorero ry’Igihugu

  Itorero ry’Igihugu was a school in which a sense of patriotism,

  voluntarism and commitment to service was developed. Its

  activities included, military training, sports, and artistic expression

  which reflected patience, patriotism, heroism, and keeping secrets,

  recitals and music. Consequently, young people grew up with a

  good understanding and attachment to their culture. It was also

  through Itorero ry’Igihugu that future leaders were trained. They

  were taught cultural taboos, virtues of hard work, voluntarism,

  mutual aid and collaboration with others. It was through the

  activities of Itorero ry’Igihugu that Rwanda as a nation expanded

  and developed. Itorero was for boys. Girls were educated in

  urubohero where they learned to perform household activities like

  the art of making mats. During colonial rule these institutions were

  suppressed, and replaced by schools which exclusively focused

  on the cultural aspects of music and dancing. The suppression of

  institutions such as Itorero ry’Igihugu which brought Rwandans

  together in a non-discriminatory manner led to the development

  of divisions that partly led to the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.

  Between May 1998 and March 1999, the consultative meetings

  in Urugwiro recommended the revival of cultural values to promote

  good behaviours of citizens. It is in this spirit that the Rwanda

  government decided to draw from the Rwandan culture some home

  grown solutions to address challenges in governance, the economy

  and social welfare.

  The idea of re-establishing Itorero ry’Igihugu was adopted during

  the leadership retreat that took place in Akagera in February 2007.

  It is in this perspective that the cabinet meeting of 12th November

  2007 decided to revive Itorero ry’Igihugu and use it to instill a

  new mindset among Rwandans for speedy achievement of the

  development goals enshrined in Vision 2020.

  Itorero ry’Igihugu was later revived at the official launch presided

  upon by His Excellency the President of the Republic of Rwanda on

  16/11/2007 in the parliament buildings.

  Rationale behind Itorero ry’Igihugu

  Before colonialism, Itorero ry’ Igihugu functioned as a school in

  which Rwandans would be mentored in Rwandan culture, and the

  values and taboos involved. This encouraged mutual respect, soc

  cohesion, national unity, patriotism, integrity, harmony and other

  virtues. These teachings were intended to help the young people

  to understand and uphold their culture. Intore, would be mainly

  trained in debating matters of national interest and in Rwandan

  cultural values.

  Itorero ry’Igihugu has the objective of training self-respecting

  citizens who are identified by their national values, and are eager

  to quickly embrace innovations that have positive impact on their

  social welfare. Itorero ry’Igihugu also aims at cultivating visionary,

  patriotic, and exemplary leaders who promote the well-being

  of people at all levels of governance. A culture of selflessness

  and volunteerism is also being revived and entrenched among

  Rwandans. The mediation committees, Gacaca’s people of

  integrity, community health counselors, the National Youth Council

  members, Women Council members and counselors at various

  administrative levels constitute groups of volunteers in the service

  of the nation.

  What the Itorero ry’igihugu teaches is unique because it is based

  on principles and values of Rwandan culture. On the other hand,

  Urugerero (National Service) has much in common with what takes

  place in other countries. Participating in Itorero is the obligation of

  every Rwandan, regardless of status and social group. Participants

  include children from the age of seven years and the youth from

  18 to 35 years. For the latter age group, participating in Urugerero

  is obligatory.

  Specific objectives of Itorero ry’Igihugu

  ࿤ Equip Rwandans with the capacity to analyse their problems in

  order to find solutions.

  ࿤ Promote the Kinyarwanda language.

  ࿤ Mentor Rwandans in collective action, team spirit and promotion

  of innovation and performance contracts.

  ࿤ Mentor Rwandans to understand and participate in the

  implementation of national programmes.

  ࿤ Educate Rwandans to be physically fit, clean in their homes,

  protect the environment, strengthen democracy, engage in

  constructive debate, enforce the law, and fight corruption and

  violence.

  ࿤ Educate Rwandans in building and promoting the culture

  of peace based on mutual trust, respect, humility, respect 

  of human rights, and protection against discrimination and

  genocide ideology.

  ࿤ Educate Rwandans to be efficient in service delivery, courageous,

  and to deliver goods and efficient services.

  Vision

  Rwandans should:

  ࿤ Have a shared mindset and values to promote their unity and

  patriotism.

  ࿤ Be aware of the goals of the country, ways to achieve them and

  their contribution in implementing them.

  ࿤ Be self confident in solving their problems.

  ࿤ Have a shared vision to strive for self development and pride to

  develop their country.

  Mission

  To mentor Intore with:

  ࿤ Values based on Rwandan culture.

  ࿤ Motivation for positive change.

  ࿤ A desire to promote opportunities for development using

  Rwandan cultural values; identify taboos that inhibit the

  development of the country; fight violence and corruption;

  eradicate the culture of impunity; strengthen the culture of

  peace, tolerance, unity and reconciliation; and eradicate

  genocide ideology and all its roots.

  ࿤ Respect for dignity (ishema) and the heroic aspects (ibigwi) of

  Rwandan culture and Rwanda’s national values.

  ࿤ Speed and respect for time: A country in hurry.

  ࿤ Customer service mentality: Constant improvement and

  anticipation.

  ࿤ Quality of delivery: High standards, spirit of excellence, efficiency.

  ࿤ Completion or aiming at results: we finish what we start.

  ࿤ Self respect: National pride.

  Rwanda’s national taboos

  ࿤ Inattention to results: status and ego.

  ࿤ Avoidance of accountability: missed deadlines.

  ࿤ Lack of commitment: ambiguity.

  ࿤ Fear of conflict: artificial harmony.

  ࿤ Lack of trust: invulnerability.

  Achievements of the National Itorero Commission

  From November 19th, 2007, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in

  all the districts. In December 2007, a ceremony to present Intore

  regiments at district level to the president of the republic of Rwanda

  and other senior government officials took place at Amahoro

  stadium. Each district’s regiment presented their performance

  contract at that colorful ceremony which was marked by cultural

  festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment publically announced its

  identification name. At the national level, all the 30 district intore

  regiments constitute one national Itorero, but each district regiment

  has its Identification Name. Each district regiment may have an

  affiliate sub-division which can also carry a different identification

  name.

  The Itorero for Rwandan diaspora has the authority to develop its

  affiliated sub-division. From November 7th 2007 up to the end of

  2012, Itorero ry’ Igihugu trained 284,209 Intore.

  In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change

  of mindset, each group chooses its identification name and sets

  objectives it must achieve. Those projected objectives must be

  achieved during or after training, and this is confirmed by the

  performance contracts that have to be accomplished. With this

  obligation in mind, each individual also sets personal objective that

  in turn contributes to the success of the corporate objectives.

  The number of Intore who have been trained at the village level is

  814,587. Those mentored at the national level carry out mentoring

  in villages, schools, and at work places. In total, 1,098, 599

  Rwandans have been mentored.

  Achievements made through Urugerero Programme

  Plans to implement Urugerero (National Service) started toward the

  end of 2012 and the actual implementation started in 2013. Despite

  this short time however, Urugerero programme has started to yield

  impressive results. Students who completed secondary school in

  2012 went through Itorero mentorship between 30/11 and 17/12/

  2012. Upon completion of the prescribed course, participants

  were given certificates. Later, they had to join Urugerero where

  they participated in various activities designed to promote social

  cohesion, community wellness and national development. Intore

  mentored at that time totalled 40,730. Among them, 19,285 

  were female, while 21,445 were male. However, those who joined

  Urugerero were 37,660, with 18,675 female participants.

  According to the policy of Itorero ry’ Igihugu, volunteerism refers to

  any unpaid communal work, voluntarily undertaken in the service

  of the nation. Volunteerism is reflected in various community works

  such as Umuganda, Ubudehe and contributions to a common

  cause. Other voluntary activities are from community mediators,

  various councils, community health workers, Community Policing

  Committees/CPCs, and Red Cross volunteers.

  Actual Urugerero activities started on 17/1/2013, but they were

  officially launched on 22/1/2013. The activities included general

  community sensitisation, collection of essential data base, and

  community work in support of vulnerable groups.

  The pioneer group of Urugerero achieved the following:

  ࿤ Sensitising Rwandans on the eradication of genocide and its

  ideology and encouraging them to participate in activities

  organised to commemorate the genocide committed against

  Tutsi in 1994.

  ࿤ Sensitising the community on the importance of mutual health

  insurance, adult literacy, fighting against drug abuse, legalising

  marriages especially for families that are cohabitating, and

  environmental protection.

  ࿤ Organising meetings at village levels aimed at educating the

  community on Rwandan cultural values, unity, patriotism, and

  development.

  ࿤ Educating the population on personal hygiene and cleanliness

  of their environment.

  ࿤ Collecting data on different categories of people for example,

  the illiterate, those who had not yet registered for mutual health

  insurance, and those legible for paying tax . Making inventories of

  the districts’ property, school dropouts, children of school going

  age who are not yet in school, and illegal marriages.

  Some groups of Intore in Urugerero opted to demonstrate how

  speedy and exceptional service could be rendered while working

  with various public offices. This was done in health centres, cell

  offices, and District offices, especially in the issuing of documents,

  data entry in computers and customer care.

  Activities relating to manual community work include vegetable

  gardening for family consumption, construction of shelters for 

  vulnerable families, participation in the construction of cell offices

  and landscaping of their compounds.

  In environmental protection, Intore constructed terraces and

  planted trees as a measure of preventing soil erosion.

  Activities relating to the promotion of the volunteer services

  in National Development Programmes: In Rwandan culture,

  “volunteerism” means rendering a sacrificial and selfless service

  out of love either to a national cause or to a needy neighbour.

  Below, we look at the outcome, outputs and activities relating to

  fraternity, national identity and participation in national programmes

  through Urugerero.

  Umuganda

  As part of efforts to reconstruct Rwanda and nurture a shared

  national identity, the government of Rwanda drew on aspects of

  Rwandan culture and traditional practices to enrich and adapt

  its development programmes to the country’s needs and context.

  The result is a set of home grown solutions from culturally owned

  practices translated into sustainable development programmes.

  One of these home grown solutions is Umuganda.

  Modern day Umuganda can be described as community work.

  On the last Saturday of each month, communities come together

  to do a variety of public works. This often includes infrastructure

  development and environmental protection. Rwandans between

  18 and 65 years of age are obliged to participate in Umuganda.

  Expatriates living in Rwanda are encouraged to take part. Today

  close to 80 per cent of Rwandans take part in monthly community

  work.

  As part of Vision 2020 development programme, the government

  implemented Umuganda a community service policy. It was

  designed to help supplement the national budget in construction

  and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done is organised by

  community members and is done voluntarily and without pay. The

  projects completed through Umuganda include, the construction

  of schools, feeder roads, road repair, terracing, reforestation, home

  construction for vulnerable people, erosion control, and water

  canals. 

  

  The goals of Umuganda:

  ࿤ Supplement national resources by doing specific activities.

  ࿤ Instill a culture of collective effort in the population.

  ࿤ Resolve problems faced by the population using locally available

  resources.

  ࿤ Restore the dignity of manual labour.

  Planning for Umuganda is done in council meetings at the cell level.

  It is the responsibility of local leaders as well as national leaders to

  mobilise the population to participate in Umuganda. Community

  members meet and agree on the date (usually a weekend) and

  the activity. Participation in Umuganda is compulsory for all ablebodied citizens. This policy is expected to lead to a more cohesive

  society as all the members come together to complete a project that

  benefits the community. The word Umuganda can be translated as

  ‘coming together for common purpose to achieve an outcome’. In

  traditional Rwandan culture, members of the community would call

  upon their family, friends and neighbours to help them complete a

  difficult task.

  Achievements

  Successful projects include the building of schools, medical

  centres and hydro electric plants as well as rehabilitating wetlands

  and creating highly productive agricultural plots. The value of

  Umuganda to the country’s development since 2007 has been

  estimated at more than US $60 million.

  Professionals in the public and private sectors also contribute to

  umuganda. They include engineers, medics, IT specialists, and

  statisticians, among others.

  The military personnel also participate in social activities like the

  building of schools and hospitals. This inspires the population to

  be very active as well.

  Umuganda value has increased from Rwf12 billion in 2012 to

  Rwf17 billion in 2015 and Rwf19 billion in 2016. With the increase

  in monetary activities, Umuganda has seen Rwandans build over

  400 offices of micro finance institutions commonly known as

  Umurenge Sacco, and 11,000 classrooms for the country’s ‘twelve

  year basic education’ which has increased school enrolment to

  over 95 per cent of children in Primary Schools.

  Imihigo

  Imihigo is the plural Kinyarwanda word of Umuhigo, which means

  to vow to deliver. Imihigo also includes the concept of Guhiganwa,

  which means to compete. Imihigo describes the pre-colonial

  cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual sets targets or

  goals to be achieved within a specific period of time. The person

  must complete these objectives by following guiding principles and

  be determined to overcome any possible challenges that arise.

  Imihigo is one of the home grown solutions. In 2000, a shift in

  the responsibilities at all levels of government as a result of a

  decentralisation programme required a new approach to monitoring

  and evaluation. Local levels of government were now responsible

  for implementing development programmes which meant that the

  central government and people of Rwanda needed a way to ensure

  accountability.

  In 2006, Imihigo (also known as performance contracts) was

  introduced to address this need. Since its introduction, Imihigo has been credited with improving accountability and quickening the

  pace of citizen centred development activities and programmes.

  The practice of Imihigo has now been extended to ministries,

  embassies and public service staff.

  In the application of Imihigo, the districts are responsible for

  implementing programmes under this broad agenda while

  central government assumes the task of planning and facilitation.

  Planning ensures that the national objectives of growth and

  poverty reduction are achieved. The decentralisation policy is

  also designed to deepen and sustain grassroots-based democratic

  governance. It promotes equitable local development by enhancing

  participation and strengthening the local government system,

  while maintaining effective functional and mutually accountable

  linkages between central and local governments. This entails

  enhancing participation, promoting the culture of accountability,

  and fast-tracking and sustaining equitable local development as

  a mechanism to enhance local fiscal autonomy. It also means

  employment and poverty reduction and enhancing effectiveness

  and efficiency in the planning, monitoring, and delivery of services.

  The principle of subsidiary underpins the decentralisation policy,

  which is designed to ensure transparency and accountability for

  local service delivery through participation in planning. This also

  applies to civil society, faith-based organisations, the private sector,

  and development partners.

  Impact of Imihigo

  Rwanda has made tremendous progress in socio-economic

  advancement in the last decade. Over the Economic Development

  and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) 1 period, the average

  real GDP (Gross Domestic Product) growth rate was 8.2 per cent

  and poverty was reduced from 56.7 per cent to 44.9 per cent

  between 2006 and 2011. Access to education and health services

  has become universal with 96 per cent of school-aged children

  now enrolled in primary schools, and 90 per cent coverage of

  health insurance. These achievements illustrate the impact of

  development policies on the framework of a vision resting on

  home-grown solutions. This diverse set of instruments embraces

  participation and consensus based on culture and national identity,

  as guiding principles.

  Within the commitment of evidence-based policy making,

  the impact, scope and documentation of Home-Grown

  Initiatives/ Solutions (HGI/S) is systematically pursued. It

  is against this background that the Rwanda Governance

  Board (RGB) was mandated by the cabinet meeting held on

  4th November 2011 to conduct monitoring, research and

  policy dialogues on the home-grown initiatives and solutions.

  One of the most prominent HGI/S has been the Imihigo, or

  performance contract policy in public administration reform.

  Imihigo has been implemented since 2006 as a tool to accelerate

  national development. Over the years, the practice has evolved

  into a tool for effective planning, implementation, performance

  evaluation and accountability for all public institutions and staff.

  More specifically, findings from Imihigo are used to inform the

  government of Rwanda about the following:

  Performance: Provide feedback on the delivery of outputs and the

  impact on the beneficiaries.

  Accountability: Whether public spending is addressing the

  appropriate priorities and making a difference in the lives of citizens.

  Knowledge: Increasing knowledge about what policies and

  programmes work, enabling the government at central and local

  levels to build an evidence base for future policy development and

  the identification of ways to improve effectiveness.

  Decision-making: Providing evidence to enable policy-makers,

  planners and finance departments to agree on the need for

  intervention.

  Co-ordination: Identifying key stakeholders expected to be involved

  in specific areas/programmes/projects, extent of participation and

  coordinated.

  Beneficiaries’ satisfaction: The extent to which beneficiaries are

  happy with government interventions and the level of consultation.

  Imihigo challenges

  
  Problems of measurements

  There is no standard for measuring the value of Umuganda. The

  first issue has to do with the output on increasing the value and participation in Umuganda. For instance, some districts measure

  its value based on the number of people participating on the day

  multiplied by the daily labour (mostly farming) rate applicable in

  that district. Other districts attempt to estimate the financial cost of

  achievements on the day of Umuganda. In both cases Umuganda

  lasts only three hours. A key defect in the first approach is that

  calculations are based on a full day’s work rate when Umuganda only

  lasts an average of three hours. The output can be overestimated.

  Budget versus needs

  There is a clear discrepancy between allocated budget and the

  magnitude of citizen needs at the local administrative level.

  Harmonising citizen’s needs with the available budget is the key

  challenge. While there are always several competing needs for a

  limited budget, appropriate apportionment implies that the limited

  resources should respond to the most pressing demands.

  Competing agendas

  There are competing agendas between the central and local

  government. Urgent assignments from line ministries and other

  central government agencies interfere with local planning. Despite

  efforts for joint planning meetings between the central and local

  levels, unplanned for requests from the central government

  consume local resources (finances and time) particularly when the

  demands are not accompanied with implementing funds. In some

  instances, money to implement an inserted item will be promised

  but not delivered when it comes to the implementation phase or

  local authorities are told to insert items and are then told to get

  resources from private sources.

  Low ownership of Imihigo

  Imihigo should be based on the needs of citizens at the local level

  and national development priorities. However, Imihigo ownership

  is relatively low among the intended beneficiaries. There is a

  “dependency syndrome” where citizens depend on government to

  provide them with free or subsidised goods. Citizens also compete

  for lower categories of Ubudehe in order to become eligible for free

  healthcare and Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP). These

  programmes are responsible for low ownership of Imihigo. 

  Understaffing and low capacity

  Lack of staff, insufficient financial means, lack of data base to

  facilitate planning, monitoring, and evaluation and heavy workload

  constitute major challenges in local governments. Many districts

  posts are occupied by staff without the required skills. There are

  also challenges in staff recruitment and low staff retention in

  sectors and the cells.

  These shortages affect the implementation of Imihigo. District staff

  is overloaded and they may not have enough time to implement

  Imihigo targets. Local government staff also lack skills in monitoring

  and evaluation. This is necessary for Imihingo to be effective.

  Delays in funds disbursement

  Some of the key challenges to Imihigo are delays in funds

  disbursement, be it from the central government or from development

  partners. Delays in funds disbursement are the most important

  factor affecting service delivery at local government level, equally

  important as insufficient staff. There are two related issues that

  make it difficult to implement Imihigo targets in a timely manner.

  First, there is a discrepancy between the fiscal year and the period

  of Imihigo signing. This challenge comes from the relationship

  with stakeholders most of whom use the calendar which starts in

  January against the district’s fiscal year which starts in July. As a

  result time is lost before Imihigo can be effectively implemented.

  More specifically, Imihigo are usually signed 2-3 months after the

  fiscal year has started. This means that almost a quarter is lost.

  Issues in implementation of Imihigo

  ࿤ The lag between the passing of the budget and the Imihigo

  translates to a loss of the first quarter in implementation.

  ࿤ Most Imihigo are implemented in the last quarter due to delays

  in either the transfer of financial resources to the districts or

  delays on the part of the district to request for disbursement.

  ࿤ Shifting priorities take away resources (time, finances) from

  implementing Imihigo.

  ࿤ Some targets are included in Imihigo without adequate control

  of the sources of funds for implementation.

  ࿤ In some situations, Imihigo without proper local contextualisation

  are difficult to implement. A good example was when the evaluators found farmers in some hilly parts of the country using

  land tillers on terraces in efforts that were clearly designed to

  reach the target of agricultural mechanisation. The tool was not

  appropriate for the terrain.

  ࿤ Some targets were not achieved due to a third party such as

  those in charge of water, electricity and road construction where

  delays in implementation were related to lack of control over the

  operations of Energy, Water and Sanitation Authority (EWSA)

  and Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA).

  ࿤ There are challenges in establishing measurement standards

  from one district to another. An output that requires building

  households for the vulnerable may have a house value ranging

  between 2m and 15 million. There is an assumption that an

  implemented item meets requisite standards and yet these

  may not be in place. Guidance from the central government for

  standard setting should be strengthened as well as a team for

  quality assurance to ensure implemented items meet the quality

  standards.

  ࿤ Some achievements were inflated. A good example is an output

  for building a house claimed to be 60 per cent complete when

  a site visit would place it at a far less per centage.

  ࿤ There are challenges in common planning for district transboundary items such as feeder road construction.

  ࿤ Understaffing and high turnover at the local administration level

  calls for improved capacity building and need to improve the

  environment for service delivery.

  Community Policing

  When Rwanda National Police (RNP) was established in 2000,

  it adopted the community policing strategy to build ties and work

  closely with members of the community to fight crime. Since then,

  the department for community policy has reduced crime throughout

  the country. The department is run on a philosophy that promotes

  proactive partnerships with the public to address public safety

  issues such as social disorder and insecurity.

  Traditionally, the police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of

  that, the police cannot be everywhere at all times and, therefore,

  relies on routine patrols, rapid response to calls for service, arrests

  and follow-up investigations.

  Community policing, therefore, was adopted to encourage citizens

  to participate in crime-solving.

  It is focused on the prevention of crime and disorder, by partnering

  with the public to increase police visibility in all communities so as

  to solve, prevent and reduce crime.

  Community policing enables the police to engage citizens in

  reporting incidents or to use volunteers to provide timely reports

  that help in anti-crime operations.

  Before and during the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, citizens

  were always scared and full of mistrust for law enforcing agencies.

  Law enforcers were used by politicians to intimidate citizens and

  this gave them a bad reputation because citizens saw them as part

  of the problem, rather than protectors.

  This negative view of the police had to be quickly addressed by

  providing services professionally and being open and approachable.

  This strategy has improved police response to crime, because many

  reports are now provided by community members. This shows that

  they trust the police.

  Unlike the previous law enforcers who served the criminal desires of

  a genocidal regime, the police now serve the citizens professionally

  and ensure that they have a say in the security of their communities.

  Contribution

  The Rwanda Governance Scorecard produced by the Rwanda

  Governance Board in 2016, presented results from a nationwide

  survey, which indicated that 92 per cent of the citizens trust the

  Police. This is an indicator of professional services, discipline and

  partnership.

  It is when the community and the police work together for their

  common good that citizens will trust the police.

  Once the citizens trust the officers, they will provide them with

  information to help prevent or solve crimes and to arrest criminals. 

  This has enabled the police to serve communities better and to

  fulfill its mission of making the people living in Rwanda feel safe

  and secure.

  The day-to-day activities of community policing initiatives

  Conducting investigations has always been paramount in police

  missions. For this reason, the police have used community policing

  to build strong investigative activities countrywide so as to get

  credible information from citizens.

  The police also work with groups such as Community Policing

  Committees (CPCs), Youth Volunteers in Crime Prevention, as well

  as individual citizens in general.

  CPCs were introduced in 2007 and they are made up of ordinary

  citizens chosen by the community. They operate in cells and sectors

  to collect information that helps in crime prevention. They also

  sensitise residents about the need to collectively overcome crime.

  The Youth Volunteers in Crime Prevention is an organisation that

  has over 7,000 young men and women spread throughout the

  country. They aim at promoting security and participating in crime

  prevention. They have been influential in aiding Police operations

  and also in sensitising fellow youth against crime.

  On a regular basis, they partner with Police District Community

  Liaison Officers (DCLOS) to immediately respond to information

  about criminality and to lay strategies for approaching the

  challenges in society.

  The DCLOs are heavily involved in community issues in order to

  make policing more effective.

  The police also work together with motorists’ associations to ensure

  that road safety is respected. They also link with the business

  community to protect the country against economic crimes.

  

  Community policing programmes

  The police have an understanding with authorities of all the 30

  districts of Rwanda. One of their mandates under this agreement is

  to ensure that all strategies, including that of community policing,

  are fully operational.

  The police also work with the Ombudsman’s office, prosecution and

  other public entities to ensure that cases are properly documented

  and information on justice is properly shared. Through such

  initiatives, citizens gain more trust in the ability of the police to

  maintain law and order and to follow up on the information they

  provide with professionalism.

  Community policing helps the police to address problems such

  as drug abuse, human trafficking and gender-based violence.

  Every district faces its unique challenges, but through community

  policing the police identify the root causes of these challenges and

  find solutions.

  In cases involving drug abuse and gender based violence, police

  get information from responsible members of society and use it in

  operations to raid homes.

  The issue of human trafficking is not intense in Rwanda, but the

  police is always aware of this threat. Citizens across the country 

  volunteer information whenever such cases occur and police acts

  immediately to rescue victims.

  On top of that, the police reach out to citizens during social events like

  Umuganda and sensitisation campaigns to discuss crime prevention.

  During these events, real problems are dissected and solutions are

  found.

  Community policing has become so popular in Rwanda that citizens

  are always willing to contribute ideas on how to maintain public

  order.

  

  The National Itorero Commission has helped Rwandans to

  strengthen their unity and also initiated the youth and adult persons

  into the culture of volunteerism. The community activities carried

  out in umuganda have also added value to the achievements of the

  government.

  The Imihigo performance contracts have also played a great role

  in boosting the implementation of governmental programmes.

  Community policing has helped to improve the keeping of law and

  order.

  Glossary

  Accountability: 1. responsibility to someone or for some activity

  2. a list of matters to be taken up (as at a meeting)

  Agenda: a plan for matters to be attended to

  Disbursement: 1. the act of spending or disbursing money

  2. amounts paid for goods and services that may

  be currently tax deductible (as opposed to

  capital expenditures)

  Ombudsman: a government official who investigates

  complaints by private persons against the

  government

  Overloaded: fill to excess so that the function is impaired

  Taboo: 1. behaviour or action that is not allowed in a

  society

  2. a prejudice (especially in Polynesia and other

  South Pacific islands) that prohibits the use or

  mention of something because of its sacred

  nature

  Revision questions

  1. Describe the background of the following national duties and

  obligations:

  a) Itorero ry’Igihugu.

  b) Imihigo.

  c) Umuganda.

  d) Community policing.

  2. Evaluate the achievements of the National Itorero Commission.

  3. Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Imihigo performance

  contracts

  4. What is the role played by community policing in the security

  of Rwanda?

  5. Assess the role played by umuganda in the socio-economic

  development of Rwanda.

• Unit 8: National and International Judicial Systems and Instruments

  Key unit competence

  Analyse the national, international judicial systems and instruments

  and how justice has been delayed and denied in Rwandan society

  Introduction

  The international judicial system is dominated by the international

  Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC).

  In Rwanda, the judicial system is divided into ordinary and

  specialised courts. The ordinary courts are headed by the high

  council of the judiciary. This was established by the Rwandan

  Constitution of 4/06/2003, article 157 and 158, as amended. It is

  the supreme organ of the judiciary.

  Links to other subjects

  This unit can be linked to justice and democracy in General Studies

  and Communication Skills

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Concepts of judicial systems

  ࿤ National and international judicial systems and instruments.

  ࿤ Structure and organisation of national and international judicial

  systems and instruments

  ࿤ Different ways in which justice in Rwanda has been delayed

  and denied

  Concepts of Judicial Systems

  Activity 1

  Explain the concepts of the judicial systems, and then present

  your work to the class.

  The judicial or court system interprets and applies the law on

  behalf of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for

  the resolution of disputes.

  In some nations, under the doctrine of separation of powers,

  the judiciary does not make law (which is the responsibility of

  the legislature) or enforce law (which is the responsibility of the

  executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to the facts of

  each case.

  In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as common

  law, by setting precedent for other judges to follow, as opposed

  to statutory law made by the legislature. The judiciary is often

  tasked with ensuring equal justice under the law.

  In many jurisdictions, the judiciary has the power to change laws

  through judicial review. Courts with judicial review power may

  annul the laws and rules of the state which are incompatible

  with a higher norm, such as primary legislation, the provisions of

  the constitution or international law. Judges are responsible for the

  interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus charged

  with creating the body of constitutional lawin common law countries.

  

  In some countries the judiciary includes legal professionals and

  institutions such as prosecutors, state attorneys, ombudsmen, public

  notaries, judicial police service and legal aid officers. These

  institutions are sometimes governed by the same administration

  that governs courts. In some cases the judiciary also administers

  private legal professions such as lawyers and private notary offices.

  National Judicial Systems and Instruments

  Activity 2

  Analyse the Rwanda national judicial systems. Thereafter,

  present the outcomes of your work to the class.

  After the High Council of the Judiciary, there is the Supreme Court

  as the coordinating organ of justice in Rwanda. It was instituted

  for the first time by the constitution of January 28th, 1962. It

  was composed of five members appointed by the president of

  the republic. It was also composed of five sections: Department

  of Courts and Tribunals, the Court of Appeals, the Constitutional

  Court, the Council of State and the Audit Office.

  According to the constitution of December 28th, 1978, the Supreme

  Court with five sections was replaced by four high jurisdictions

  which were separated from each other. These included the Court

  of Appeals, the Constitutional Court (composed of the Court of

  Appeals and the Council of State) and the Audit Office.

  During the post-genocide period (from 1994 to 2003) the

  Fundamental Law established the Supreme Court which consisted

  of five sections: the Department of Courts and Tribunals, the

  Court of Appeals, the Constitutional Court, the Council of State

  and the Auditor’s Office. With the April 18th 2000 reform to the

  Fundamental Law, it was provided with the sixth section named

  Department of “Gacaca jurisdictions”.

  Apart from the Supreme Court, there is a High Court with the

  chamber of international crimes, the chamber of Nyanza in

  southern province, the chamber of Rusizi in western province, the

  chamber of Rwamagana in the eastern province and the chamber

  of Musanze in northern province. There are intermediate and

  primary courts in the districts of Nyarugenge, Gasabo, Nyagatare,

  Ngoma, Muhanga, Huye, Nyamagabe, Rusizi, Karongi, Rubavu,

  Gicumbi and Musanze.

  

  The specialised courts include the Commercial High Court at

  Nyamirambo with its branches at Musanze and Huye, and the

  military courts.

  International Judicial Systems and Instruments

  Activity 3

  Analyse the international judicial systems and their instruments.

  Present your work to the class.

  The ICJ was established in 1945 by the UN Charter. The court

  started its work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court

  of International Justice. The statute of the International Court of

  Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional

  document constituting and regulating the court.

  The court covers a wide range of judicial activity. Chapter XIV of

  the United Nations Charter authorises the UN Security Council to

  enforce the court’s rulings. However, such enforcement is subject

  to the veto power of the five permanent members of the council.

  

  The International Criminal Court (ICC orICCt) is an intergovernmental

  organisation and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in

  the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute

  individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against

  humanity, and war crimes The ICC is intended to complement

  

  The Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty which serves as the ICC’s

  foundational and governing document. The states which become

  party to the Rome Statute are member states of the ICC. Currently,

  there are 124 states which are party to the Rome Statute and

  therefore members of the ICC.

  The establishment of an international tribunal to judge political

  leaders accused of international crimes was first proposed

  during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 following the First

  World War by the Commission of Responsibilities. The issue

  was addressed again at a conference held in Geneva under the

  auspices of the League of Nations in 1937. This resulted in the

  conclusion of the first convention stipulating the establishment of a

  permanent international court to try acts of international terrorism.

  The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it and it

  never entered into force.

  Following the Second World War, the allied powers established

  two ad hoc tribunals to prosecute axis power leaders accused of war

  crimes. The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg,

  prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal

  for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders. In 1948

  the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need

  for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the

  kind prosecuted after the Second World War. At the request of the

  General Assembly, the International Law Commission (ILC) drafted 

  two statutes by the early 1950s. These were abandoned during

  the Cold War which made the establishment of an international

  criminal court politically unrealistic.

  In 1994, the ILC presented its final draft statute for the International

  Criminal Court to the General Assembly and recommended that a

  conference be convened to negotiate a treaty that would serve as

  the Court’s statute. To consider major substantive issues in the draft

  statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee

  on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, which

  met twice in 1995. After considering the committee’s report,

  the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the

  Establishment of the ICC to prepare a consolidated draft text.

  From 1996 to 1998, six sessions of the Preparatory Committee

  were held at the United Nations headquarters in New York City,

  during which NGOs provided input and attended meetings under

  the umbrella organisation of the Coalition for an ICC (CICC). In

  January 1998, the Bureau and coordinators of the Preparatory

  Committee convened for an Inter-Sessional meeting in Zutphen in

  the Netherlands to technically consolidate and restructure the draft

  articles into a draft.

  Finally, the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome

  in June 1998, with the aim of finalising the treaty to serve as

  the court’s statute. On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the

  International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to

  7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted

  against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United

  States, and Yemen. Following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute

  entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal

  Court was formally established. The first bench of 18 judges was

  elected by the Assembly of States Parties in February 2003. They

  were sworn in at the inaugural session of the court on 11 March

  2003.

  The court issued its first arrest warrants on 8 July 2005, and the

  first pre-trial hearings were held in 2006. The court issued its first

  judgment in 2012 when it found Congolese rebel leader Thomas

  Lubanga Dyilo guilty of war crimes related to using child soldiers.

  Structure and Organisation of the International 

  Judicial Systems

  Activity 4

  Describe the structure and organisation of the international

  judiacial systems. Thereafter, present your work to the class.

  The structure and organisation of the International Court of Justice

  The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine-year terms

  by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a

  list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent

  Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4–19

  of the ICJ statute. Five judges are elected every three years to

  ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the

  practice has generally been to elect a judge in a special election to

  complete the term.

  No two judges may be nationals of the same country. According

  to Article 9, the membership of the court is supposed to represent

  the “main forms of civilisation and of the principal legal systems

  of the world”. Essentially, that has meant common law, civil

  law and socialist law (now post-communist law).

  There is an informal understanding that the seats will be distributedby

  geographic regions so that there are five seats for western countries,

  three for African states (including one judge of Francophone civil

  law, one of Anglophone common law and one Arab), two

  for eastern European states, three for Asian states and two for Latin

  American and Caribbean states. The five permanent members

  of the United Nations Security Council (France, Russia, China,

  the United Kingdom, and the United States) always have a judge

  on the court, thereby occupying three of the western seats, one

  of the Asian seats and one of the eastern European seats. The

  exception was China, which did not have a judge on the court from

  1967 to 1985 because it did not put forward a candidate

  

  Article 6 of the statute provides that all judges should be

  “elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high

  moral character” who are either qualified for the highest judicial

  office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient

  competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt

  with specifically in articles 16–18. Judges of the ICJ are not able

  to hold any other post or act as counsel. In practice, members of

  the court have their own interpretation of these rules and allow

  them to be involved in outside arbitration, hold professional

  posts as long as there is no conflict of interest. A judge can be

  dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other members of the

  court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges

  has been questioned. For example, during the Nicaragua Case, the

  United States issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not

  present sensitive material to the court because of the presence of

  judges from eastern bloc states.

  Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate

  opinions. Decisions and advisory opinions are by majority. In the

  event of an equal division, the President’s vote becomes decisive.

  Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.

  Generally, the court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years,

  it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute

  allow the court to form smaller chambers, usually of 3 or 5 judges,

  to hear cases. Two types of chambers are provided for in article

  26. These are chambers for special categories of cases, and ad

  hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a special

  chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to

  deal specifically with environmental matters.

  Organisation of the International Criminal Court

  The ICC is governed by an assembly of states parties, which is

  made up of the states which are party to the Rome Statute. The

  assembly elects officials of the court, approves its budget, and

  adopts amendments to the Rome Statute. The court itself, however,

  is composed of four organs: the Presidency, the judicial divisions,

  the Office of the Prosecutor, and the registry.

  The presidency is responsible for the proper administration of the

  court (apart from the Office of the Prosecutor). It comprises the

  president and the first and second vice-presidents—three judges of

  the court who are elected to the presidency by their fellow judges

  for a maximum of two three-year terms.

  The judicial divisions consist of the 18 judges of the court,

  organised into three chambers; the pre-trial chamber, trial chamber

  and appeals chamber which carry out the judicial functions of the

  court. Judges are elected to the court by the Assembly of States

  Parties. They serve nine-year terms and are not generally eligible

  for re-election. All judges must be nationals of states party to the

  Rome Statute, and no two judges may be nationals of the same

  state. They must be “persons of high moral character, impartiality

  and integrity who possess the qualifications required in their

  respective states for appointment to the highest judicial offices”.

  The Office of the Prosecutor is responsible for conducting

  investigations and prosecutions. It is headed by the chief

  prosecutor, who is assisted by one or more deputy prosecutors. The

  Rome Statute provides that the Office of the Prosecutor shall

  act independently. No member of the office may seek or act on

  instructions from any external source, such as states, international

  organisations, non-governmental organisations or individuals.

  The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the

  administration and servicing of the court. This includes, among other

  things, the administration of legal aid matters, court management,

  victims and witnesses matters, defence counsel, detention unit, and

  the traditional services provided by administrations in international

  organisations, such as finance, translation, building management,

  procurement and personnel. The Registry is headed by the registrar,

  who is elected by the judges to a five-year term.

  Ways in which justice has been denied and delayed in Rwanda

  
  

  Activity 5

  Discuss different ways in which justice has been denied and

  delayed in Rwanda. Thereafter, present the results of your

  discussion to the class.

  During the First and the Second Republics, the culture of impunity

  was prevailing in Rwanda. The Tutsi were targeted and killed and

  the perpetrators of these crimes were not punished. Moreover, the

  properties of the Tutsi were either destroyed or confiscated. For

  instance in 1963, more than 8,000 Tutsi were killed in Gikingoro.

  In the same period, Kayibanda ordered the execution of 27 leaders

  of UNAR and RADER who had been imprisoned in Ruhengeri

  without any form of legal procedure. In 1973, a big number of

  Tutsi were chased from their jobs and schools. Their killers however

  remained unpunished.

  During the Liberation War which started on October 1st, 1990,

  the Tutsi were attacked by government soldiers and Interahamwe.

  Many Tutsi in Bugesera, Kibuye, Ngororero, Murambi in Byumba,

  the Bagogwe in Ruhengeri and Gisenyi and the Bahima of Mutara

  were killed. The people who committed these crimes did not face

  justice.

  After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, justice faced the problem

  of delay due to the following reasons:

  ࿤ Absence of laws punishing the crime of genocide:

  ࿤ There was lack of competent judiciary tribunals and judges

  because many of them had either been killed during the 1994 

  genocide against the Tutsi or had fled the country. In addition,

  the few judges who remained were not skilled enough.

  ࿤ The situation was complicated by the big number of genocide

  prisoners. It was difficult to judge all the criminals in a

  short time. This is why in 2005 the government of Rwanda

  introduced the Gacaca courts to judge the perpetrators of the

  1994 genocide against the Tutsi.

  ࿤ Many countries which host the genocide criminals refuse to

  judge them or to send them to Rwanda; for example, France.

  

  The judicial system interprets and applies the law in the name of

  the state. This system also provides a mechanism for the resolution

  of disputes.

  In countries which apply the doctrine of separation of powers,

  the judiciary does not make laws. It rather interprets the law and

  applies it to the facts of each case.

  The international judicial system is controlled by the International

  Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC).

  In Rwanda, the judicial system is divided into two kinds of courts:

  ordinary and specialised courts. The ordinary courts are headed

  by the High Council of the Judiciary. This is established by the

  Rwandan Constitution of 4/06/2003 in article 157 and 158. It is

  the supreme organ of the judiciary.

  Glossary

  Dispute: an argument or a disagreement between two

  people, groups or countries; a discussion about

  a subject where there is disagreement.

  Doctrine: a belief or set of beliefs held and taught by a

  religion, political party, etc.

  Guilty: being responsible for something bad or illegal.

  Jurisdiction: the authority that an official organisation has

  to make legal decisions about somebody/something.

  Substantive: dealing with real, important or serious matters.

  Unanimous: a decision or an opinion agreed or shared by

  everyone in a group.

  Veto: the right to refuse to allow something to be

  done, especially the right to stop a law from

  being passed or decision from being taken.

  Workload: the amount of work that has to be done by a

  particular person or organisation.

  Revision questions

  1. Analyse the ways in which justice has been denied and delayed

  in Rwanda.

  2. Explain the organisation of the International Court of Justice.

• Unit 9: Dignity and Self - Reliance

  Key unit competence

  Identify lessons that can be learnt from successful self-reliance

  policies of African leaders.

  Introduction

  Dignity means receiving respect from people and an individual’s

  belief in his ability to do what is good. Self-reliance means making

  personal choices, rather than allowing other people to decide

  for you. It also means being independent. People have to avoid

  expecting foreign assistance from developed countries.

  Dignity and self-reliance are the two ways suggested by the

  government in order to address socio-economic and political

  problems. This does not mean opposing international cooperation

  Rwandans, just do not want to be dependant on foreign aid.

  Self-reliance provides self-confidence and pride. This leads to

  sustainable and durable development.

  With the concept of dignity and self-reliance. Rwandans can make

  individual choices. This means that Rwanda is on the right course

  of development.

  Links to other subjects

  Nationalism in General Studies

  Main points to be covered in this unit

  ࿤ Examples of African leaders whose self-reliance policies succeeded

  ࿤ Factors for the success of self-reliance policies of some African

  leaders

  ࿤ Lessons learnt from successful self-reliance policies of African leaders

  Examples of African Leaders whose SelfReliance Policies Succeeded

  Activity 1

  Carry out research on African self-reliance and then analyse

  the success of some African leaders. Present your work to the

  class.

  Self-reliance in Kenya under Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya

  

  Following Kenya’s independence in 1963, the first prime minister,

  and later first president of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta adopted

  “Harambee” as a concept of pulling the country together to build

  the new nation. He encouraged communities to work together

  to raise funds for all sorts of local projects, pledging that the

  government would provide their startup costs. Under this system, 

  wealthy individuals wishing to get into politics could donate large

  amounts of money to local harambee activities, thereby gaining

  legitimacy. However, such practices were never institutionalised

  during Kenyatta’s presidency.

  Ujamaa policy in Tanzania

  Ujamaa (‘familyhood’ in Swahili) was the concept that formed the

  basis of Julius Nyerere’s social and economic development policies

  in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961.

  

  ࿤ The creation of a one-party system under the leadership of

  the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in order to

  consolidate the cohesion of the newly independent Tanzania.

  ࿤ The institutionalisation of social, economic, and political equality

  through the creation of a central democracy.

  ࿤ The abolition of discrimination based on ascribed status.

  ࿤ The nationalisation of the economy’s key sectors.

  ࿤ The villagisation of production, which essentially collectivised

  all forms of local productive capacity.

  ࿤ The fostering of Tanzanian self-reliance through two dimensions:

  the transformation of economic and cultural attitudes.

  Economically, everyone would work for both the group and for

  him/herself; culturally, Tanzanians had to free themselves from

  dependence on developed countries. For Nyerere, this included

  Tanzanians learning to do things for themselves and learning to be

  satisfied with what they could achieve as an independent state.

  ࿤ The implementation of free and compulsory education for

  all Tanzanians in order to sensitise them on the principles of

  Ujamaa.

  ࿤ The creation of a Tanzanian rather than tribal identity through

  the use of Swahili.

  Julius Nyerere’s leadership of Tanzania commanded international

  attention and attracted worldwide respect for his consistent

  emphasis on ethical principles as the basis of practical policies.

  Tanzania under Nyerere made great strides in vital areas of social

  development. Infant mortality was reduced from 138 per 1000

  live births in 1965 to 110 in 1985; life expectancy at birth rose

  from 37 in 1960 to 52 in 1984; primary school enrolment was

  raised from 25per cent (only 16per cent of females) in 1960 to

  72per cent (85per cent of females) in 1985 (despite the rapidly

  increasing population); adult literacy rate rose from 17per cent in

  1960 to 63per cent by 1975 (much higher than in other African

  countries) and continued to rise.

  

  A major change in the structure of

  Zambia’s economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April

  1968 where Kaunda declared his intention to acquire an equity

  holding (usually 51per cent or more) in a number of key foreignowned firms, to be controlled by his Industrial Development

  Corporation (INDECO).

  By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the

  Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining interests,

  the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesian Selection 

  Trust (RST). The two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper

  Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively.

  Kaunda also announced the creation of a new parastatal body,

  the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO), while the Finance

  and Development Corporation (FINDECO) enabled the Zambian

  government to gain control of insurance companies and building

  societies. Major foreign-owned banks, such as Barclays, Standard

  Chartered and Grindlays Bank successfully resisted takeover. In

  1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together

  under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining

  Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in

  sub-Saharan Africa, with Francis Kaunda as chairman of the board.

  The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of

  the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were

  terminated in 1973. In 1982, NCCM and RCM were merged into

  the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM).

  Mandela’s vision

  

  Mandela’s administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. 

  In a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation; 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. 

  There was 33 per cent unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.

  Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth

  of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning

  that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development

  Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed

  nationalisation or job creation. Instead, the government adopted

  liberal economic policies designed to promote foreign investment,

  adhering to the “Washington consensus” advocated by the World

  Bank and International Monetary Fund.

  Under Mandela’s presidency, welfare spending increased by 13

  per cent in 1996/97, 13 per cent in 1997/98, and 7 per cent

  in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for

  communities, including disability grants, child maintenance 

  
  

  grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at

  different levels for South Africa’s different racial groups. In 1994,

  free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant

  women. The provision extended to all those using primary level

  public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election,

  the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were

  connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into

  the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2

  million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access

  was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were

  constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.

  The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their

  property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their

  land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims.

  The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour

  tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This

  legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a

  court order or if they were over the age of 65. The Skills Development

  Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to finance

  and promote skills development at the workplace.

  The Labour Relations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy,

  orderly collective bargaining, and the effective resolution of labour

  disputes. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act of 1997 improved

  enforcement mechanisms while extending a “floor” of rights to all

  workers. The Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an

  end to discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmative

  action in the workplace.

  

  He reformed the education system by constructing several

  primary, secondary and tertiary institutions such as Ghana

  University.

  He introduced scientific methods of farming like irrigation,

  mechanised farming, use of fertilisers and pesticides.

  He Africanised the civil service by replacing European expatriates

  with Africans.

  He emphasised the need to respect African culture and supported

  local artists to compose African songs and plays.

  He ended sectarian and regional tendencies by defeating all the

  sectarian parties in the 1954 and 1956 elections. After winning

  them, he called for unity.

  Factors for Success of Self-Reliance Policies of some African Leaders

  Activity 2

  Account for the success of self-reliance policies of some African

  leaders. Afterwards, present your findings to the class.

  Some African leaders were successful in their self-reliance policies

  due to many factors including:

  Favourable population mindset: In many countries, the African

  leaders took advantage of the situation because it was immediately

  after the achievement of African independence. The Africans

  massively supported their new African leaders, leading to the

  success of their policies.

  Negative effects of colonialism: Africans had for long suffered

  from colonial constraints. This is why self-reliance policies were

  successful in many African countries.

  Economic crisis after the independence: The economic crisis was

  among the immediate problems faced by Africans. Self-reliance

  was seen as solution to these problems. This led to their success

  because they were supported by the population.

  

  Recovery of African identity: During colonisation, all African

  initiatives were undermined by Europeans. When Africans

  recovered their independence, their leaders wanted also to

  recover the African identity by implementing internal solutions to

  their problems. It was due to this that they found these policies

  successful.

  Sign of obedience to their own leaders: Another factor for the

  success of the self-reliance policies is that Africans accepted them

  as one way to express their obedience to their new leaders.

  Lessons Learnt from Successful Self-Reliance

             Policies of African Leaders

  Activity 3

  Analyse lessons from the success of the self-reliance as initiated

  and achieved by some African leaders. In the classroom, present

  the results of your analysis. 

  The success of self-reliance in some African countries inspires

  other developing countries and especially other African countries.

  We also learn about the importance of dignity. The need to

  encourage Africans to be proud of our continent, our culture and

  customs.

  We appreciate the importance of home growth solutions. It is a

  testimony that only Africans can find solutions to their problems.

  The success of self-reliance supports respect of human rights

  and the campaign against racial discrimination. During European

  colonial rule, Africans were denied their rights. They were

  considered unable to manage their own affairs.

  

  On the dawn of independence African leaders initiated policies

  aiming at achieving self-reliance. For instance, the first president

  of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta adopted harambee as a concept of pulling

  the country together to build the nation while Julius Nyerere used

  ujamaa to achieve social and economic development in Tanzania.

  Rwanda emphasised home grown solutions in order to address

  socio-economic and political problems. The two concepts of dignity

  and self-reliance guide the implementation of home grown solutions.

  Home grown solutions such as umuganda, ubudehe, Gacaca, and

  Agaciro development funds have been used to address problems

  in Rwanda.

  Glossary

  Grid: a pattern of regularly spaced horizontal and

  vertical lines

  Pledging: promise solemnly and formally or give as a

  guarantee

  Takeover: a sudden and decisive change of government

  illegally or by force

  Revision questions

  1. Identify three African leaders and explain their self-reliance

  policies.

  2. Describe factors for the success of self-reliance policies of some

  African leaders.

  3. What are the lessons from successful self-reliance policies of

  African leaders? 

• Topic 10