Geography

Key unit competency:

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain the impact of agricultural

activities on the sustainable development of different countries in the world

The world “agriculture” comes from the Latin words “ager” which means land or field and “culture” means cultivation. So, literally agriculture means the production of crops for economic purpose by cultivating soil for growing crops and rearing animals. The primary aim of agriculture is to generate production from the land, and, to protect it from deterioration and misuse. It is associated with farming, the production of food, fodder and other agro-industrial materials.

Agriculture contributes in feeding a large number of people in the world.. Farming is not a mere planting of seeds and the subsequent harvesting of the crops. It involves also rearing of nimals, soil management and manufacturing of agro-based machinery and agro-based industries.

12.1. Types of crop Cultivation

Agriculture is practiced in different parts of the world. It is categorized as a primary activity since it involves the production of raw materials that can be used by other industries. The following are the main types of crop cultivation.

12.1.1. Subsistence farming

Learning activity 12.1.1

1. Identify different crop cultivation methods used in farming

2. How does small subsistence farming differ from large scale farming?

Subsistence farming is form of primitive agriculture. This type of farming refers to the growing of crops for domestic consumption. It is defined as a self-sufficiency farming system in which the farmer focuses on growing and rearing of animals enough to provide food to feed themselves and their entire families. The root term, subsist, means “to survive”. However, despite the priority of self-sufficiency in subsistence farming, nowadays most subsistence farmers are actively participating in trade to some degree. Subsistence farming is commonly practiced in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Amazon basin in South America.

Characteristics of subsistence farming at small scale

The following are the main characteristics of subsistence farming:

– It involves the use of members of the family to provide labor force.

– Subsistence farming involves use of rudimentary tools like hoes, pangas to

cultivate and sometimes usage of animals is practiced.

– Multi-cropping or intercropping (growing many crops in the same field) is

practiced. .

– The cultivated land is most of time small.

– The production is mainly used for home consumption.

– There is limited or no use of technology.

– Organic manure and mulching are sometime applied on the land to improve

its fertility.

– The common crops grown include maize, cassava, millet, beans, sunflower, fruits and vegetables.

Advantages and disadvantages of subsistence farming

The following are main types of subsistence farming:

(i) Shifting cultivation / Non sedentary farming

Shifting cultivation, is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot. It is also known as slash and burn because under shifting cultivation, farmers clear the natural vegetation, cut it into pieces and then burn the cuttings or cleared vegettion.

Shifting cultivation is practiced especially in tropical region of Africa (example: Chipanga in Zimbabwe, Chitemene in Zambia and Masole in DRC), Central America (Milpa) in Mexico and South East Asia (Ladang in Malaysia). The main crops planted under shifting cultivation are mainly starchy foods such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, millet, yams, etc.

Characteristics of shifting cultivation

– The farmers grow enough food to feed themselves and their families.

– Practiced by remote tribal people residing in forests.

– The land to be cultivated usually is cleared from virgin forests.

– The farmer uses fire in the process of clearing of land for cultivation.

– The pieces of land cultivated are usually very small. They rarely reach beyond

1-2 hectares.

– The plots of land cultivated are isolated from each other. Such are separated

from one another by patches of forests.

– Traditional tools are used. These include digging sticks, pangas, and simple

hoes.

– The farmer usually uses family members as labour force.

– The farmer abandons the piece of land when the crop yields decline and goes

to a new part of forest to cultivate.

– The yields produced hardly support the food demands of the family. This calls for supplementing the crop yields with fruit gathering and bush meant from hunting.

Advantages and disadvantages of shifting cultivation

(ii) Bush fallowing

Bush fallowing is a system of farming whereby the farmer cultivates one piece of land for some years and leave it thereafter with the aim of restoring naturally its fertility. Meanwhile, the farmer will be cultivating another piece of land. Fallow land is a land that is left dormant between planting seasons in order to allow the soil to regenerate its mineral base. In general terms, fallow means field where nothing is growing and left to rest to gain fertility.

Bush fallowing method differs from shifting cultivation in that farmers are settled and hence are rotating rather than shifting to a new home. This system of cultivation is the simplest form of sedentary farming. It replaces shifting cultivation after this has failed to perform well due to rapid increase in population. Bush fallow farming practically occurs mainly in the humid tropics of Africa, South and Central America, Southeast Asia, and parts of Oceania.

Characteristics of bush fallowing

– It is mainly practiced by peasant farmers due to lack of agricultural inputs.

– Simple tools are used.

– The family is the main source of labour.

– Farmers are settled but the farms are the ones which are rotating.

– Bush fallowing is practiced where population density is very low.

– Farmlands are left to fallow after one or two years of cultivation.

– Farming is based on permanent and semi-permanent settlements.

– Farming depends on natural conditions for example rainfall, temperature and

soil.

Advantages and disadvantages of bush fallowing

The following are the main advantages and disadvantages of bush fallowing: 

(iii) Small holder

 This is a type of farming that is practiced in densely populated areas of the tropics. It is a more advanced form of subsistence farming where the lands are frequently cultivated and the community stays permanently in one spot. Crop rotation, mixing, inter cropping, application of fertilizers etc. are applied. Farmer grows both food and cash crops which may either be intercropped or grown separately on small pieces of land. Cash crops may include small scale coffee plantations, tea, sugarcane, etc. It is sometimes referred to as sedentary subsistence agriculture.

Characteristics of small holder farming

– It is practiced in densely populated areas of the tropics.

– Both food crops and cash crops are grown intensively on the same piece of

land as well as rearing of very few animals.

– Farm plots are very small and fragmented.

– As the land is small, crop rotation is practiced to preserve soil fertility as well as

mulching techniques.

– Use of better farming techniques like irrigation farming on small scale,

pesticides and herbicides. Manure as well as artificial fertilizers are applied on

the plot.

– Available land is subdivided into small uneconomical plots to be cultivated. 

Advantages and disadvantages of small holder farming

12.1.2. Cooperative farming and Plantation farming

Learning activity 12.1.2

1. In your understanding, what does cooperative farming mean?

2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of cooperative farming

3. Examine the main features of plantation farming

(a) Cooperative farming 

This is a system of farming where farmers with similar interests pull their resources together to increase production and benefits. Individual farms remain intact and farming is run under cooperative organization. The object of this organization is to help each other in agriculture for their common interests. There is collective ownership of land. The farmers are also registered and governed by laws or rules and regulations sometimes established by the cooperative members themselves.

Characteristics of cooperative farming

– There is collective ownership of resources such as factories, stores, and means

of transport.

– Labour is provided by the members themselves. Only few technical personnel

is sometimes hired.

– Profits and losses are shared equally by members.

– Credit facilities are available to the members from the funds collected.

– The members are educated and informed about new developments from time

to time.

– The farms are either scattered or consolidated into one big unit.

– Land ownership may be on collective basis.

– Marketing of the produce is done collectively.

– Cooperatives are officially registered and governed by laws and regulations.

– There is quality control of the products.

– There is easy access to credit facilities to the members from the collected funds.

Advantages and disadvantages of cooperative farming

(b) Plantation farming 

Plantation farming is a form of commercial agriculture where a single crop is grown on a large area for profit. Countries that have plantation farming are those usually experiencing high annual temperatures and receive high annual rainfall. It is very distinctive type of agriculture which is practiced within the tropics especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Among the most important crops found on plantations are coffee, tea, rubber, oil palm, cocoa, sugarcane and wheat. Besides, fruits such as pineapples and bananas as well as fibers like cotton, hemp, jute and sisal are examples of crops that can also be grown under plantational agriculture.

Characteristics of plantation farming

– A huge labour force is required comprising of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled

workers.

– A selected crop is grown on large estates covering thousands of hectares and

run by a large company or under government.

– Plantation farming requires heavy capital investment to purchase machinery

and establishment of infrastructure.

– Production is mainly for the market and not for the farmers’ consumption.

– There is specialization of labour.

– Plantations are scientifically managed. They use machineries, selected

improved seeds, weed control, application of fertilizers etc. which results in

high yields.

– Plantations are mainly owned by foreigners, large companies, the government

or cooperatives which have the capital required to inject in the business.

– The crop is processed where it is grown for example sugarcane grown in

Kabuye.

– There is less wastage of crop, e.g. from sugarcane the following are obtained;

sugar, sweets, animal feeds, cardboards, fertilizers, etc.

– Plantations cover large scale of land/area at least over ten hectares.

– The plantation farms have well developed networks of transport connecting

plantation areas, processing industries and markets.

– Plantations are normally established in sparsely populated areas.

Advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming

The following are advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming:

12.1.3. Market gardening, Horticulture and Truck farming

Learning activity 12.1.3

1. How does Market gardening differ from horticulture?

2. Describe the main features of truck farming.

a) Market gardening

 A market garden is a form of farming that is relatively small-scale specializing in cultivation of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to nearby consumers and restaurants. This form of farming is an example of intensive commercial farming. This so because it involves growing of crops on small plots of land which are scientifically managed. Most of market gardens are located near the cities or outside the city suburb areas. This practice is best developed in densely populated industrial and urbanized countries such as the Netherlands, U.S.A, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Canada etc.

Characteristics of market gardening

– Farms are generally small.

– The land is intensively farmed, i.e., getting maximum yield from limited land.

– Vegetation may be grown on the field or under glass.

– Fertilizers and manures are applied to improve on the fertility of the soil.

– It is carried out mostly in urban and semi urban areas.

– The products are sold while still fresh to avoid risk of perishability.

– The products have high demand especially in urban centres.

– A lot of capital is invested and used in the farming activities.

– Much attention is given to the crop and most of the work is done by hand

labour. It is therefore labour intensive.

– Irrigation is always practiced.

Advantages and disadvantages of market gardening

The following are advantages and disadvantages of market gardening:

b) Horticulture 

Horticulture may be broadly defined as the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers and crops like spices, condiments and other plantation crops. The word Horticulture is derived from the Latin word “Hortus” meaning enclosure (garden) and culture meaning cultivation. Thus Horticulture means culture or cultivation of garden crops. The horticultural activity involves planting and tending to planted ornamental and food plants.

This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of North West Europe, north Eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions. The Netherlands specializes in growing of flowers and horticultural crops especially tulip.

Characteristics

– Most of the work on the farm is done manually while machines are used in

some cases where farms are fairly large.

– Modern tools of crop production are used to ensure high yield.

– The farms are relatively small in terms of size and are located where there are

good transportation links with the urban centre where high income group of

consumers is located.

– The land is intensively used in order to obtain maximum produce.

– Irrigation is highly recommended in this farming.

– There is use of greenhouse and artificial heating in colder regions or seasons.

Advantages and disadvantages of horticulture

The following are advantages and disadvantages of horticulture:

(c) Truck farming 

Truck farming is a horticultural practice of growing one or more vegetable crops on a large scale for shipment to distant markets. It is usually less intensive and diversified than market gardening. At first this type of farming depended entirely on local or regional markets. The common crops grown include apples, asparagus, cabbages, Irish potatoes, string beans, cherries, and lettuce. Truck farming is another term for market gardening.

Characteristics of truck farming

1. It is basically been used when the agriculture field is not relatively close to

the city where the product has to be sold.

2. It is basically used for the products like flowers, vegetables, fruits which

have a risk of being spoilt fast.

3. This form of farming is used when the product is in accurate quantity and

low weight products like vegetables, fruits, milk etc.

Advantages and disadvantages of truck farming

12.1.4. Collective agriculture and Commune farming

Learning activity 12.1.4

1. In your own words, explain collective agriculture.

2. Agriculture is the best motor of growth for many countries especially developing ones:

(i) State two forms of farming adopted by Russia and China respectively.

(ii) Analyze the main features of commune farming system.

a) Collective agriculture 

Collective farming is cooperative organization in which farmers joined together to collectively grow crops on land worked in common. This form of farming is practiced in communist countries such as Russia, Poland and Bulgaria. It involves the voluntary or compulsory grouping of land into large units with the purpose of increasing productivity and modernizing agriculture.

This form of farming was established by the government to reduce unequal distribution of land which was a bottleneck to production. Three types of farm units thus, emerged in the Russia. These are: Soviet Union Collective farms (Kolkhozes), State farms (Sovkhoze) and small private plots.

Characteristics of collective farming

– Farms are merged to form a larger farm unit either voluntarily or compulsorily;

– The types of crops grown are specified;

– On the farms, there is a use of machines;

– Farms are managed communally or selected committees;

– The proceeds from the sale of farm produce are shared among the members;

– The marketing of the produce is under control of the state;

– Farmers are allowed to take some limited quantity of produce from their own

crops and livestock.

b) Commune farming 

A commune word literally means a large gathering of people sharing common life. Communes were formed in the late 1950s as Chinese president named Mao tried to force rural people to live a more communist way of life. The Chinese commune is not merely an agricultural commune. Instead a standard for “unified management and deployment of labour power and means of production on a larger scale” The structure of the commune was such that households were organized into teams, then teams formed brigades, and brigades formed the commune. Each level of organization was responsible for given activities.

Characteristics of communes

– Land was collectively owned by the members of the commune.

– Work on the land was done collectively. All members worked together to

plough the land, plant, weed and harvest.

– Preparation of meals for the members of work-team was done in one place and

serving was by cafeteria method and kitchen utensils were owned collectively.

– Returns from the farm were shared equally by all members of the team.

Advantages and disadvantages of communes in China

Application activity 12.1

Using your knowledge and skills acquired in the previous lessons,

1. Examine the effects of rapid population growth on small scale agriculture.

2. Using geographical documents and internet, discuss on the use of cocoa and

rubber.

3. Collectivization in Russia was set as possible solution to the food crisis. In your

view, did this system resolve the problem?

12.2. Factors for increasing the agricultural production and problems affecting the agriculture in the developing countries

Learning activity 12.2

Discuss factors that contribute to the increase of agricultural production.

Explain the major challenges facing agriculture in developing countries.

12.2.1. Factors for increasing the agricultural production

Many factors act together to influence the productivity and profitable income from the agriculture. These factors include some of the following:

– Relief: The farming system adopted depends on the relief of the area. So, relief

may influence the increase of agricultural production in different ways:

a. Lowlands, such as flood plains, are more productive agriculturally.

b. Steep slopes are obstacles to the machinery use and have thinner soils.

On the other hand, gentle slopes are less prone to soil erosion.

c. For some crops like Tea and coffee crops do well in the well-drained soil

on hill slopes, while rice and sugar do well in lowland areas.

– Soil: The type and characteristics of soil in a certain area determine the type

of farming to be practiced. Areas with fertile soils encourage crop farming,

while places with poor and thin soils discourage crop growing, instead, favour

rearing of animals.

– Drainage: Market gardening and horticulture prefer swampy areas just

because of the presence of permanent water. On general perspective, many

crops grow well in areas that are well-drained.

– Climate: Agriculture is highly dependent on climate. It is known that an increase

in temperature and carbon dioxide can increase some crop yield in some

places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, presence of

water, and other conditions must also be met. A prolonged drought season

leads to drying of crops and pasture for animal leading to poor yields. On other

hand, a reliable rainfall in an area is vital for crop growing.

– Capital: This is factor that supports all agricultural practices. Capital is the

money the farmer must invest in agricultural activities. It is useful to increase

the amount of different inputs into the farm, but this requires capital. If a farmer

is capable of affording to have adequate capital, yields will immediately rise.

This can create big profits in turn which could be used for more investment.

– Technology: Advanced in technology development play a big role in

agriculture. Proper use of technology helps in extending the area of optimal

conditions and maximizes the expectations of farmers. 

– Market: The wish of any farmer is to grow crops which are highly demanded.

Therefore, for agriculture to flourish, there must be already market for the

produce.

– The Government policy: The government may influence a given agricultural

practice. Policies such as mechanization of agriculture, agricultural

regionalization, and establishment of a friendly pricing system have a direct

impact on the prosperity of agriculture. 

12.2.2. Problems affecting the agriculture in the developing countries

 Here are some problems facing farmers in developing countries:

– Harsh climate: Despite the great advances that have been achieved in

technological development, people do not have any control over climate.

Example, they cannot increase rainfall in the deserts nor they cannot prevent

the rivers of the temperate regions from freezing. So, agriculture is affected

by the seasonal nature of rainfall which makes agricultural planning more

difficult.

– Infertile soil: Soil is a medium in which plant grow. Large areas of the tropical

region have infertile soils. This affects crop productivity.

– Rugged relief: It refers to the mountainous landscape. Very high mountainous

areas hinder agricultural activities because of the extreme low temperature,

thin soils and steep slope. Steep relief limits the agricultural mechanization.

– Lack of information: Most of small scale farmers in Africa and developing

world are not informed of new and improved methods of farming. Some

especially those living in remote areas have no access to information and

modernization at all. Even in cases where there is some access to information,

most poor farmers are unable to discern due to illiteracy which is high in most

of rural areas in developing world.

– Limited capital: Most farmers in Africa are poor financially making it almost

impossible for them to adopt new farming practices. Financial support

enables farmers to grow, expand, and maintain their yields by purchasing

farm machinery, agro-chemicals, fertilizers, better seed varieties and to open

up irrigation systems and other agricultural inputs.

– Poor transport system: This is a major challenge facing agriculture and the

economies in general throughout developing world. Most of the farm produce

in these countries just get wasted in the remote areas. This is because such

areas are not connected to market centres. This is because farmers find it very

difficult transporting their farm produce to the market to sell. 

– Poor market: Lack of market facilities and poor government regulations

make it almost impossible for farmers especially small-scale farmers to market

their farm produce. Another issue is low prices paid to farmers for their harvest

which sometimes discourage some of them.

– Poor technology: Farmers in developing countries are still using simple tools

like hoes, axes, pangas and digging sticks which results into low yielding per

unit area.

– Limited research: Research is a key to develop high-yielding crop varieties. In

many developing countries, carrying out research in agriculture is limited due

to insufficient financial support and lack of technical personnel to conduct the

research.

– Rapid population growth: Population pressure on land results into land

scarcity, fragmentation and overexploitation of land leading to soil exhaustion.

This has ultimately resulted into environmental degradation and poor crop

yields.

– Natural hazards: Many risks and uncertainties are involved in agriculture.

These include floods, landslides, drought, and heavy rainfall that destroy crop

yields. In the end, poor harvests led to famine.

– Political instability: Some countries in Africa and Asia do not experience

adequate peace and security due to alternate and continuous conflict in

their regions. This results in abandonment of farms as people are constantly

fleeing wars. The wars destroy farm machinery and does not allow a long-term

planning necessary to develop and improve the agricultural sector.

Application activity 12.2

The African land can provide all that people need to survive. Unfortunately, much of

 this land is untapped. What can people do to improve agricultural productivity?

In reference to Rwanda, discuss factors affecting the agriculture in the

developing countries.

12.3. Case studies of crop growing in selected countries

12.3.1. Sugarcane in South Africa and Rubber grown in Liberia

Learning activity 12.3.1

Describe the conditions required for sugarcane growing in South Africa

Explain four major problems facing rubber growing in Liberia.

a) Sugarcane in South Africa 

Sugarcane is a tall perennial plant that grows between 2 and 5 metres. It is common in tropical and subtropical countries. Several different horticultural varieties are known, and they differ by their stem colour and length. A sugar stem is cut from the sugarcane at 12 to 16 months after it has been planted. The sugarcane is the second largest South African field crop by gross value which is only surpassed by maize. The South African sugar industry is consistently ranking in the top 15 out of approximately 120 sugar producing countries worldwide. The approximately 22,500 registered sugarcane growers annually produce on average 19 million tons of sugar from 14 mill supply areas. Approximately 21,110 are small-scale growers, of whom 12,507 delivered cane in 2015, producing 9.4% of the total crop.

(i) Major sugarcane production areas in South Africa

The sugarcane is mainly grown in KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape Province. In KwaZulu-Natal province, it is produced in Pongola, Umfolozi, Felixton, Amatikulu, Darnall, Gledhow, Maidstone, Sezela, Umzimkulu, Dalton, Noodsberg and Eston areas. In Mpumalanga province, it is produced at Malalane and Komatipoort. Today KwaZulu –Natal has some of the best sugar crops in the world.

(ii) Factors favouring sugarcane growing in South Africa

 – Favourable temperature: Sugarcane grows best in warm, sunny and frostfree weather areas. It requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of 600 mm of annual moisture. It can grow well where the temperature ranges from 20 to 35 °C. 

– There is flat relief:  This provides hot conditions necessary for sugarcane growing and facilitates the establishment of transport network to the processing factories for sugar.

– Warm current: The presence of Southward flowing warm Mozambique current in combination with on shore winds that blow over the area bringing warm moist conditions to coast areas especially at of Natal.

– Irrigation systems: South Africa has numerous water bodies which help in irrigation depending on the stage of development of the cane.

– Presence of labour: There is both skilled and unskilled manpower from within the country and neighbouring countries.

– Various means of transport: Availability of well-developed transport network facilitates both internal and international trade.

– Availability of fertile soil: The coastal areas have alluvial soils due to the presence of delta. This supports the growth of sugarcanes.

– There is an extensive land for sugar cultivation.

– Powerful management: Cane growers are represented by the South African Cane Growers Association which is one of the most influential cooperatives in South Africa and the whole world at large.

– Presence of large ready market: South Africa has a large population as well as its neighbours. This provides a large internal and external market for the produced sugar. The South African Customs Union (SACU) is the primary market for the South African sugar industry. The SACU market comprises South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland. 

– Availability of enough capital to invest in the growing and processing of sugarcanes: Sugarcane growers belong to cooperatives hence, inject a huge sum of money in plantation agriculture. This money contributes in purchasing of equipment, housing estates, establishing the processing industries, hire large labour force and use of fertilizers.

– Use of high technology: South Africa has developed a high and sophisticated technology to use in sugarcane plantation and sugarcane processing.

(iii) Socio-economic contribution of sugarcane plantation in South Africa
Sugarcane plantations have provided the following benefits to the country as follows:

– It provides employment opportunities to many South Africans. According   to   the South African Sugar Association estimates 69, 79,000 direct jobs and 350,000 indirect jobs are associated with sugarcane production and processing in   South   Africa. 

– Infrastructural development: Sugarcane growing has stimulated the development of infrastructure in different domains such as educational, health facilities, roads and railways for workers on the plantation.

– Source of foreign exchange: It has promoted international trade where sugar is exported to generate foreign exchange.

– Industrial development: The plantations has promoted the establishment of factories in the area and provides raw materials for the sugar processing industries. 

– Provision of sugar as beverage: South Africa produces enough sugar for its population and her neighbouring countries. Thus, saving the country from the high costs associated with importation of sugar.

– Development of towns: Various towns have developed in the sugar growing regions due to establishment of sugar plantations and sugar factory processing.

– Government revenue:  The government has collected a lot of revenue through taxation of workers, owners of the plantations and industries.

– Sugarcane is used for sugar production, as raw material of livestock fodder and fertilizer. Sugarcane is then used in producing an infinite number of products. Such as sucrose which is used as a sweetening agent for foods and in the manufacturing of cakes, candies, preservations, soft drinks, alcohol and numerous other foods.

– Sugarcane has also been used to manufacture biofuel which serves as a replacement for oil-based fuel and related products.

(iv) Challenges facing sugarcane growing in South Africa

– Pest and diseases: Sugarcane is usually affected by a variety of diseases and pests. Many insects and infections that spread quickly attack sugarcanes, which results into low output. 

– Weeds: Sugarcane is most susceptible to weed competition during the first eight to 10 weeks after sugarcane begins to sprout.

– Soil exhaustion: Sugarcane is grown on a large area under monoculture which promotes soil erosion. This results into soil exhaustion. 

– Foreign competition: South Africa competes with other sugar producers such as Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Malawi, DRC and Zimbabwe. With such competition, they sell at a bargaining price that reduces the profit margin.

– Shortage of labour: Sometime there is inadequate labour supply during busy period of harvesting.

– There is flooding episodes:  As the sugarcane plantations are in lowland areas; they are frequently destroyed by flooding episodes. 

– Poor sugarcane variety:  There is general lack of improved seed varieties of sugarcane. This has made the plantations to only depend on the indigenous ones which have a low yielding capacity.

b) Rubber grown in Liberia

Rubber also known as Hevea brasiliensis is a fast-growing upright tropical tree crop which is primarily cultivated for its production of latex. Latex is a milky plant liquid that serves as a basis for various rubber products. It is a typical plantation crop in Liberia.  The first rubber plantation in Liberia was established in 1926 by American great company; Firestone. The rubber plantation areas in Liberia are shown on the map below.
 

Since 1926, rubber has been the cornerstone of the Liberian economy, even in postconflict Liberia. This commodity remains the country’s most important cash crop.

(i) Factors favouring rubber plantation in Liberia

Rubber is a perennial crop and its growth requires the following physical, and social and economic factors:

– The tree’s growth requires deep soils to sustain rubber for a long period of time without application of artificial fertilizers. 

– Heavy rainfall ranging from 1500-2500mm which is well distributed throughout the year. 

– Relatively stable high temperatures of 240C to 270C and continuous moisture throughout the year.

– Suitable grown and harvested over large uniform areas (3,000 to 5,000ha) around a central treatment unit to allow for a relatively rapid industrial handling after harvesting.

– Bright sunny days of about 6 hours per day, particularly during harvesting. 

– Presence of investors, especially big American companies such as Firestone and Allan L Grant, have injected much money for rubber production.

– Favourable government policy towards rubber plantation where for example, the government provides free hectares of land for any organization that would use the land for farming or plantation.

(ii) Contribution of rubber growing to the Liberian economy

– Rubber is currently Liberia’s most important export commodity, and the five largest companies in Liberia operate in this sector.

– The companies operating in Liberia are deeply committed to providing jobs to many people. For example, in 2016 an estimated 30,000 people were employed by commercial rubber farms and up to 60,000 smallholder households were involved in growing of rubber trees.

– Firestone has spent much money in infrastructural projects that include building new housing for employees, building schools, medical centers and rehabilitating roads.

– Firestone provides free education for the children of their employees.

– Besides the rubber growing, companies conduct research on other subsistence and cash crops appropriate to Liberia’s soils and climate. 

– Government earns revenue from the rubber growers, workers and plantation owners through taxation.

   – Workers acquire skills from rubber plantations especially in relation to better methods of rubber growing. These are used to improve their own small-scale farming as out growers.

– Rubber growing has stimulated creation and development of new towns in the area.

– It is used to manufacture shoe soles, rubber boots, tires and tubes. It is also used in manufacturing of balls for sports, doors and window profiles, latex foam, cables and wires, battery boxes, air bags, life jackets and life floats, adhesives, tubes, belts, carpets/mats, condoms, gloves for medical use, household and industrial use.

(iii) Challenges of rubber growing in Liberia The following are the key challenges facing the rubber growing in Liberia:

– The sector is reportedly on the verge of collapse as many of the smallholders lack the capital to renew the plantations which are coming to the end of their productive life. 

– There has been price fluctuation on rubber market. This has negatively affected small farmers who depend on big plantation owners to buy their rubber and do the marketing on their behalf.

– Sometimes natural rubber competes with synthetic materials from petroleum which is cheaper compared to natural rubber.   – soil exhaustion because of continuous monoculture growing.

– Rubber is a perennial crop which means it takes about six years to mature. Meanwhile there is no income gained during such a long gestation period.

– Occurrence of environment degradation due to repeatedly application of fertilizers and chemicals to improve the quality of the soil and control of the pests.

– The growth of new urban centers in the area is associated with problems such as congestion, high crime rates and unemployment.

12.3.2. Coffee growing in Brazil and Cotton grown in Sudan

Learning activity

12.3.2 Explain the significance of coffee growing to the economy of Brazil. Describe conditions required to grow cotton in Sudan.

a) Coffee grown in Brazil

Brazil is the world’s largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years. The total area covered by coffee plantations known as fazenda is 27,000 km2, mostly located in the Southeast states of Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, Espirito Santo, Bahia, Rondonia and Parana. These areas provide a conducive environment and ideal climate for coffee growing. The first coffee tree in Brazil was planted in the state of Para in 1727.The largest buyers of the Brazilian coffee in the world are: Germany, United States, Italy, Japan and Belgium. Brazil is not the only first exporter of coffee worldwide. However, it is one of the leading consumers of coffee with an estimated total population of 210,867,954 (2018).

Santos is and has historically been the main gateway for coffee exports in Brazil.  The Brazilian coffee is mostly exported as: Green coffee, soluble coffee, roasted and ground coffee, concentrated and essential extracts and coffee residues.

(i) Factors favouring coffee growing in Brazil

The following are conditions favouring coffee growing in Brazil: 

– Abundant rainfall in Brazil due to its location around equator which encourages the growth of coffee.

– Presence of well-drained soils like the terra-roxa which contain much potash as well organic material, favour the growth of coffee.

– Coffee growing requires a large labour force because the job of picking is done manually.

– Coffee growing as any other plantation requires a huge sum of capital. This is because during the first three to four years returns from coffee plantation are nil and expenditure are more.

– Presence of well-developed transport for both internal and external connections. 

– Coffee grown in Brazil is internationally known. Brazil produce a high-quality coffee. This has abled the country to compete at international market.

– Increased investments in improving labour skills and incorporating new technology.

– Liberalization of trade and accepting more completion from foreign producers in local and international markets.

– Privatization of States-owned enterprises.

(ii) Contribution of coffee growing in Brazil

– Coffee is considered as the most important export items. It generates foreign exchange and has a major impact on the gross domestic product of the country. 

– Coffee growing generates employment opportunities to many people in Brazil and in the region.

– The growing of coffee is associated with the development of other sectors of economy in Brazil.

– Coffee production has stimulated the commercial activities in Brazil. Hence, enabling the country to participate in the world trade. – The government earns revenue through taxes from big companies.

– Development of towns and cities in places around coffee plantation.

(iii) Problems facing coffee growing

 – Presence of pests, diseases and fungi have become a real threat for many coffee producers. The notorious coffee leaf rust has caused many damages.

– Coffee producers are poorly paid compared to other rich industries. 

– Harsh climatic conditions due to changes in climate that have resulted into the rising of temperatures. This has made the growing of Arabica coffee challenging, because it needs to grow under cooler temperatures than any other species.

– Unpredictable heavy rainfall causes serious problems during harvesting and processing period.

– Shortage of workers because coffee processing requires manpower at every stage.

– Sometimes growers get low profits relatively to their efforts due to the price fluctuation in the international market.

– High cost of production has also reduced the profits expected by the coffee growers and the companies engaged in processing of coffee.

b) Cotton grown in Sudan

Knowledge of cotton planting in Sudan goes back to the 19th century when it was grown for the first time in Eastern Sudan (Tokar area). Commercial growing started in 1905 at Zeidab Pilot Scheme in Northern Sudan. In 1925 there was a landmark in irrigated agriculturalproduction in Sudan after the establishment of Sennar dam. Since then, cotton assumes a leading role as a cash crop.

The organization of cotton production in Sudan started through establishing large governmental administrations which involved farmers. After the enforcement of the Gezira Scheme Act in 2005, this relationship started to change. Such resulted into the relaxation of Government’s strong grip on the scheme’s operations and management. At least, there is minimal participation of Government and active private sector involvement.

(i) Factors encouraging cotton growing in Sudan 

– The availability of water resources: rain, rivers and surface water. Cotton is planted in Sudan on both areas associated with flood irrigation systems and rain-fed areas.

– Sudan has a vast land with diverse soil. Cotton succeeds in various soil types from heavy clay to light sandy soils; it also has a good tolerance to soil salinity, but it requires good drainage.

– Availability of extensive land to set up large irrigation scheme. 

– The area under cultivation has increased due to the establishment of Gezira irrigation scheme.

– Presence of ginneries and textile factories in addition to oil mills.

– Warm temperature during the growing season of about 250C.

– Well distributed rainfall during the growing season between 500-700 mm (but enhanced with irrigation since it is an arid area).

– Many areas have fertile alluvial soils deposited in times of river flooding. For example, the area between the Blue and White Nile has fertile soils deposited in time of flooding.

(ii) Importance of cotton to the economy of Sudan 

– The Gezira scheme has been used as modal to develop other irrigation schemes in Sudan.

– It is a source of employment which generates income that satisfies families’ needs and services, stimulating the stability, development and security of the population. 

– Cotton is a source of foreign exchange earnings, since it is a cash crop and exported abroad.

– Cotton is also processed locally for weaving and spinning. It has also supported cotton oil industry.

– There are direct and indirect benefits of cotton production. Examples are noticeable through its use. for example,

a) Cotton is used in making clothes in the textile and garment industries.

b) It is used in making of cattle feed such as cotton seed cake from the cotton seeds.

c) It is used in making cotton seed oil which is used for cooking.

d) Cotton is used to make soap (the remains of the cotton seeds from cotton).

e) It is used in the production of cellulose and margarine.

f) It is used as a lubricant in industries to extract metal oils.

g) It is used to make mattresses for bedding.

h) Cotton seeds are used to make diesel fuel.

i) Cotton wool is used for medical purposes such as for covering wounds and in operation of patients to prevent excessive blood loss.

(iii) Challenges of cotton in Sudan The following are the major challenges facing cotton production in Sudan:

– Inadequate and inappropriate use of agricultural inputs like fertilizers, chemicals and pesticides.

– The low cotton yields, coupled with the high costs of production and low gross return, has detrimental effects on a farmer’s decision to grow cotton. This affects Sudan’s competitiveness in international cotton markets. 

– There is a decline in exports due to the reduction in the area under cotton growing especially in the Gezira Scheme because of low yields.

– The cotton and sugarcane are grown as the main crop on the Gezira scheme. This results in the soil exhaustion.

– The cotton on Gezira scheme requires a large land. This has led to displacement of people which necessitated the formation of resettlement schemes.

– The use of chemicals and fertilizers has led to the pollution of water and soil.

– Low level of competition: The schemes are engaged in the production of agricultural products such as cotton, sugarcanes, wheat and other products whose prices fluctuate on the world market due to low level of competition.

Application activity 12.3

1.In reference to Rwanda, discuss the contribution of coffee in socio-economic development.

2. Identify the key factors influencing coffee growing in Brazil

3. Examine the reasons for success of cotton growing in Sudan.

4. Suggest measures that should be taken to address the challenges facing sugarcane growing in south Africa, and rubber growing in Liberia.

12.4. Livestock farming

12.4.1. Pastoralism

Learning activity

12.4.1 Using the knowledge acquired, skills and internet or other geographical documents answer the following questions:

1. Give the meaning of livestock farming?

2. Identify the major characteristics of nomadic pastoralism.

3. Describe challenges facing nomadic pastoralism in Africa.

Livestock farming refers to the keeping/rearing of domestic animals such as cows, goats, sheep and poultry (birds, donkeys). It is practiced for either commercial or subsistence purposes and it takes several forms. The following are the major types of livestock farming: nomadism, free range, transhumance, ranching, dairy farming, zero-grazing, aquaculture, poultry farming, apiculture etc. Some of these are explained below:

Pastoralism is a system of farming where farmers move with their livestock grazing especially cattle, goats and sheep to graze on natural. The movement of both people and animals is dictated by the shortage of grass and water in the area. This form of farming is divided into the following types:


(i) Pure nomadism

This is extensive form of animal grazing on natural pasturage, involving constant or seasonal migration of the nomads and their animals in search of water and pastures. Nomadic herding is confined to rather sparsely populated parts of the world where the natural vegetation is mainly grass. Many people often consider pastoralism and nomadism as being the same. But, the main difference is that pastoralism is the occupation of herding animals, especially cattle, while nomadism indicates a way of life that is attributed to “not settling in one place” or wandering.
It is practiced in West Africa among the Fulani, East Africa among the Maasai and Karamojongs, Ethiopia among Nuba, the Touareg of Sahara and the Hottentos of Botswana, Mozambique and the Republic of South Africa. It is also found in Saudi

Arabia among the Bedouins, and Central Asia among the Mongols.

Pastoralism in the world

Characteristics of nomadic pastoralism 

– Nomadism depends primarily on animal rearing rather than crop growing for survive. Nomads take milk from the animals for food and skins and hairs for clothing and tent.

– There is either seasonal pattern of movement or steady/regular movement in search of grasses and water for reared animals. These movements depend on the availability or lack of grasses and water for animals in a given climatic season.  

– Extensive keeping of livestock all year round on a system of free-range grazing.

– It is practiced in the areas of low and unreliable rainfall which are typical dry season.

– Animals are kept for family subsistence and not for sale.

– The ownership of livestock is individual, but the land belongs to the tribe or community.

– Nomadic pastoralists do not value education.

– Nomadic pastoralists find prestige and pride in keeping large herds of cattle without considering of the quality of products. This is because the animals kept are of poor quality and low value.

– They prefer quantity than quality of the livestock.

– It takes place where the population is low and scarce.

(ii) Free Range farming

Free range means a method of farming husbandry where the reared animals roam freely outdoors, rather than being confined in an enclosure for 24 hours each day. On many farms, the outdoors ranging area is fenced, thereby, technically making this an enclosure, however, free range systems usually offer the opportunity for extensive movement and sunlight prevented by indoor housing systems.

The purpose of this form of livestock farming is to achieve reduced feed costs, produce higher-quality products. This method of raising animals is carried out on a relatively large piece of land.

Free range is adapted in both developed and developing countries. In developed countries, people have become more aware of the disadvantages of factory farming. Consequently, big companies are responding by labelling their products “all-natural”, “free range”, “free-roaming”, or “organic” to inform people that their products are free from antibiotics.

Characteristics of free range farming

– Animals roam freely for a period of the day.

– Animals reared under free-range are usually confined in sheds at night to protect them from predators.

– Or kept indoors if the weather is particularly bad.

– Mostly grazed on natural pastures.

(iii) Transhumance

Transhumance is the practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another under seasonal cycle. It involves two movements: The animals are grazed on pastures in the high parts of the Mountains in warm seasons and lower altitudes the rest of the year. Most people who practice transhumance involve in some form of crop cultivation too. Hence, relatively permanent settlement is in existence. Such type of livestock farming is practiced for instance, in Kenya and Tanzania by the Masai who are semi-nomadic in nature.

Characteristics of transhumance

– Transhumance involves constant / seasonal migration of the nomads and their livestock in search of pasture and water.

– Livestock are moved between mountain pastures in summer and lower areas for the rest of the year.

– Herders have a permanent home: this means that only the herds and the people necessary to tend them travel. The whole family lives in tents all the year round, moving with the herd but with a permanent homestead in a specific area. 

– Nomads mainly rely on natural vegetation for their pasture.

– Large number of herds is kept as a sign of pride or prestige.

12.4.2. Factory farming, dairy farming and ranching farming

Learning activity 12.4.2

1. Describe the major features of factory farming

2. Discuss on factors favouring dairy and ranching farming

a) Factory farming

The factory farming refers to the type of farming practice which involves keeping of animals at high stocking densities and modern technology is used to facilitate faster animal growth, lower illness and death rates, and higher production outputs.

Factory farming is a production approach towards farm animals to maximize production output, while minimizing production costs. It is also known as intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry, the keeping of livestock farming such as cattle, poultry, and fish at higher stocking densities.

The idea of factory farming started because as the population continued to rapidly increase, food production wasn’t happening fast enough. Therefore, to feed everyone food production needed to happen faster. This means without factory farming in densely populated countries, meat and dairy products would be rare and more expensive than it would be today.

Its primary objective is to produce adequate products and gain as much profit as possible. The main products of this industry are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption.

Characteristics of factory farming

1. Large numbers of animals are usually held together indoors in closed confined pens and sheds.

2. There are physical restraints to control unnecessary movement of animals.

3. Under factory farming, huge amount of antibiotics and pesticides are used to fight the spreading of diseases and bacteria.

4. Factory farms are highly standardized for efficiency.

5. Sigle type of animals is reared.

6. Feed crops are created highly unified through gene manipulation to help increased yielding to ensure consistent production every year. Factory farms provide many benefits, but they can also lead to several drawbacks:

b) Ranching

Ranching is a modern form of pastoralism that aims at rearing of animals on a large scale for commercial purpose in balance with the carrying capacity of the farm land. Under ranching, a piece of land called a ranch is allocated and a limited number of animals reared there.

Ranching is more developed in United States of America, New Zealand, Western Australia, Argentina, South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.

Characteristics of cattle ranching

– Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area which is associated with a very large land requirement, capital and human resources.  

– Ranches have a continuous vegetative cover such as alfalfa, Lucerne and clovers.

– One type of animals is kept either for dairy or beef production. Therefore, the choice of the animals is done very selectively.

– There is little or no movement from one area to another since animals are confined in paddocks.

– Ranches are scientifically managed through selective breeding, use of hybrid species, research and control of animal diseases.

– The animals are reared for sale (they are kept for commercial purposes).

– It is carried out in sparsely populated areas and far from urban area.

– Ranches are managed, and scientific methods are applied. The animals kept are guarded from various disease through regular vaccination, crossbreeding and programmed attendance of veterinary surgeons that treat the animals.

– It is practiced in areas where rainfall is low and unreliable to give place to the crop cultivation.

– The animals in the ranches are kept for highly organized markets thus high revenue from sale of beef, hides, and dairy products.

c) Dairy farming

Dairying farming is the specialized rearing of cattle to produce milk and other products like cheese, butter and cream. Milk is a perfect food, as it has the major nutrients. Several milk products are consumed by people all over the world. Cheese ranks high in protein and it is a substitute of meat, while butter is like fat, supplying the deficiency of starchy foods. Dairying is the most dominant animal-based industry.

Characteristics of dairy farming

– Dairy farming aims at raising cattle to produce milk.

– Dairying on commercial basis has developed in humid temperate regions, because cool temperate climate is ideal for cow-rearing.

– Capital intensive techniques of production are used.

– Selected cattle breeds which yield a lot of milk are raised. Example, Jersey, Ayrshire, Alderney and the Friesian breeds.

– Rich and nutritious grasses are planted to supplement the natural pastures to feed the animals.

– The farms are scientifically managed. Pests and diseases are controlled.

– Benefits are very high due to the input and capital injection.

– Many farms own their processing plants or dairies.

Application Activity 12.4

1. Explain why it is necessary to improve livestock farming in your community.

2. Discuss how industrial food impacts people’s health.

3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of technology in agriculture.

4. Analyze the economic and social benefits of pastoralism.

12.5. Factors and problems affecting the livestock farming and ways of improving the livestock farming

Learning activity 12.5

1. Describe factors influencing livestock farming.

2. Analyze problems facing livestock farming.

3. Identify different ways of improving livestock farming.

12.5.1. Factors affecting livestock farming

The following are the main factors influencing livestock farming:

– Topography: The areas having gentle and undulating terrains consisting of relatively flat plains and plateaus are favourable for Livestock farming. This makes it easy for animals to move freely from one place to another. 

– The main determinant elements of climate are the following:

- Temperature: The degree of warmth, the duration, and the intensity of sunshine, all affect the welfare of animals to a certain extent. The moderate temperature is favourable for livestock farming.

- Moisture: Moderate to high mean annual rainfall is essential for livestock farming. This ensures an abundant supply of drinking water and pastures for the animals.

– Soil: The soil which is composed of a variety of minerals and organic substances, forms the physical support of plants to feed the animals.

– Land Tenancy: It includes all forms of tenancy and ownership in any form. Land tenancy and land tenure affect the livestock farming. The land in pastoral areas is communally owned. This facilitates communal grazing and free movement of their livestock.

– Size of Holdings: The large tracts of land in sparsely populated areas are needed for pasture. The size of holding and the size of farm influence the number of animals to be kept in farm. In general, the larger the size of the farm, the greater the capacity of the farmer to produce more. This, in turn, would affect the extent of specialization and the nature of technology and equipment to be used.

– System of ownership: The collective ownership is preferable for having a very large pasture and terrain for livestock.

– Labour: The availability of labour, its quantity and quality are determined by the technology used in   livestock farming. Traditional farming methods require a big number of employees while advanced technology requires a few numbers of skilled people.

– Capital: Capital subscribes definite limitations to the size and type of livestock farming to be practiced. All livestock inputs like insecticides, pesticides, feeding stuffs, purchase of land, machinery, vehicles, buildings, and veterinary services require capital. All the farmers make their decisions basing on capital to invest.

– Mechanization and Equipment: The levels of technological tools to be used play a vital role in the selection of livestock to be farmed and decision making at the farm level.

– Availability of market: Availability of market for the products from livestock farming is a very important factor influencing livestock farming activities.

  – Availability of transport means: A well-developed means of transport with appropriate equipment is very    necessary for transportation of animal’s products to the market.

– State of diseases: Animals farmed may be hindered by diseases, insect-pests and wild animals. It is good to choose the areas free from those harmful biotic factors. 

– Cultural belief: Some types of animals are not grazed by a given society due to beliefs, customs or personal convictions. For example, Muslims cannot keep the pigs. 

– Government policies: Government policies can encourage or discourage modernization of livestock. Some countries, such as Rwanda and Britain encourage the productivity and efficiency of farming by a system of donation and subsidies to farmers.  The government determines the ways in which farmers develop their farming. It provides tax holidays to farmers.  All these put together, support the development of dairy farming

12.5.2. Problems facing livestock farming

The following are some of problems affecting livestock farming:

– Limited rainfall: Unreliable rainfall limits the growth of pastures. This is associated with harsh climatic conditions especially during the dry seasons when the pasture dries up, wells and springs disappear. Therefore, the growth rate of animals is reduced and such affects production. 

– Population pressure: The world population is increasing incredibly. This reduces the availability of livestock farming and natural resources. Therefore, the number of animals that should be in stock is low.

– Shortage of water: The facts that the surface of water for livestock is limited, there is always a serious problem leading to death of animals in some parts of Africa. This results to yielding of poor quality products.

– Disease and pest infection: Shortage of supply of skilled labour that is required in the modernization of livestock farming contributes to the spread of different diseases. For diseases which are not treated correctly, the condition can prove fatal.

– Institutional problems: Lack of adequate and supportive institutions in livestock farming sector. Sometimes policies are suggested and written but not implemented. This does not meet the satisfaction of a large population in terms of quality milk and meat.

– Limited capital: Most rural farmers do not have enough capital for developing livestock farming, the building of storage reservoirs, or the provision of veterinary services.

– Many cattle keepers are less knowledgeable: They keep large herds of cattle which have led to over stoking and overgrazing. 

– Most potential grazing areas within the tropics are remote: They are poorly served with transport network and social infrastructures. This creates limitations in facilitating commercializing livestock products.

12.5.3. Ways to improve livestock farming

Livestock can be improved through the following ways:

– Settling the nomads: In many African countries and the rest of the world, nomads hold many herds of cattle. The government should try and encourage settling nomads so that they can get essential veterinary services to keep their cattle healthy.

– Empowering animal keepers through education: Efforts should be put in place and enlighten livestock farmers on new innovations and technology that will bring a high-quality animal productivity

12.5.2. Problems facing livestock farming

The following are some of problems affecting livestock farming:

– Limited rainfall: Unreliable rainfall limits the growth of pastures.

This is associated with harsh climatic conditions especially during the dry seasons when the pasture dries up, wells and springs disappear. Therefore, the growth rate of animals is reduced and such affects production. 

– Population pressure: The world population is increasing incredibly. This reduces the availability of livestock farming and natural resources. Therefore, the number of animals that should be in stock is low.

– Shortage of water: The facts that the surface of water for livestock is limited, there is always a serious problem leading to death of animals in some parts of Africa. This results to yielding of poor quality products.

– Disease and pest infection: Shortage of supply of skilled labour that is required in the modernization of livestock farming contributes to the spread of different diseases. For diseases which are not treated correctly, the condition can prove fatal.

– Institutional problems: Lack of adequate and supportive institutions in livestock farming sector. Sometimes policies are suggested and written but not implemented. This does not meet the satisfaction of a large population in terms of quality milk and meat.

– Limited capital: Most rural farmers do not have enough capital for developing livestock farming, the building of storage reservoirs, or the provision of veterinary services.

– Many cattle keepers are less knowledgeable: They keep large herds of cattle which have led to over stoking and overgrazing. 

– Most potential grazing areas within the tropics are remote: They are poorly served with transport network and social infrastructures. This creates limitations in facilitating commercializing livestock products.

12.5.3. Ways to improve livestock farming

Livestock can be improved through the following ways:

– Settling the nomads: In many African countries and the rest of the world, nomads hold many herds of cattle. The government should try and encourage settling nomads so that they can get essential veterinary services to keep their cattle healthy.

– Empowering animal keepers through education: Efforts should be put in place and enlighten livestock farmers on new innovations and technology that will bring a high-quality animal productivity.

– Government support: Government should be an initiator for livestock farming support by establishing adequate infrastructure, easy access to the loans to boost the livestock farming. This will benefit the country and farmers in general

– Adoption of modern livestock farming methods: Through government support, efforts need to be put in place to convince rural farmers to switch from traditional livestock farming to modern livestock practices which are more profitable.

– Provision of livestock healthcare: Extending veterinary services to all the areas where the livestock keeping is practiced is a good step to improve livestock farming. This helps to reduce the incidence of pest and diseases.

– Encouraging tree planting on pasture land: This minimizes the dangers of environmental deterioration in addition to provision of shelter to animals.  This helps in improvement of grazing and watering management.

– Adequate livestock feeds and nutrition: The provision of feeds that are adequate both in quality and quantity is an extremely good for livestock farming – Introduction of crossbreeding: To achieve local breeds of animals have been replaced with the exotic. This primarily to increase the output and enhance the off springs’ economic value.

Application 12.5

1. Examine the impact of livestock farming on environment.

2. Discuss the importance of livestock farming.

3. Suggest ways problems affecting livestock farming can be solved.

12.6. Case studies of livestock farming in selected countries

Learning activity 12.6

Using your own experience and research through textbooks and internet; explainfactors that have favoured ranching and dairy farming in Botswana and Netherlands respectively

12.6.1. Ranching in Botswana

The Republic of Botswana is a landlocked country found in Southern Africa. About 70% of the country’s land area is covered by the Kalahari Desert. It lies between longitudes 20° and 29° East and latitudes 18° and 27° South. The mean altitude is 1000 meters above sea level.

The two main challenges that Botswana faces are drought and desertification. Only less than 5% of agriculture can be done with reliance on rainfall. The average annual rainfall varies from about 650 mm in the North East to less than 250 mm in the extreme South West. Short rain season occurs from November to March with no rain for the rest of the year. Consequently, the remaining percentage of the country depends on cattle and livestock keeping.  Botswana is one of Africa’s few countries where successful ranching has taken place

Factors favouring the cattle ranching in Botswana

The following are the main factors:

– The occurrence of unfavourable climatic conditions for crop cultivation resulting to the development livestock farming as major economic activity in the region.

– The nature of the terrain which is relatively flat that enables easy movement of animals in search of water and pasture.

– Availability of grasses that is served as natural pasture for livestock.

– Presence of large land and low population. 

– There was a strong desire to switch from traditional methods of livestock farming to modern one, which is more profitable.

– Availability of ready market both domestic and abroad.

– Availability of capital to set up demonstration ranches from both the government and the European Union.

12.6.2. Dairy farming in Holland

Holland or the Netherlands is a Western European country bordering the North Sea, between Belgium and Germany. It is a low-lying country with a quarter of the total area located below the sea level.

About a half of all the agricultural land in the Netherlands is under grasslands. The Netherlands is one of the largest milk producers in the European Union and accounted for 9.4% of milk production in European Union 2016.  The dairy production is mainly oriented to export markets, where the Netherlands has around 5% of world dairy products market.

The Dutch milk production per cow is among the highest in the world.  Due to the optimal climatic conditions and the ideal strategic location in Europe, the international competitive position of the dairy sector is good. Thirty-five percent of the total Dutch milk production is marketed in the Netherlands, 45% in other European Union member-states and 20% in the other countries.

Currently the average farm size is around 56 ha, which is an increase of 47% compared to 2000. Also, the number of animals increased by 64% to an average of 101 animals per farm in 2016. This growth resulted in an increase in average revenue per farm of 93%.

Characteristics of dairy farming in the Netherlands

– Dairy and livestock farming production is highly specialized and technologically advanced. 

– Extensive grasslands provide grazing for dairy cows and beef.

– Dutch farmers have some of the highest yields of beef and milk in the world (behind only the United States and Great Britain). 

– The country is self-sufficient in dairy production and most dairy goods are exported. The main diary exports include butter, cheese, and condensed milk. 

– Milk production is more intensive in terms of money to purchase inputs, machines, fodder and veterinary services.

– Due to its limited land endowment, milk production is more intensive in the use of capital and purchased inputs, achieving one of the highest milk yields per cow in the European Union.

– The Netherlands has a shortage of land and labour. As result, the production systems used in agriculture are generally intensive.

– Dairy farmers make increase in productivity possible by a continual adaptation of new technologies like milking robot machine.

12.6.3. Sheep rearing in Australia

Sheep farming is rearing and breeding of domestic sheep.

It belongs to the branch of animal husbandry where sheep are raised mainly for their meat, (lamb and mutton), milk and wool. Sheep stations, equivalent to the ranch are usually located in the South-East or South-West of the country.

According to the database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, in 2013, the five countries with the largest number of heads of sheep were mainland China(175 million), Australia (75,5 million), India (53,8 million), the former Sudan (52.5 million), and Iran (50.2 million).

 The production of wool is historically Australia’s well known and most successful rural industry.  This has been regarded as a support of the national economy for a long time. Consequently, the country earns much income from wool export which supports their economy. Therefore, sheep industry contributes much to the economy of Australia. For example, in 2015-2016 it accounted for around 6% (3.2 billion) of the gross value of agricultural production and around 4% (1.8 billion) of agricultural export income.

Factors favoring sheep rearing in Australia 

– Presence of the varieties of indigenous plants, which provide nutrients to maintain enough sheep to provide enough wool.

– Availability of enough good quality drinking water. Surface water is scarce in much of sheep pastoral country, but over a wide area adequate water is obtainable from the various artesian basins.

– Low incidence of diseases and/ or parasites likely to kill or reduce the productivity of sheep.

– Large and ready market for sheep and sheep products

– The experience and expertise of Australian farmers in selecting preferable animals for breeding purposes.

– Using the harsh Australian climate which does not favour crop cultivation to produce clean, fine wool of high strength.

Application activity 12.6

Using your own experience and knowledge acquired in past studies explain:

1. How is sheep wool important to human kind?

2. Analyze the advantages of raising exotic breeds over local breeds.

3. Examine the challenges facing dairy farming in Holland.

4. Explain how cattle ranching affects forests.

End unit assessment

Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow.

The university of Lincoln is physically located in the center of the United Kingdom’s agri-business industry. Recently, 25 students had an internship in relation to farm experience in different African countries. In Gabon, they found farmers burning forests as a way of preparing land for crop growing, in Kenya farmers grow tea for sale and livestock farmers in the North of Kenya keep large number of local cattle in an open land where they always move while in Rwanda, most cows remain inside the stall.

1. Describe the type of crop farming practiced in Gabon.

2. How does the practice mentioned in (1) above affect the environment?

3. Analyze the economic importance of crop cultivation cited in Kenya.

4. The above livestock farming mentioned in Kenya faces many problems. Suggest possible solutions.

5. Pastoralism affects the environment in different ways. Suggest measures to prevent overstocking and overgrazing in areas of pastoralism.