Topic outline

  • General

  • UNIT 1:Social Cohesion

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  • UNIT 2:Individual and Society

    Key unit competence:To be able to analyse the role of the individual in
    society including family, marriage, local, national and global communities.
    Introduction
    Living in a society involves being part and parcel of the society in all aspects.
    This involves having a sense of belonging, which at a national level, can be
    referred to as citizenship. It is this that defines how an individual relates with
    the society.
    In this unit, we will study the relationship between the individual and the

    society .

    2.1 Individual identity and multiple identities

    2.1.1 Belonging of the individual to various social entities

    Activity 1
    Think of the various social groups that you belong to. Why do you belong
    to each of these groups? Explain your answer to your friend.
    It is said that birds of a feather flock together. This means that there will be
    a reason why you identify with every particular social group that you belong
    to. There are either shared characteristics, shared interests or a shared vision.
    For example, you may be a member of a certain religious group because
    you share the same faith. Similarly, you may also belong to another group of
    people who share similar ambitions with you.

    In spite of belonging to all these groups, you maintain your individual qualities,
    interests and aspirations as a person. These make up your individual identity.
    The different groups you belong to portray your social identity whereas the
    way you do things and your beliefs make up your cultural identity. As such
    though a person may have his/her own individual identity, he/she may also
    have other multiple identities.

    An individual who is socialised to more than one set-up of cultural values
    and various social groups will acquire multiple identities.
    Thus, an individual is likely to identify himself/herself in different ways. For
    example:

    (a) Individual identity - a teacher, a man etc
    (b) Cultural identity - Christian, Muslim etc

    (c) National identity - Rwandan, Ugandan, Kenyan etc

    Activity 2

    1. In groups, discuss one national personality of your choice. It could be
    the president, the prime minister, a Member of Parliament or any other
    leader. Write a list of the distinct qualities that make them stand out.

    2. If you are a Rwandan born in Rwanda, went to school in Canada, got
    married in Germany and returned to Rwanda many years later, would
    your behaviour and values be the same as those who never left the
    country? Why or why not?

    From your discussion, you might have seen that individual identity is defined
    by the qualities of a person that make him/her distinct from others.
    Multiple identities, on the other hand, are the various cultural backgrounds
    that one has been socialised to. These influence a person’s decision making in
    life. For example, if an individual is religious, they have a part of the religion
    entity in their personality among other aspects of social life that they are a
    part of. Therefore, this aspect of religion is going to determine how such an
    individual makes decisions. A person’s identities can also be stated using the
    person’s race, class, gender and sexuality.

    Exercise 1

    How do multiple identities of an individual promote his/her social

    relationships?

    2.1.2 Roles and responsibilities of the individual at the levels

    of family, community, nation and the world

    Activity 3

    1. Explain your role in your family.

    2. How do you participate in community and country activities?

    As you discussed you pointed out the different roles you have as a child in
    your family, a member of your community and a citizen of your country. At
    all these levels, you have roles and responsibilities. In order to discharge each
    of these roles and responsibilities, there is need for wise decision-making.
    In the family set up, you have duties and responsibilities that you are expected
    to carry out. For example, helping in household chores and running errands
    for the older members of the family. In school, participating in extra curricula
    activities could be a responsibility.

    An individual’s duties to the community include: cooperation, respect and
    participation in community activities such as umuganda. As a citizen, an
    individual has the responsibility of participating in national activities such as
    voting in elections.

    Adopting habits that help conserve the environment and promote peaceful
    coexistence among members of the society is part of our individual
    responsibilities at all levels. By performing our duties, we are living according
    to the expectations of our societies and this is important because it strengthens
    our solidarity, unity and patriotism.
    When an individual plays his/her roles at the national level, he/she contributes
    to the improvement of human life hence makes the world better.
    It is also important to note that full human potential cannot be reached if
    individuality is suppressed by society. Therefore the society gives us a sense
    of belonging by providing opportunities to share individual traits especially

    during communal activities.

    Exercise 2

    1. Explain your roles and responsibilities at the community level.
    2. How do these roles and responsibilities contribute to national unity and

    development?

    2.2 Making choices

    We are always faced with opportunities to make choices. We are called upon
    to choose the subjects to pursue in school, the career path we need to take,
    the friends we make, and many other such decisions. Making choices has

    many aspects to it. These aspects are discussed below.

    2.2.1 Consequences of choices

    Activity 4

    Read the following story and discuss how you would arrive at a decision

    on solving the problem mentioned.

    1. You are a student in Senior Four and you have realised that you have
    contracted a Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI). Discuss the best
    way to handle this situation. How did you arrive at the decision?
    2. Debate on the various opinions given by the group members and have
    one student make a presentation on your discussions in class.
    You will find out that every choice has consequences and for one to arrive
    at a decision, he/she must be aware of the nature of consequences to
    expect. For example, from your discussions, you must have argued on the
    merits of opening up to someone about the STI infection. You may as well
    consider going to a health facility or even keep your problem a secret in
    fear of stigmatisation. Each of these choices has either positive or negative
    outcomes to the person making the decision as well as others around him/
    her.
    A choice made without first thinking deeply about the consequences that will
    follow can be termed as an impulsive decision. Impulsive decisions are likely

    to lead to negative consequences such as:

    • Yielding to peer pressure
    • Taking drugs leading to drug addiction
    • Making wrong career choices
    • Immorality
    • Contracting HIV and AIDS
    • Unwanted pregnancy
    • Failure in exams
    • Environmental degradation
    • Shame and embarrassment to oneself and family

    • Poverty

    On the other hand, choices that are made after considering all options
    and thinking deeply about their consequences are termed as well thoughtout
    or rational decisions. Rational decisions are likely to lead to positive

    consequences such as:

    • Being principled and avoiding peer pressure
    • Making the right career choices
    • Living a fulfilled life both at work and at the family level

    • Prosperity in career, business and other aspects of life

     • Environmental conservation
    • Fame and recognition in society

    • Success in exams

    Exercise 3

    1. Using the situation given in Activity 4, discuss the consequences that
    would follow if you chose not to go to hospital or seek help from anyone
    because of the fear of stigmatisation.
    2. How would this decision affect your close friends?
    3. Explain the consequences of going to see a doctor after realising that

    you have an STI.

    2.2.2 Influences to the individual

    Activity 5

    What would influence you to decide either to go to the hospital or not to
    in the situation given in Activity 4?
    There are several factors that influence decision-making. These include:
    past experiences, age, peer pressure, levels of commitment to a certain
    matter, financial demands and implications, the living environment and one’s
    religious convictions.

    In the scenario given in the activity above, financial constraints, fear of being
    laughed at by peers as well as the fear of being reprimanded by religious
    leaders may make the victim decide not to go to the hospital where his/ her
    condition is likely to be made public. On the other hand, the fear of being
    discovered by peers, high level of education and high level of self-esteem
    can motivate the victim to seek medical attention.

    It is important to understand the factors that influence choices because then
    we can understand why decisions are made. Good choices help an individual
    to improve a situation while bad choices make situations worse. It is important
    to note that you can choose your actions, but not the consequences. If you do

    not like the consequences that may follow your actions, avoid these actions.

    2.2.3 Manipulations

    Activity 6

    1. Tell your partner about a time you made a decision because you wanted
    to impress or please somebody. How did you feel after you had done
    something you personally didn’t feel was right?
    2. Discuss and write a list of the possible consequences of making choices

    just to impress friends.

    In life, we are sometimes influenced by manipulations of other people to
    make certain choices. Manipulation involves controlling or influencing the
    behaviour or the response of a person on a certain matter using clever, unfair
    or unscrupulous tactics. We get deceived into doing something that we do not
    fully believe in but which favours or pleases the other person. For example,
    teenagers may engage in irresponsible sexual behaviour or go to night parties
    out of the manipulations of their peers. These manipulations can come in
    different types. The following are examples of types of manipulations.

    1. Using sympathy and guilt - this is where an individual appeals to
    the emotions of others by seeking pity and creating guilt if the targeted
    person fails to show mercy by doing what was asked of him/ her.

    2. Indifference – this is where a person pretends not to care about a
    situation intending to draw the attention of others to himself/ herself.

    3. Criticism to gain control – this is belittling other people in a way that
    makes them feel incompetent and unworthy. This way, the critic makes
    the other people perceive him/ her as being more powerful.
    We should be bold enough to stand against any of these types of manipulation
    when making decisions. When we bow to manipulation, we benefit the other
    person. We gain nothing and sometimes we lose out of manipulation. We
    should learn to say ‘No’ to manipulation. For example, teenagers should learn
    to say ‘No’ to peer pressure that coerces them into engaging in irresponsible

    sexual and reproductive behaviour and other socially unacceptable

    behaviours.

    Remember dealing with saying ‘No’ is much easier than dealing with a
    Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) or an unplanned pregnancy. Abstain

    from pre-marital sex or protect yourself.

    2.2.4 The process of decision making

    Activity 7

    Explain to your partner how you make your decisions. What process do

    you follow? Share what your partner has told you with the class.

    From the different presentations made, you notice that there are different
    approaches to decision-making. You also notice that decision-making is a
    process that takes time and different steps. It is not an event that happens
    on the spot. While spontaneous decisions are sometimes necessary, such as
    during an emergency, decisions made after consultations and considerations

    are more informed hence more reliable.

    The following are some important steps one should take in order to make a
    wise and informed decision:

    1. Identify the problem or opportunity: If one has to make an appropriate
    choice, he/she must fully understand the problem or opportunity at
    hand. This will help in determining the most appropriate decision by
    considering all the available options.

    2. Research: Get as much information to help you get a deeper understanding
    of the problem or opportunity.

    3. Analyse the information: Study the information gathered and opinions
    given and establish any connections and discrepancies. See how others
    have solved a similar problem or utilised a similar opportunity and the
    consequences that followed. Establish whether the same can happen in

    your case.

    4. Develop options: Come up with the possible solutions to the problem or
    approaches to utilising the opportunity. Consider other alternatives and
    the consequences of each possible solution or approach.
    5. Decide: Choose the most appropriate option after you have considered
    all the available options and their consequences.

    6. Implement: Actualise the decision that you made.

    7. Evaluate: Establish how effective the decision you have made is. In case
    the decision is not effective, the second best option can be tried and a

    new research is carried out.

    Note: Some decisions have huge financial implications. It is necessary
    therefore to do thorough research before making any decision. Consulting
    knowledgeable and experienced people is also necessary to avoid incurring

    financial losses.

    Exercise 4

    1. Since you have learned what decision making entails, what aspect of
    your decision-making do you need to change? Explain to your partner.
    2. What steps would you take when making a communal decision?
    3. Explain what steps you would take to make the decision about the

    career you would like pursue.

    2.3 Personal responsibility

    Activity 8

    Explain what would happen if you failed to do the following:
    1. Wash clothes.
    2. Do your homework.

    3. Brush your teeth.

    The chores mentioned in Activity 8 are done at a personal level. They
    constitute an individual’s personal responsibility. Personal responsibility
    refers to a duty to take action and be ready to bear the resultant consequences

    if something goes wrong.

    Although these are simple chores, they have to be done. Number 1 and 3
    constitute personal hygiene. Failure to do them can lead to certain health
    consequences. For example, if one does not wash his/her socks and
    undergarments, he/she is likely to suffer from athletes’ foot and certain
    infections respectively. Failure to brush our teeth can lead to bad breath and
    tooth decay. Failure to do these two can also lead to social problems. This
    can be in form of one being avoided by those close to him/her. On the other
    hand, failure to work hard will lead to failure in exams.
    From these examples, we can see that personal responsibility cannot be
    avoided. There will always be consequences to our choices. Some of the
    possible consequences include physical injury, shame, guilt, revenge or even

    hatred.

    2.4 Unit summary

    Individual identity and multiple identities

    • Individual identity - the qualities of a person that make him/her distinct
    from others.
    • Multiple identities - the various backgrounds that one has been socialised

    to or groupings that one belongs to.

    Consequences of choices

    a. Negative consequences

    • Yielding to peer pressure
    • Taking drugs leading to drug addiction
    • Making wrong career choices
    • Immorality
    • Contracting HIV and AIDS
    • Unwanted pregnancy
    • Failure in exams
    • Environmental degradation
    • Shame and embarrassment to oneself and family

    • Poverty

    b. Positive consequences

    • Being principled and avoiding peer pressure
    • Making the right career choices
    • Living a fulfilled life both at work and at the family level
    • Prosperity in career, business and other aspects of life
    • Environmental conservation
    • Fame and recognition in society
    • Success in exams
    Types of manipulations

    1. Using sympathy and guilt - an individual appeals to the emotions of
    others by seeking pity and creating guilt if the targeted person fails to
    show mercy by doing what was asked of him/ her.

    2. Indifference – a person pretends not to care about a situation intending
    to draw the attention of others to himself/ herself.

    3. Criticism to gain control – belittling other people in a way that makes
    them feel incompetent and unworthy. This way, the critic makes the

    other people perceive him/ her as being more powerful.

    Steps in decision making

    1. Identify the problem or opportunity
    2. Research
    3. Analyse the information
    4. Develop options
    5. Decide
    6. Implement

    7. Evaluate

    2.5 Test your competence
    Read the story below and then answer the questions that follow.

    A teenage boy engaged in irresponsible sexualf
    behaviour and ended up impregnating his classmate.
    Ashamed of the situation, he tried to convince her to
    abort the child but she objected. She instead shared
    her predicament with her mother and asked for her
    advice. Even though the situation did not impress her
    mother, she guided her and after giving birth, the girl
    went back to a day school while her parents supported

    the young child.

    Questions

    1. Describe the consequences of the decisions made by the teenage boy
    and his classmate.
    2. Who between the two teenagers was more responsible and why?
    3. Do you suppose their irresponsibility would lead them to a long-term
    commitment? Explain.
    4. Who between the boy and the girl made the best decision. Give reasons

    for your answer.

  • UNIT 3:Sport and Leisure

    Key unit competence: To be able to argue how sports, leisure and
    competition contribute to personal, collective identity shared with others

    and social development

    3.1 Difference between sport and leisure

    Activity 1

    In groups answer the following

    question.

    What are the benefits of
    mparticipating in sports, leisure

    and competitions?

    At school, you have realised that in between the lessons there is break, lunch
    and games. Think of watching TV at home, visiting friends, playing board
    games or any other game in your home environment, tennis, football, and
    how you feel, after watching your favourite game or movie. It feels very
    good to come home after a long day and watch your favorite show on the
    television. However, it will not give the same feeling and benefit if you were
    engaged in sporting activities.

    The difference between leisure and sports is that leisure refers to free time
    spent away from business, work, domestic chores and education. It excludes
    time spent on necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. That means
    to be free from compulsory work and engage in leisure activities such as
    entertaining friends, going on vacation, doing hobbies such as reading,

    watching television, listening or dancing to music, among others.

    Sport, on the other hand, involves all forms of competitive physical activities
    which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain
    or improve physical ability and skills while providing entertainment to
    participants. In sports there are indoor activities such as gymnastics, dance
    sports, cricket and outdoor activities such as swimming, football, basketball,

    hockey, golf, canoeing and sailing.

    3.2 Contribution of leisure, sport and competition to personal
    and collective identity

    Case study 1

    Teta has a low self-esteem so she avoids eye contact and speaks in a
    hushed tone. However, she always says ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ which is
    a learned behaviour.

    1. In groups, discuss how you think Teta really feels.
    2. Imagine you are a teacher. In what ways would you help Teta develop selfesteem?
    How would you make her feel part of the class environment?
    3. Suggest an activity that Teta would focus on to improve her self-esteem

    and practise direct eye contact.

    It is important for people to be included in corporate activities if they are to
    feel that they are part of the group. This is especially true in the school setting.
    Role playing is one of the most helpful activities for improving social skills, as
    it allows one to feel confident in handling different types of situations. Role
    playing can be done through drama where an individual is given a role that
    is different from his/ her personality.

    For example, Teta whose self-esteem is
    low can be given the role of someone in authority. This way she can practise
    how to be self-confident. Drama, music and other performances are some
    of the leisure activities that are carried out in schools. They are encouraged
    through competitions among schools; that is inter-school competitions.

    These help in reducing the barrier to positive social interactions.

    Sport and leisure are also effective in achieving the inclusion and building of

    a collective identity.

    Activity 2

    1. What is happening in the picture?d
    2. What do country representatives in a
    race usually have to identify them?
    3. Whenever an athlete wins a race, the
    country is said to have won. Explain

    this in relation to collective identity.

    During Olympics, athletes represent their respective countries. The symbol of
    the national flag helps in identifying the various countries represented. From
    your discussion of the above identities, you realize that sports contribute to
    identity both at the personal and collective level. Some sports have actually
    been related to certain social groups due to their remarkable performance
    in them. Other national and cultural groups have gained recognition and
    prestige from various leisure and sports activities that they are known for and
    which are mostly used as a tourism attraction in their countries. An example
    is the Brazilian Samba dance, band groups such as the Ingeli band of Rwanda
    which carries the prestige of winning the African Kora awards among others.

    Sport and leisure also bring a sense of national unity. When sporting activities
    are supported by the government and citizens own them, they contribute to
    national identity as people identify with these activities and enjoy participating
    in them either as players or as fans. The president of Rwanda for example
    has highly supported sports through giving prizes for events such as The
    Kigali International Marathon.

    Another example is the World Cup. It brings citizens together in celebrating
    players of soccer at a global level. Socially, sports and leisure have contributed
    greatly in cultivating inclusion in community building, character building and

    social cohesion.

    Case study 2

    Victory for Team Rwanda

    It was a moment of glory for all of us in Rwanda. We had all gathered in
    hotels and restaurants to watch the riders from Rwanda participate in the
    Tour de Rio. They were all riding with passion. It was the stretch between
    Valenca and Teresopolis, a total distance of 153km that left all Rwandans
    at the edge of their seats.

    Team Rwanda rider Camera Hakuzimana broke away from the leading
    park. For 100km he remained in the lead, at some time reaching the
    highest point of a four and a half minute lead. It looked likely that he
    would win this race. We chanted and cheered. We clapped in anticipation.
    I had never felt such excitement due to watching a sporting event, least
    of all, cycling. The cheers brought even more people to the restaurants.
    Rwanda was going to win! It was our time of glory. One of us was making
    us proud.

    Though he did not finally win, he was among the top finishers. He
    crossed the finish line only 54 seconds after the winner, Kleber Ramos
    Silva of Brasilinvest. Other Rwandans in the race did well too. Jean Bosco
    Nsengimana and Patrick Byukusenge finished in 14th and 16th positions
    respectively, to register a remarkable performance for the national side
    that was the only African team in the competition. Teenage debutant
    Joseph Aleluya was in 22nd position. Team captain Janvier Hadi and
    national road race champion Joseph Biziyaremye who had suffered a
    mechanical problem settled for 44th and 58th positions in that order.

    Team Rwanda did the whole country proud. We were all so patriotic
    in cheering for them. They brought us together. There were no tribal
    considerations in cheering them on. No grudge could be remembered
    during this moment. They were Rwandans. We had to cheer them on.
    Though the success was theirs, the glory was shared among all Rwandans.

    It promoted a collective identity.

    Questions

    1. How do you think the riders felt during the competition?
    2. In what ways do you think Hakuzimana’s identity changed after this
    competition?
    3. Describe how the performance of Team Rwanda in the riding
    competition contributed to a feeling of collective identity among the
    people of Rwanda.
    4. Share with your group other occasions when sport or leisure has

    promoted collective identity either at a community or national level.

    3.3 Contribution of sports, leisure and competition to

    personal and social development

    Activity 3

    1. Consider the various sports you know of. Do they have rules which the
    players must adhere to? Name some of them.

    2. What values do these rules develop in social life and how do they
    contribute to social cohesion? Apart from the rules, how else do the

    games enhance social development?

    From the discussions, you find out the following:

    • Moral behaviour and inculcation of values such as honesty, fairness and
    determination are enhanced through social interaction that occurs in the
    regulated physical activities conducted in sports.
    • They also engage young people in their communities through volunteering
    hence reinforcing values of social development.
    • Sport and leisure offer equal opportunities to all regardless of gender,
    ethnicity or ability. This reinforces the values of equality and inclusiveness.
    • It also helps young people become more reasonable and critical as

    competitions involve playing tactfully with the aim of winning.

    Exercise 1

    Read the case study below and answer the questions that follow in
    groups.

    Sonelle had always been a shy girl. She had always feared expressing her
    opinion. She believed it did not matter. After all, others seemed to have
    the solution to every problem. What would they think if she opened her
    mouth to say things she was not even sure of ?

    One day, she was invited by her friends to play the game of Scrabble. Her
    friends seemed to know the game very well. They were making words so

    easily. Indeed, this is what they used to do whenever they were free. 

    Theywere used to it. They knew all the rules and the tricks of the game.

    This day, they decided to play in groups of three. Since Sonelle was so
    timid that she shook whenever she tried to create a word on the board,
    her group suggested that she become the group leader. She would be
    telling them what word to make.

    Hesitantly, Sonelle suggested the first word and it was correct! Then came
    the second word, the third one and so forth. Her group was winning. At
    some point a disagreement arose between the two groups. Encouraged
    by her success in suggesting words for her team, Sonelle decided to
    arbitrate between the two groups. Soon, they were back to the game and
    everybody was happy.

    From that day, everyone wanted Sonelle in her team. They wanted her
    to be the leader too. This extended to school and within no time, Sonelle
    was appointed a prefect. Today, Sonelle is a Chief Executive Officer of
    a multinational company. She discovered her leadership skills in the
    Scrabble game and she never looked back. She became assertive but
    considerate because of guiding her friends during the game. Who knew a

    game of Scrabble can bring such a transformation?

    Questions

    1. What leisure activity was Sonnelle and her friends involved in?
    2. Explain how the competition in this leisure activity helped Sonelle to
    discover her abilities.
    3. In what ways did Sonelle’s friends help her to develop her abilities?
    4. Draw a chart showing Sonelle’s personal development from the day she
    was invited for a game of Scrabble to where she is today.
    5. In what ways can we use leisure and competition to develop ourselves

    and others around us?

    3.4 Unit summary

    Sport - free time spent away from business, work, domestic chores and

    education.

    Leisure - all forms of competitive physical activities which, through casual
    or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability

    and skills while providing entertainment to participants.

    Contribution of leisure and sport to personal and collective

    identity

    1. Leisure activities such as drama allow one to feel confident in handling
    different situations.
    2. Sport and leisure activities promote positive social interactions thus
    social cohesion.
    3. Team sports and leisure activities enhance social inclusion thus building
    collective identity.
    4. Sports can lead to individual, collective and national recognition hence
    individual and collective prestige.
    5. Sport and leisure contribute greatly in character building hence persona

    growth.

    Contribution of sports, leisure and competition to personal
    and social development

    1. Regulated sport and leisure activities inculcate values such as honesty,
    fairness and integrity leading to personal development.
    2. They also engage young people in their communities through
    volunteering hence promote social development.
    3. Sport and leisure offer equal opportunities to all regardless of gender,
    ethnicity or ability hence reinforcing gender equality and inclusiveness.

    4. They help young people to become more reasonable and critical.

    3.5 Test your competence

    Write an essay on the role of sport and leisure to:
    1. Personal development.
    2. Collective identity.

    3. Social development.

  • UNIT 4: Effective Communication

    Key unit competence: To be able to use various sources of information
    to construct and disseminate knowledge.

    Introduction
    This unit is about communication as a process, its various forms and aspects

    that make it effective.

    Activity 1

    1. In pairs discuss this scenario: Imagine that you are the Director of a
    school and you would like to inform your students with all the details
    that there will be an event taking place, how would you effectively do
    this?
    2. You want to tell your best friend that you are not happy about the
    way he/she has been spreading gossip about you. How would you

    communicate your feelings about the matter?

    From the discussions, it is clear that any time someone wants to communicate,
    they will look for ways to express themselves in the most effective way. The
    appropriate language combined with facial expressions and gestures are
    combined in delivering the message. No matter what type of message is
    being communicated, the objective of all communication is to ensure that
    the message is effectively expressed and well understood. Expression can

    manifest itself through body language, signs, words or emotions.

    This unit aims to enable the learners to:

    1. be able to express themselves effectively.
    2. understand messages communicated by applying proper listening skills.
    3. respond appropriately to messages.
    4. demonstrate understanding of both verbal and non-verbal messages sent
    by others.

    5. be sensitive to the other people’s feelings when communicating.

    4.1 Forms and ways of communication

    Activity 2

    In groups discuss the following:

    1. Imagine that you have been given homework to find out your
    community’s historical background and the cultural beliefs that
    characterise it. Which would be the most appropriate way of gathering
    this information?

    2. Imagine that you have been asked to find out the history of Rwanda.

    How best would you gather this information?

    From your discussion you are likely to encounter two sources of information;
    information that is communicated verbally or through non-verbal
    communication. Oral communication is that which is verbally communicated,
    while non- verbal is that which is communicated by other means other than
    verbal. These include; written and recorded messages, online information,
    expressions such as gestures, tone of the voice, touch, smell and body

    motion; creative and aesthetic symbols that represent certain meanings.

    Activity 3

    1. From your previous discussions in Activity 1, outline the various ways
    through which you would acquire information.
    2. Which of those would be the best or most effective means of

    communication for each of the assignments and why?

    You have most certainly listed ways to communicate such as making a phone
    call or sending a short message, writing a letter or face-to-face communication.
    These can be categorised in two main forms of communication: verbal and
    non verbal communication.
    Verbal communication involves spoken words while written communication
    involves written words.
    There are various ways of communication: oral, written and recorded/
    offline communication. These are called hard ways of communication.

    Online communication is a soft way of communication.

    4.1.1 Verbal communication

    Verbal communication includes sounds and words. Language is said to
    have originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages
    spoken in the world. Language is part of the cultural system of a society.
    Verbal communication is an effective way of communication and is again
    classified into two types: interpersonal communication and public speaking.
    Interpersonal communication involves two or more people interacting in
    a communication process while public speaking is whereby an individual

    addresses a group of people.

    4.1.2 Non-verbal communication

    Non-verbal communication includes: written information, dancing, sculpturing,
    symbols, sign language, body language, body posture and physical contact,
    like shaking hands, pushing, etc.
    Broadly, non-verbal communication can be categorised into two categories

    as shown below.

    (i) Written communication

    This is practised in many different languages and forms. It can be in the form
    of emails, reports, articles, memos, notes, etc.

    (ii) Visual communication

    This is the display of information like topography, photography, signs,
    symbols, designs, television and video clips. It involves offline recording.
    Effective communication is key for the success of businesses. Informally
    too, little can be achieved without proper communication. It is therefore a
    necessary skill of life.

    There are more media of communication today as technology advances and

    this should increase the effectiveness of communication processes.

    Exercise 1

    1. Explain the meaning of the following terms:
    i. Communication
    ii. Forms of communication

    2. Explain the different ways of communication

    4.2 Effectiveness of communication

    4.2.1 Speaking and listening

    Activity 4

    In groups, discuss how abstinence is one of the most effective methods
    of curbing the spread of HIV and AIDS epidemic in Rwanda. Note down
    the points you have discussed and present them to class. Make sure to
    have a set of questions on your presentation to find out whether you have

    communicated effectively

    From the above activity you realise that the group discussion had to involve
    active interaction of all members of the group. For a speaker to communicate
    effectively in a way understandable by other members, he/ she has to have
    communication skills. In the same way, for the other members of the group
    to understand the message, they have to be good listeners. Being a good
    listener involves:

    1. Using and recognising body language and non-verbal communication
    2. Taking control of emotion and attitude, in a way that doesn’t interfere
    with the interpretation
    3. Eye contact and attentiveness that shows interest to the topic being
    discussed
    The process of communication is what allows us to interact with other people.
    Without it, we would not be able to share knowledge or experience with
    others. Therefore communication is a process of appropriate transmission,

    reception and feedback of information.

    Exercise 2

    1. Let class members take turns to say the advantages of technology
    advancement.

    2. Debate on its contribution to better education.

    4.2.2. Writing and reading

    Activity 5

    Choose a piece of writing from the newspaper. Read and summarise it.
    The relationship between writing and reading is undeniable as without one,
    the other cannot exist. Unless what is written is read then it is useless. One
    cannot read unless writing takes place. Since writing is the act of transmitting
    knowledge; we must have information to share before we can write it.
    Therefore reading plays a major role in writing. Effective writing allows the
    reader to thoroughly understand everything the writer is saying.
    Effective writing involves; readability and good choice of words. Readability
    entails proper use of words, sentences and paragraphs to ensure clear
    communication of facts and ideas. Good choice of words, on the other hand,
    ensures that the reader does not get bored by maintaining interest.
    For effective and efficient reading, observe the following:

    • have clear reading goals
    • choose the right texts to read
    • use the right reading style; can be skimming, scanning or any other
    appropriate style depending on your goals
    • take notes while reading
    Learning to read and communicate is very important as it is the most
    appropriate way to gain knowledge.

    Exercise 3

    Write a one page essay about the importance of friendship and give it to

    your desk mate to read.

    4.2.3 Feedback in effective communication

    Activity 6

    In groups, discuss why it is important for the teacher to find out from
    the students whether they understand what he/she is teaching. How can

    students show that they understand?

    You have discovered that people are happier when communication is clear
    and effective. The same is true for businesses, schools and homes. There is

    peace and order when communication is effective.

    Businesses thrive or fail depending on how well information circulates within
    the organisation. This means that feedback is central in all communication
    as it ascertains whether the communication process was successful or not.
    Feedback gives people specific goals to reach for and reinforces productive
    behaviour, encouraging them to look for ways to improve based on the work
    they are already appreciated for.

    Effective feedback has benefits to the sender as it helps to know whether the
    message was well understood or not.

    Exercise 4

    Cite an example of communication where feedback is very important.

    4.3 Representation of elements of communication in the form

    of a cycle

    Activity 7

    How would you describe the transmission of a message from one person
    to another or to a group of people?
    The process of communication involves the following elements:
    1. Sender: This is the person who encodes the message to be communicated.
    2. Channel: It is the medium through which the message is to be
    communicated. It can be written, radio, oral etc.
    3. Message: This is the information being communicated.
    4. Receiver: This is the person to whom the message is directed and who
    must decode the message and have feedback to send back to the sender.
    5. Feedback: It is the response given by the receiver after decoding the
    message. In this case, the receiver becomes the sender..

    The cycle continues as the sender is involved in decoding the feedback and

    encoding another message in response to the feedback.

    This can be shown in a diagram as seen below:

    k

    Both the sender and the receiver should have communication skills for
    effective communication to occur. These include:
    i. listening to others (receiving)
    ii. asserting/expressing information clearly(sending)

    Exercise 5
    Make a visual representation showing either a cycle diagram or a chart
    presenting the elements of communication.

    In all these elements, there can be hindrances such as noise and language
    barrier. Barriers to communication can lead to misunderstanding of the
    message. The following diagram illustrates how various factors can hinder

    effective communication between a sender and a receiver.

    k

    Barriers to effective communication
    Exercise 6

    State five barriers to effective communication.
    4.4 Reading and summarising texts and books

    Activity 8

    Read the following text.

    Uwase, who is a secondary school student, has so much to communicate
    to her parents about; she has lost her uniform, needs games wear, has
    a cold and also forgot her dictionary at home. Apart from these, Uwase
    is curious about her aunt’s wedding which took place while she was at
    school. Imagine that you are Uwase and have gotten an opportunity to
    send a short message to your parents. Write a one paragraph message

    highlighting the most important items.

    A summary gives the most relevant information of a text but in a condensed
    form. For example, a whole paragraph can be reduced into a simple sentence
    or a long complex sentence into one or few words where possible. For
    example, in the case above, there is so much Uwase can say to her parents,
    but she has to filter the information into a short message that communicates
    what she feels is the most important.

    In most cases you are likely to have a long text, from which you are supposed
    to write a summary. When summarising a text, consider the following tips.
    Key points in summary writing:

    i. Skim the text (go through it to know what type of a text it is and note its
    subsections e.g. paragraphs)
    ii. Read it again highlighting important information while taking notes
    iii. In your own words write the main points of each section (can be a
    paragraph, a verse etc.)
    iv. For each main point, write a key support point avoiding details such as
    examples.
    v. Read your summary to see it flows and includes all the main points.

    4.4.1 Features of a good summary
    i. It should contain all the important facts.
    ii. Length should be 1/3 of the text.
    iii. The language should be simple and clear.

    iv. The order of ideas in the summary should not differ with that of the text.

    Exercise 7

    Suppose you were assigned to read the text “The Umuganda” below.
    Following the guidelines outlined above, highlight the major arguments

    and develop a summary of the text.

    Community life is important as it givesk
    members of a society belonging. People
    share the burdens of one another
    and enjoy the unity of togetherness.
    When people come together, there
    is no problem that is insurmountable
    because the weight of every problem
    lies on the shoulders of many people.
    This is why Umuganda in Rwanda is a

    cultural practice that has had so much significance in the society

    Umuganda began in 2007 and it means contribution. It was a practice
    where Rwandans met and solved challenges like building houses for the
    homeless, cleaning up, discussing issues and coming up with amicable
    solutions.

    Everyone including parents, private and government officials including
    the president gather in various places to clean the city or get involved in
    community projects. On this day, all shops remain closed from 7 a.m. to
    11 a.m. and everyone is expected to participate. After the cleaning, there
    is always a public lecture from attending officials or government partners.
    The cleanup is an exercise done around the country. It has moved from
    being a government responsibility to the community who take it as their
    own obligation.

    It is a practice that has changed the face of Rwanda and the country is
    now considered one of the cleanest in Africa, developing at a very fast

    rate. Roads are well organised, cleaned up and clearly marked. Apart from

    cleaning, Umuganda also encourages safety for Rwandans by agreeing
    on safety measures that road users must observe. Motorbike taxi drivers
    all wear helmets clearly marked with an extra for their passengers. All
    drivers are expected to adhere to traffic rules

    If other African countries emulated Rwanda, there would remarkable

    progress in the entire continent.

    4.5 Project writing
    4.5.1 Steps in project writing

    The following are the steps followed when writing a proposal:
    1. Identify topics of interest.
    2. Look for sources of information (library, internet, people.)
    3. Make notes.
    4. Make a plan/sketch.
    5. Write the first draft of the project.
    6. Write the final draft after editing.

    7. Present your project to the relevant authority.

    Activity 9

    In Activity 1 on types of communication, you discussed how to gather
    information. Question one involved gathering information on the cultural
    background of your community, while the second question required
    gathering information on your national history. In this activity, you will
    carry out the actual research by practically gathering this information.
    Subdivide your group members into two and let one group do the first
    question while the other group does the second question. Then present

    your findings to the class.

    The students doing the first question will find it necessary to conduct
    interviews with the older members of the community as they are better placed
    to give information on the cultural set-up of the society. While gathering this
    information, how you record it is of great importance. One, you might decide

    to do a tape recording or take notes as the interviewee speaks.

    Information on the second question which is about the history of Rwanda is
    likely to be found in history books or from the Internet.
    After gathering all the relevant information, the next step will involve writing
    a report of the findings which should be properly presented after undergoing
    editing. The sources of the information must be acknowledged in the final
    report.

    Note that when choosing a topic to research on, the following questions are
    important to consider:

    i. Why undertake the research?
    ii. Will the research add on to the knowledge that is already there? This
    is important in avoiding repeating research that has already been done.
    That is why it is necessary to read on the topic before gathering data/
    information.
    iii. Will I provide the answer to an important practical or significant problem
    such as environmental sustainance?
    iv. Which is the best way to gather relevant information on the topic I am
    researching on? It is important to note that information can be obtained
    from any credible source depending on the topic. A source can be primary
    or secondary. Primary sources include first hand information such as one
    - on one interview or telephone interviews, observation and focus groups
    while secondary sources include; written material, videos, recorded

    sounds among others

    4.6 Extended work

    As an individual, carry out a research project on school dropouts within your

    community in relation to gender.

    4.7 Unit summary

    Forms of communication

    • Verbal communication
    • Nonverbal communication – written and visual communication

    Ways of communication

    • Hard ways: oral, written and recorded/offline communication.
    • Soft ways: online communication such as emails, faxes and social media

    texts.

    Elements of communication

    1. The sender            2. The channel
    3. The message        4. The receiver
    5. The feedback

    Features of a good summary

    1. It contains all the important facts.
    2. It is a third as long as the original text.
    3. It uses simple and clear language.
    4. Ideas flow smoothly and are orderly.

    Steps in project writing

    1. Identify topics of interest.
    2. Look for sources of information (library, internet, people.)
    3. Make notes.
    4. Make a plan/sketch.
    5. Write the first draft of the project.
    6. Write the final draft after editing.

    7. Present your project to the relevant authority.

    4.8 Test your competence

    Read different texts on the different challenges students face in learning
    English especially as a second or foreign language. Interview fellow students
    on the challenges they face when learning English. Thereafter, write a
    composition on the topic ‘Challenges of learning English in my school’.
    At the end of your composition, show all your sources of information and

    indicate the references used.

  • UNIT 5:Personal Finances

    Key unit competence: To be able to make informed financial judgement

    and decisions.

    Introduction
    Personal finances are individual or family finances. How we obtain, budget,
    save and spend money over a period of time is called financial management.

    In this unit, we shall learn how to manage personal finances.

    Activity 1

    As a class, brainstorm on the term ‘personal finances’.

    5.1 Sources of revenue

    Activity 2

    1. In pairs, discuss the major activities from which your country earns
    revenue.
    2. Tell your friend some of the activities through which your community
    members earn income.
    Revenue refers to all the money coming into a business, a country or a person
    especially through the sale of goods or services. Revenue can be obtained
    from different sources.

    For an individual, the following are possible sources of income:

    1. Personal savings
    2. Selling of goods and services
    3. Employment
    4. Donations or gifts from friends and relatives
    5. Selling of personal property

    6. Borrowing from friends, relatives and financial institutions

    For a company, the following are possible sources of income:

    1. Savings
    2. Selling of goods and services
    3. Rents and leases of company property
    4. Interests, dividends and royalties paid by other companies

    5. Selling shares to the public

    For a government, the following are possible sources of income:

    1. Foreign exchange
    2. Taxes (propert tax, income tax, import duty etc)
    3. Fines and penalties charged on those whom have broken the law
    4. Fees charged on services rendered by the government
    5. Interest from loans given to individuals and institutions
    6. Grants and donations from international donors
    7. Loans from international lenders
    8. Leases and rents on public property
    9. Income from government-owned corporations
    10. Sale of government assets such as houses
    11. Property trustee – where privately owned property reverts back to the

    government if the owner dies intestate.

    Exercise 1

    As an individual, list the sources of revenue for your country.

    5.2 The concept of saving to an individual and the wider

    society

    Activity 3

    Group work

    1. Discuss in your groups the disadvantages of spending money without
    saving.
    2. What are the advantages of spending money sparingly in order to save?
    The concept of savings can be categorised into two kinds in order to be
    properly defined.

    (a) Personal savings - This is what people save in order not to consume all
    their income. These savings can remain on bank accounts for future use or
    be invested in other ventures like building houses, shares, and other financial
    instruments. Personal savings depict a relationship between savings, income
    and consumption but the level of income is the major determinant of
    personal savings.

    (b) National (Public) savings - These are personal savings plus the
    business savings and public savings. Public savings are basically tax revenues
    less public expenditure.
    At the individual level, the higher the savings, the higher the standards of
    living. Higher savings among individuals result in financial self-actualisation
    after a period of time. This enables individuals to fulfill most of their
    psychological and physiological needs. These are, for example, good feeding
    and clothing, better housing (private shelter), better child care in form of
    health and education, and even other luxurious property like cars or luxurious
    styles of life like big weekend shopping, holiday abroad, big investments, etc.
    At the society level, savings have a great impact. Consistent personal/
    household savings result in big investment e.g. credit cooperative societies
    which may impact positively on the welfare of the members of society
    especially through soft loans to start or boost small scale business/economic
    activities.
    When prices of commodities rise, personal savings are affected as people
    spend more on buying commodities.
    Through individual development accounts - these are savings accounts that
    allow individuals and families to save and generate money for a specific
    savings goal. For example, to buy a home or rehabilitate an existing one, start
    or expand a small business, pay for college education or job training, own a
    vehicle for many purposes e.g. personal transport means for convenience to

    reach work or income generation.

    Personal/household savings bear directly on national/public savings,
    especially through individual retirement accounts. Economists argue that
    lower personal savings may lead to a decline in the net national/public
    saving rate. This decline in national saving may lead to insufficient funds for
    the economy to invest in people’s good standards of living. There is also the
    possibility that and the entire society members may not be saving enough
    for retirement.
    It is also obvious that when personal savings are low, investment will also
    be low. Hence low economic growth and economic development in the long

    run. This is a drawback to the economic advancement of the wider society.

    Exercise 2

    What is the difference between personal and national savings?

    5.3 The importance of saving and the role of interest in

    saving

    Activity 4

    Discuss as a class what is meant by saving and the role it plays in an

    economy.

    The importance of savings

    Savings play an important role in an economy. Savings are important at
    different levels. We therefore need to understand who saves, why and how it
    can affect the economy entirely.
    In an economy, savings are done by households, companies and the
    government. Households save in order to cater for future expenses e.g.
    children’s education. If households don’t save, they will have insufficient
    funds to cater for future expenses. For example, they may struggle financially
    at old age or after retirement and as a result become dependent on family
    members or the government.
    Companies always save their net profit; that part of their profits that they do
    not pay out to shareholders as dividends. It is saved for future investment
    financing e.g. in rehabilitation of existing facilities or replacement of worn

    out equipment.

    Therefore, if companies don’t save sufficiently, they will not have enough
    capital to finance any replacements or expand investment. The company
    may not operate efficiently or fully fund its growth potential.
    It may not have enough funds to employ more people especially the skilled
    labour force.
    When the government’s tax revenues exceed expenditure on wages, social
    security payments, fuel, school books, hospital supplies, among other national
    expenses, then it has enough funds to build new roads, bridges, hospitals,
    schools and other public facilities that will improve the living standards of its
    citizens.
    If the government doesn’t save, it will have no funds to finance fixed
    investment in social infrastructure e.g. schools, hospitals, housing and
    physical infrastructure such as roads, bridges, airports, etc. This will result in
    poor standards of living, how economic growth and development.
    Therefore, the three parties: households, companies, and government are all
    interrelated in matters of saving in an economy. Despite the differences in

    savings behavior, they are not independent of each other.

    Exercise 3

    What do you understand by the term ‘savings’?

    The role of interest in saving

    Interest means the cost of borrowing money expressed as a percentage of the
    loan amount. Interest rate is the amount charged, expressed as a percentage
    of the money borrowed by the lenders to borrowers.
    Therefore, we can say that savings are dependent on interest/interest rates.
    If the interest rate is high, the rate of savings will be low and the reverse is

    true.

    5.4 Social, moral, ethical and environmental implications of

    financial decisions

    Activity 5

    Brainstorm on the ways we can make wrong financial decisions at school
    and outside school as students.
    Financial decisions, at individual level, can be defined as ways in which an
    individual decides to earn and spend his/her income so as to satisfy his/her
    needs.
    A person’s financial decisions have implications on the social, moral, ethical

    and environmental conditions of society. These are as presented below.

    Social implications of financial decisions

    Bad decisions at family level impacts the entire society as a society is made
    up of families. Failure of parents to offer good education to their children due
    to inappropriate decision making on finances results to a poorly educated
    society and this has consequences. Either the generation to follow will have
    poor living standards out of the parents’ inability to educate their children
    or there will be insecurity and crime due to frustration over lack of job
    opportunities. This can be caused by luxurious spending. This may lead
    to lack of finances to cater for the immediate household needs like food,

    clothing, etc.

    Environmental implications of financial decisions

    These result from the fact that some investments, however income-generating
    they may be, they can also be destructive to the environment. This can be
    either due to pollution or depleting the natural resources. For example, a
    decision to start a business on charcoal must involve cutting down trees
    which has adverse effects to the environment. Poaching is also destructive
    as it goes against conservation of wildlife. The business may be intended to
    create savings but there are other side effects to the environment.

    Investing in self-help projects for daily income may be either good or bad to

    the society, for example, hotel or bakery investment may enhance service

    delivery and society development as food is a necessity and such a venture
    will definitely meet that need while generating income to the investor.

    However, it may have negative effects e.g. pollution of the environment.

    Ethical implications of financial decisions

    From the ethical point of view, it is necessary to look at morality of one’s
    actions and this involves the sense of right and wrong. No matter how
    financially favourable a situation might be, one should not engage in illegal
    businesses. For example, drug trafficking and corruption are morally wrong
    and illegal. Using personal funds in corrupt deals like bribery is illegal in
    society and unethical. Unethical means that it goes against the moral

    expectations of the society.

    Grabbing public land that is meant for public use to use for personal gain is
    also unethical.
    Another example of an unethical financial activity is engaging in prostitution.
    Practising prostitution is immoral and a social evil.
    Spending money on college education or education upgrading, on the other
    hand, leads to individual and society development. Education is a social need
    that leads to professional qualifications which qualify an individual for job
    opportunities. When people in society gain education, they are likely to live
    better lives.
    When making financial decisions on how to generate more income, save or
    spend money, it is therefore important to consider how the decision is going

    to impact on the society and the environment.

    Exercise 4

    1. What are they doing? p
    2. How is the habit they are engaging

    in affecting their financial situation?

    5.5 Keeping track of personal money and payment
    commitments

    This involves ways of managing the way we spend our finances. This can be
    on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Keeping track of personal money and
    payment commitments can be realised if the following is done.

    1. Managing finances well

    This can be done by keeping track of the spending habits. This is most
    efficiently done by recording. Recording helps in accounting for every
    expense incurred. It should be done on a daily or weekly basis. Information
    recorded on paper can be transferred to a computer for convenience. In case
    a computer is not accessible, a note book can be used.
    In the note book, information about the spending habits; for example, in a
    month, how much is spent compared to how much should have been spent
    is recorded. This helps to identify misuse and helps in sticking to a personal
    budget.
    2. Develop a personal budget

    A personal budget is essential for one to know how much he/she expects to
    spend over a period of time. In drawing a personal budget, it is important
    to consider expenses on necessities such as clothes, food, housing, utilities,
    entertainment, etc.
    The budget should reflect personal savings e.g. retirement savings, study
    savings, long-term savings and any other goals. Maintaining weekly or
    monthly checks to see that the expenditures are as budgeted for is very
    important. Even small amounts of money should be accounted for.
    Changes on the budget can be made depending on the available alternatives.
    This is if the changes are appropriate in meeting the personal needs at lower
    costs.
    3. Pay financial commitments in good time

    Payment commitments refer to the resolve to meet all the financial obligations,
    such as debts and monthly bills. In day-to-day living, we incur expenses that
    are payable on say monthly basis, yearly, etc. Budgeting for one’s finances
    allows for accuracy on the amount to be paid and when it is to be paid. These
    can be electricity bills, water bills, house rent, school fees, loans, credits from

    friends and financial institutions such as banks.

    Exercise 5

    In pairs, discuss how a business on drug trafficking affects the society

    5.6 Extended work

    Drawing knowledge from the concept of personal/household saving learnt
    in this unit, make a saving plan for your family for one month. Closely refer

    to the average income of your family against daily expenditure.

    5.7 Unit summary

    Sources of revenue

    For an individual

    1. Personal savings
    2. Selling of goods and services
    3. Employment
    4. Donations or gifts from friends and relatives
    5. Selling of personal property
    6. Borrowing from friends, relatives and financial institutions

    For a company

    1. Savings
    2. Selling of goods and services
    3. Rents and leases of company property
    4. Interests, dividends and royalties paid by other companies
    5. Selling shares to the public

    For a government

    1. Foreign exchange
    2. Taxes (propert tax, income tax, import duty etc)
    3. Fines and penalties charged on those whom have broken the law
    4. Fees charged on services rendered by the government

    5. Interest from loans given to individuals and institutions

    6. Grants and donations from international donors
    7. Loans from international lenders
    8. Leases and rents on public property
    9. Income from government-owned corporations
    10. Sale of government assets such as houses
    11. Property trustee

    Importance of saving

    1. They cater for future expenses.
    2. They can be used for future expansion by companies.
    3. They can be used by governments for development projects.
    4. They can be used by governments to finance long term investments.

    Keeping track of personal money and payment commitments

    1. Managing finances well
    2. Develop a personal budget

    3. Pay financial commitments in good time

    5.8 Test your competence

    Read the short story below then answer the questions that follow.

    Isaac was known to many as a mean person. He would never buy anyone a
    cup of tea though he had a lot of money. His children never had enough to
    eat. They wore tattered clothes. They would be sent home from school due
    to lack of school fees. Isaac kept huge amounts of money in the bank. He

    said that it was his savings for future needs.

    In the same village there lived Ellis. She worked with a multinational company
    and earned a huge salary. However, whenever she got her salary, she went to
    a spending spree. She would buy expensive clothes, travel to different places
    and attend parties with friends. Soon, she would be without money. She
    would start visiting friends and asking them for money to buy food. People
    started laughing at her saying that although she earned a lot of money, she

    was poorer than them.

    Questions

    1. Do you Isaac’s saving was justified? Explain your answer.
    2. Was Ellis’ way of life responsible? Give reasons for your answer.

    3. What advice would you give to both Isaac and Ellis concerning saving?

  • UNIT 6:Education and Welfare Systems

    Key unit competence:To be able to analyse critically how education

    & welfare systems contribute to economic development

    6.1 The concept of education

    Activity 1

    In your groups:

    1. Brainstorm on the concept of education and try to give its definition.
    2. What are the different types of education?
    3. What is meant by welfare and welfare systems?
    The word education is derived from the Latin word ‘educare’, which means ‘to
    bring up’. Education can be defined as the process of imparting knowledge,
    skills, morals, attitudes and values from one person to another.
    Education involves the socialisation of the younger generation through
    continuous efforts to inculcate in them acceptable attitudes, emotional
    control and mental abilities which they may not have acquired naturally or
    on their own.

    There are two types of education: formal and informal education.

    1. Formal education

    Formal education implies any education that is provided by a recognised
    institution, such as a school, following a planned course of study. This begins

    right from kindergarten.

    2. Informal education

    This is a kind of education that is traditional and involves the wise, respectful
    and spontaneous process of imparting knowledge, skills and beliefs through
    conversation, exploration and experience. An example of this education can

    be the traditional learning of household chores in Rwanda.

    6.2 The role of education in economic development

    Activity 2

    Use the pictures provided to explain how formal and informal education

    influences a person’s economic status.

    k

    Economic development can be defined as sustained actions of policy makers
    that lead to an improvement of the standards of living of a particular group
    of people.
    It involves an improvement on aspects such as: human capital, infrastructure,
    regional competitiveness, social inclusion, health, safety, literacy, among
    others. Various roles of education in economic development are explained

    below:

    (i) Education is very significant in the economic development of a given
    society. This is because education reduces poverty and social inequality
    by providing the underprivileged with resources and opportunities for
    upward social mobility and social inclusion. This is because education
    to all people ensures that all regardless of social background have equal
    opportunities in the skilled labour market. It reduces poverty in the sense
    that the more educated an individual is, the greater income he/she is
    likely to have and consequently, the higher the standard of living.
    (ii) An increase in the number of people who acquire knowledge and skills
    means an increase in the number of people who can play a meaningful
    role in society. However, when young people drop out of school, they are
    deprived of such skills. This creates social exclusion at individual and
    societal levels. Such children experience poverty and unemployment.
    They engage in criminal activities such as theft, drug trafficking,
    robbery and burglary due to frustration and poverty. This destroys the
    harmony of the society and derails economic development as policies
    are consequently more focused on curbing crime other than economic

    development.

    (iii) Since the process of education is aimed at producing intellectually and
    technically skilled people, it is then a fact that it is through education
    that the human capital of a country is acquired. Without a productive
    workforce, there would be no economic development. Human capital
    is an integral part of the resources a country needs in order to drive
    economic growth.
    (iv) The more the educated people in an economy, the more the tax base
    through income tax deductions to the government treasury, and the
    more the spending on commodities especially consumables.
    (v) Education enriches the people’s understanding of themselves and the
    world. This improves the quality of people’s lives which leads to social
    benefits both to the individual and society.
    (vi) Educated people are productive and creative. They make good
    entrepreneurs and advance technology. In this way, there is economic
    development arising from education.
    (vii) Education also helps to secure social progress which improves income
    distribution. It empowers people and strengthens nations. It does so by
    equalising all people and by so doing creates a level ground for all to
    maximise their potential, abilities and overcome poverty.
    (viii) Promotion of the advancement of the millennium development goals
    through universal education and gender equality ensures that education
    systems are not discriminative.
    (ix) Education promotes democracy which gives power to the people.
    This is because it enables people to participate in matters of national
    development by being involved in decision making at a national level.
    Educated people are knowledgeable and among other things, they are
    aware of their rights and responsibilities in the society. As such, they
    are able to take part in national activities at the community level and
    determine their living conditions.
    (x) Education increases the overall productivity and intellectual flexibility
    of the labour force. Therefore, it positions the country at a more
    competitive level in the world market, which is characterised by changing
    technologies and production methods.
    (xi) Through social interaction with people from different social or ethnic
    groups, education contributes significantly to nation building and

    interpersonal tolerance.

    Exercise 1

    State the various roles of education in economic development

    6.3 Inclusive education

    Activity 3

    1. What shows inclusive
    keducation in this picture?

    2. Debate on the motion:
    inclusive education
    contributes to good

    performance.

    Education as already discussed is broad and very influential in the economic
    development of a country. The education system of a country should not
    discriminate against any member of the society. All children have a right to
    education. For education to be non-discriminative, it has to be all inclusive.
    Inclusive education means a system of education where all learners
    regardless of social, cultural or economic background or their academic
    ability learn together. It also means that they participate in various activities
    in a conducive environment that recognises and accommodates all their
    differences.
    Inclusive education is about how the classrooms, the school as well as the
    school programmes and activities are designed to enable all students to learn
    together. It is guided by three principles:
    1. All children belong. This is based on the fact that all children and their
    families are valued equally and deserve equal opportunities. It focuses on
    building friendship and membership.
    2. Learners have different learning abilities. Inclusive education provides
    for ways of helping those learners with special needs. Therefore, help
    from friends and teachers is of great essence in the learning process.
    Relevant materials such as technological aid can be of help in serving the
    needs of all learners. Where possible, children with special needs should
    learn together with the other students of their own age in order to access
    education of the same quality.
    3. Education is a child right not a privilege: All children have right to
    education.
    Inclusive education is important and has the following benefits:
    • All the people involved in the learning process are able to develop
    individual talents and maximise their abilities in a free environment.
    • It is easier for all to achieve their goals when the environment is favourable.
    • An inclusive education facilitates proper interaction of all and this
    contributes to better interpersonal skills.
    • It also fosters a culture of respect and belonging. People are able to accept
    and respect individual differences and this reduces disrespect that leads
    to harassment and bullying.
    • Inclusive education also expands friendship among learners and
    facilitators of various levels.
    • It also influences both the school and community to appreciate diversity
    and inclusion a broader level.

    An inclusive education enhances social cohesion whereby people live
    together harmoniously. Within a society, people coexist in the sense that
    those that are disadvantaged in one way or another need the others to help
    them stabilise and that is why there is need for welfare systems if economic

    development is to take place.

    Exercise 2

    Discuss why learners with disabilities should study together with learners

    without disabilities.

    Activity 4

    (i) Discuss in groups the various ways in which community members
    can offer financial support to a widow.
    (ii) Have one student pretend to be in need. Role play a fundraising
    event where the rest of the learners are helping him/her out. Let

    one student act as the master of ceremony.

    6.4 Types of welfare systems

    A welfare system is the material and moral support aimed at promoting the
    wellbeing of those in need. In most developed countries, welfare is mostly
    done by the government from its revenues. To a lesser extent charities,
    informal social groups, religious groups, and other inter-governmental
    organisations also help in welfare.
    Welfare systems generally aim at providing services like universal healthcare
    and unemployment insurance. Some countries run conditional cash transfer
    welfare programmes where payment depends on the behaviour of the
    recipients.

    In Rwanda, there are two welfare systems: social security and insurance.

    1. Social security

    The Rwanda Social Security Board (RSSB) administers social security in the
    country. It takes care of such social security aspects as pension, occupational
    risks and health insurance. The following are examples of social security in
    Rwanda:
    a. La Rwandaise d’Assurance Maladie (RAMA) – This offers social security
    to government employees.
    b. Universal Health Insurance (Mutuelles de Santé)- This provides universal
    health insurance coverage(Mutuelles de Santé) to all Rwandans. It is
    offered through the Ministry of Health.
    c. Ubudehe programme – This provides support to the Rwandans living
    below the poverty line.
    d. Girinka programme – This involves giving a cow for every poor family.
    e. Umurenge VUP – This is a fund for the for the most vulnerable and

    extreme poor in Rwanda.

    2. Insurance

    a. RSSB Medical scheme – This offers medical insurance to all government
    employees and employees from some private organisations.
    b. Military Medical Insurance (MMI) – This offers medical insurance to
    employees in the military.
    c. Community Based Health Insurance (CBHI) – This offers medical
    insurance to all Rwandans.
    d. Insurance from private insurers – These offer various covers and
    policies such as the following:
    • Education policy – caters for education of all members
    • Accidents and losses – covers members against accidents and
    losses
    • Motor vehicles cover – covers insured vehicles and their users
    • Health cover – covers medical bills of the insured
    • Property cover – covers business and private premises, equipment

    and other installations

    • Agriculture cover – covers livestock and crops

    Exercise 3

    Describe the different welfare systems in your district.

    6.5 The importance of welfare systems in economic development

    Activity 5

    In your groups, discuss the following question:
    Do welfare systems help in improving the economy of a country? Explain
    your answer.
    The following are ways in which welfare systems contribute to economic
    development.
    1. Welfare systems support education, which is an important aspect of
    economic development. Welfare systems strive to reduce the gap between
    the rich and the poor. This lays the basis for a sustained economic
    development.
    2. Some welfare systems also focus on matters of health. Social effort is
    made to ensure that all people can afford health care. This helps to create
    a healthy labour force, which is the backbone of economic development.
    In this way, it increases the life expectancy of the labour force in an
    economy.
    3. All aspects of social security, for example, health insurance, housing
    assistance and others, provide the members of the society with enough
    to spend. This contributes to economic growth in the long run. When
    people have money to spend, the production of goods and service
    delivery is improved. This cash flow from individuals to the government
    increases the revenue of the economy.
    4. The gender balance that is practised in some welfare systems helps to
    create a level ground for women to join the workforce. It also undertakes
    to empower children through early childhood training. This helps to build
    a much more constructive and productive society.
    It can be concluded therefore that welfare systems are not only beneficial to

    the individual but also to the entire economic system.

    Exercise 4

    Explain the role of welfare in economic development by focusing on

    either health or education.

    6.6 Challenges facing education for all

    Activity 6

    Debate on the motion: Education for all may not be realised in all countries
    The concept Education for all (EFA) refers to a commitment by countries
    and government to meet the learning needs of all children, youths and adults
    by 2015. It is spearheaded by UNESCO (The United Nations Educational,
    Scientific and Cultural Organisation.) in partnership with all governments,

    development agencies, civil society and non-governmental organisations.

    These are some of the major challenges facing education for all:

    1. Majority of the donors have neglected to fund EFA goals outside of
    primary education. As a result, pre-primary education and adult literacy
    remain underfunded.
    2. Donors have largely failed on their commitment to deliver aid more
    effectively. Effective international coordination and distribution of aid to
    education have been almost entirely absent.
    3. Low transition rate from primary to secondary school. For example, in
    the Philippines, just 69% of primary school graduates from the poorest
    families continued into lower secondary, compared with 94% from the
    richest households.
    4. Some students drop out of school before they reach their last grade. This
    reduces the government’s effort to make education available for all.
    5. In most countries, there are high levels of illiteracy among adults. This
    makes it hard for parents to support education of their children in such
    activities as helping them in homework.
    6. Child development and child labour reduce opportunities for children
    to attend school. For example, children may be involved in quarrying

    activities or picking tea leaves.

    Exercise 5

    1. Discuss the challenges facing the education sector in Rwanda.

    6.7 Extended work

    In your groups, attempt the following tasks:
    1. Brainstorm on the benefits of education and the challenges of education.
    Write down a poem on your points and recite it aloud as a group.
    2. Define welfare systems. In not more than one month, gather information
    (within and outside school) and write a short report about welfare in your

    society.

    6.8 Unit summary

    Formal education - any education that is provided by a recognised
    institution, such as a school, and which follows a planned course of study.
    Informal education - education that is traditional and involves the wise,
    respectful and spontaneous process of imparting knowledge, skills and
    beliefs through conversation, exploration and experience.
    Inclusive education - a system of education where all learners regardless
    of social, cultural or economic background or their academic ability learn
    together.
    The role of education in economic development
    1. Education reduces poverty and social inequality by providing the
    underprivileged with resources and opportunities for upward social
    mobility and social inclusion.
    2. It increases the number of people who acquire knowledge and skills
    hence an increase in the number of people who can play a meaningful
    role in society.
    3. It produces a productive workforce which contributes to economic
    development.
    4. It broadens a country’s tax base through having more employable
    people hence higher income for the government.
    5. Education enriches the people’s understanding of themselves and the
    world thus improving the quality of people’s lives.
    6. Educated people make good entrepreneurs and help in advancing
    technology thus promoting economic development.
    7. Education also helps to secure social progress which improves income

    distribution.

    Types of welfare systems

    1. Social security

    2. Insurance

    The importance of welfare systems in economic development

    1. They support education which promotes economic development.
    2. They promote good health hence creating a healthy workforce which is
    the backbone of economic development.
    3. They assure social security leading to economic growth.
    4. The offer opportunities for all to grow and support economic growth of
    a country.
    Challenges facing education for all
    1. Low donor funding for pre-primary and adult education.
    2. Low enrolment in early childhood education.
    3. Lack of an effective international coordination and distribution of aid
    to education.
    4. Low transition rate from primary to secondary school.
    5. Some students drop out of school before they reach their last grade.
    6. The lack of an appropriate (and gender-sensitive) curriculum with
    complementary learning materials that focus on the acquisition of key
    competencies (such as literacy and numeracy).
    7. Inadequate attention to child-centred and gender sensitive teaching
    methodology and the use of appropriate teaching and learning

    materials, including books and readers.

    6.9 Test your competence

    1. Analyse the role of education in economic development in Rwanda.
    2. There are different welfare systems in Rwanda. Citing examples,
    explain how these welfare systems contribute to Rwanda’s economic

    development.


  • UNIT 7: Career Planning

    Key unit competence: To be able to explain the importance of career

    planning.

    Introduction

    Career planning is an essential skill in life. The career that one takes on in life
    is based on the plans that one made or failed to make earlier in life. In this
    unit, we shall study the various strategies that one needs to employ in order

    to actualise his/her career aspirations.

    7.1 The link between education, training, job and income

    Activity 1

    Introduction

    Career planning is an essential skill in life. The career that one takes on in life
    is based on the plans that one made or failed to make earlier in life. In this
    unit, we shall study the various strategies that one needs to employ in order

    to actualise his/her career aspirations.

    7.1 The link between education, training, job and income

    Activity 1

    1. Discuss the most liked jobs in Rwanda in the current situation and
    explain why.
    2. What would you say is the difference between training and education?
    Education differs from training in that training aims at imparting specific
    skills necessary for performing a particular job task while education is aimed
    at inculcating knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits to an individual.
    Education is therefore broader than training as it covers a wide range of
    aspects and takes a longer time. It influences how an individual thinks and
    acts in different situations. To some extent, education continues throughout
    a person’s life.
    Both education and training, however, are related. They are both processes
    of imparting knowledge and skills necessary for effectiveness either in daily
    life or in defined tasks. Even after undergoing education, one may need to
    train in a specified field in order to efficiently perform in it. Education and
    training can therefore be termed as complements.
    So how do job and income come in?
    Education and training, to a large extent, determine the job or career an
    individual persues. This in turn determines the amount of income an
    individual earns. Education for example, covers various fields. The school
    curriculum gives an opportunity for learners to be exposed to a wide range
    of fields at the basic level. Once they have basic knowledge on virtually all
    fields, they are then able to choose areas of interest in which they can pursue
    a career later in life. These choices determine what type of education an
    individual gets and the kind of job he/she is likely to do.
    Training is done prior the employment to enhance good performance of the
    job already chosen. While working, training is also done to maintain and
    improve on skills of doing a particular job. Training can be professional,
    physical or developmental.
    Good education and good training lead to a more skilled and productive
    labour force. Skilled individual is at a better position to acquire a job that is

    well paying.

    Exercise 1

    Discuss how education and training can influence a person’s promotion

    at work.

    7.2 Types of jobs and the expected income

    Activity 2

    1. In your groups, identify two common jobs in your community.
    2. Try to brainstorm on the income and incentives that the people
    performing them may be getting. Would you like to perform such
    jobs in future? Give reasons.
    As discussed earlier, jobs can be categorised using different criteria. The

    most common one is formal or informal employment.

    1. Formal jobs

    Formal jobs are professional career that involves an official agreement
    between an employer and an employee.
    A formal job has a set salary and benefits , a stable working location, regular
    working hours and some contributions for taxes and social security.
    The formal jobs have a higher remuneration as compared to the informal jobs.
    Terms of employment is mostly permanent, full time and regular. Examples

    of formal jobs include: teaching, medical practice and accounting.

    2. Informal jobs

    Informal jobs are mostly short term engagements between an employer and
    an employee. The agreement is to do a certain task, usually casual work.
    There is no written contract between the employer and the employee.
    Informal jobs examples are: mechanical jobs, household employment,
    painting, offloading trucks, quarrying and stone work etc.

    Terms of employment can either be temporary, part time or seasonal.

    3. Seasonal jobs

    Seasonal jobs are jobs that are available at certain periods of time and
    are dependent on other factors. Such factors include school holiday jobs,

    agricultural seasons, peak tourism periods etc.

    4. Temporary jobs

    Temporary jobs are jobs that are to be done within a specified period of time.

    A good example is a contract job.

    5. Self employment

    Self employment occurs when an individual has a personal business from
    which he/ she derives profits.
    There is a wide range of fields that one can study in especially for formal
    employment. They include the following:

    1) Architecture and engineering
    2) Community services
    3) Computer and Maths
    4) Construction
    5) Criminal justice/ law enforcement
    6) Education training
    7) Farming, fishing and forestry
    8) Food service: Food preparation and serving can earn a good wage with
    little or no formal education.
    9) Health and medical: The health and medical industries offer the most
    stable and highest paying career fields. They offer competative pay and
    benefits.
    10) Management and administration: Managers and administrators are
    always in high demand and are valued for their management expertise.
    11) Natural sciences (physical and social sciences): There are many career
    opportunities in natural sciences that offer very attractive incentives,
    wages and salaries.
    12) Production and manufacturing: These also offer a wide range of job
    opportunities.
    13) Sales and marketing
    14) Transport and material moving
    These are some of the various job possibilities that one can have in mind
    when planning for a career.

    Expected income from different jobs

    The difference in the amount of income in the formal sector however, depends
    on various aspects. One such aspect is the level of education required for
    one to work in a particular job. Some professions require a tertiary college
    certificate others require a university degree, while others require a post
    graduate degree. The higher the level of education required for a job, the
    higher the income.
    There is also a variation in the length of time required to gain certain skills
    and qualifications. Some degrees such as medicine, engineering and law for
    example, take a longer period of time to acquire as compared to other degrees
    such as arts. This rates them higher in the amount of income obtained from
    them.
    Scarcity of a skill is also an aspect that distinguishes careers. The more
    scarce a skill is, the higher the income it is likely to generate. Scarcity is
    caused by among other factors, the cost of training and qualification to
    pursue the career. This is because levels of education are transitional and
    there are certain qualification requirements in moving from one level to
    another and also choosing the careers to pursue. Different careers require
    different qualifications.
    The choice of a career, is not only determined by the amount of income or

    qualification required but also by one’s interests and talents.

    Exercise 2

    Using examples, demonstrate how various jobs differ in the amount of

    pay.

    7.3 Career planning process

    Activity 3

    1. What do you understand by the term ‘career’?
    2. In pairs, share your areas of interest in terms of job aspirations. How
    did you develop interest in that area? How do you plan to achieve it?
    A career can be defined as an occupation undertaken for a considerable
    period of a person’s life and with opportunities for progress.
    It is the process and actions taken by a person throughout their lifetime in
    relation to his or her occupation. One’s career is described by the jobs held,
    titles earned and the work accomplished over a long period.
    A career plan, on the other hand, can be defined as an individual’s choice of
    occupation or career path. It is a life-long process in selecting an occupation,
    locating career opportunities, developing oneself professionally and possibly
    changing one’s career.
    Career planning may happen once in one’s life. However, it can also happen
    several times as one gains more experience and re-defines his or her potential
    and interests.
    Career choice is very important because it guides an individual in decision
    making. For example, in deciding what courses to study. Career planning
    takes a number of steps as discussed below.

    The steps in the career planning process are:

    (a) Consider your interests and talents. People have different interests. An
    interest is something that draws someone’s attention and that which
    one enjoys doing. Talents, on the other hand, are things that one does
    exemplary well without much effort. When making a choice on the career
    goals to set, these two aspects are very important. This is because doing
    a job which one has interest in is fulfilling and the ability to do it without
    much effort makes one much more productive even after education and
    training. One’s strengths and weaknesses are also important in assessing
    what form of career is suitable.
    (b) Consider the available options that would suit your interests and
    abilities. Here, one should find out the job opportunities that make
    the best use of his/her interests and abilities.
    (c) Find out the academic and other requirements needed to secure the
    job.
    (d) Set goals to achieve those requirements. For example, aspiring to
    pursue a career in economics will require one to study courses on
    that field. To be able to achieve this, one has to do well in business
    and entrepreneurship subjects.
    Goal setting in planning for a career is very essential. This is because it is
    important to have an end towards which all efforts must be directed. This
    end is the goal to be achieved.
    Career planning is therefore very important as it:
    1. Enables an individual to focus his/ her abilities, opportunities and efforts
    towards one major goal.
    2. Enables individuals to maximise their potential with an aim of achieving
    their aspirations.
    3. Places individuals at their most suitable career hence enhancing
    productivity.
    4. Helps individuals develop skills.
    5. Enhances productivity in one’s field.
    6. Brings the uniqueness of individuals together therefore enabling
    complementarity at work.
    7. Career planning reduces staff turnover. Staff turnover is the number of
    people losing jobs.

    Exercise 3

    Why do you think it is beneficial for educated people to carry out career
    planning? Explain in detail.

    7.4 Importance of career choice in achieving personal
    financial goals
    Activity 4

    Discuss in groups why you think your dream career will stabilise you
    financially and help you achieve your future goals.
    As discussed earlier, different careers offer different rates of income. Career
    choice therefore can either facilitate achievement of financial goals or limit
    their achievement.
    A financial goal is a plan for the future that involves spending money. This can
    be living comfortably, providing quality education to one’s children or even
    supporting one’s aging parents. For one to achieve these goals, he/she has to be
    financially prepared. To be financially prepared means that one has the means
    of earning enough money to cater for these needs. The choice of career directly
    impacts on the financial ability of an individual to achieve the financial goals.
    Career choice enhances achievement of personal financial goals in the
    following ways:
    1. When choosing a career, one is likely to choose a career that is financially
    rewarding as opposed to an unplanned job that one lands out of lack of
    another alternative.
    2. Choosing a career and directing all efforts in pursuing it results in
    remarkable skill and a high level of competence in the field. This places
    an individual in a high ranking position in the field of practice and thus
    he/she gets a higher income.
    3. Career choice and planning provides for upgrading of skills in one’s area
    of specialisation. This leads to professionalism which allows for increment
    of income as more and more expertise is gained.

    Exercise 4

    1. Analyse the career journey of any successful person you know of.
    Write an essay highlighting the major steps involved in building his/
    her career.

    7.5 Extended work

    Prepare a career plan for a career of your choice in future. Remember to
    include all the details.

    7.6 Unit summary

    Types of jobs

    1. Formal jobs
    2. Informal jobs
    3. Seasonal jobs
    4. Temporary jobs
    5. Self employment

    Steps in the career planning process

    1. Consider your interests and talents.
    2. Consider the available options that would suit your interests and
    abilities.
    3. Find out the academic and other requirements needed to secure the
    job.
    4. Set goals to achieve those requirements.

    Importance of career planning

    1. It enables an individual to focus his/ her abilities, opportunities and
    efforts towards one major goal.
    2. It enables individuals to maximise their potential with an aim of
    achieving their aspirations.
    3. It places individuals at their most suitable career hence enhancing
    productivity.
    4. It helps individuals develop skills.
    5. It enhances productivity in one’s field.
    6. It brings the uniqueness of individuals together therefore enabling
    complementarity at work.
    7. Career planning reduces staff turnover. Staff turnover is the number of
    people losing jobs.

    Importance of career choice

    1 It helps one to choose a career that is financially rewarding.
    2. It enables one to direct all efforts in pursuing the career leading to
    remarkable skill and a high level of competence in the field.
    3. It provides for upgrading of skills in one’s area of specialisation
    .
    7.7 Test your competence

    Write an essay explaining the importance of career planning.


  • UNIT 8: Fair Operating Practices

    Key unit competence: To be able to analyse critically fair operating

    practices.

    Introduction

    In this unit, we will study some of the fair operating practices in business.
    We all depend on certain businesses and business people to get our supplies
    at home and in the office. We always hope that we get the best deals at
    the grocers shop and wherever else we do shopping. This cannot happen

    without fair operating practices.

    8.1 The concept of corruption

    Activity 1

    In pairs, discuss what you understand by the term ‘corruption’.

    c

    Corruption refers to a very broad range of behaviour that particularly has
    something to do with power misuse. Corruption is an ill that is eating away
    most societies of the world, especially in the African continent.
    It involves the abuse of a position in order to gain an unmerited advantage
    through means that are illegitimate, immoral or unethical. It can be for
    personal gains or in favour of certain groups of people. It is mostly associated

    with bribery.

    Exercise 1

    Identify any corrupt practices in your community. Refer to any of them

    that you witnessed. How was it handled by the authority?

    8.2 Forms of corruption

    Activity 2

    1. In about five minutes, role play people carrying out an act of
    corruption. The rest of the class should act as audience.
    2. In pairs, discuss ways in which corruption is practised in most African
    countries.
    Acts of corruption may be petty or grand depending on the magnitude of
    the resources misappropriated or the measure of the injustice undertaken.
    Corruption takes many forms depending on the nature of the dishonest
    behaviour practised. The forms can be analysed as follows:
    1. Bribery – It is arguably the most common form of corruption. Bribery
    involves two parties: the giver and taker of the bribe. A bribe is an illegal
    payment given to a person either directly or indirectly for him/ her to act
    in a certain way, or refrain from acting in his/her official capacity. This
    can be to allow illegal businesses such as smuggling of goods or to be
    exempted from legal procedures such as taxes or licences.
    2. Embezzlement – This is theft or misappropriation of money and other
    resources put under one’s responsibility but belonging to someone else.
    Embezzlement of funds is common in political situations where public
    money meant to be used in improving the standards of living of the
    citizens is misappropriated and used in personal projects by government
    officials. Apart from funds, human resource and public facilities can also
    be embezzled by being used to serve purposes other than the legitimate
    ones.
    3. Nepotism – This is the practice of unfair distribution of resources or
    treatment of people that involves favouring closely related people in
    performance of one’s official duties. It can be giving individuals or groups
    of individuals jobs, promotions, or even salary increment based on the
    fact that they are related to you.
    4. Patronage – This is whereby a public officer gives favours such as
    employment in return for political support. For example, an aspiring
    politician may use his influence to illegally help people acquire positions
    in public offices in exchange for support in his/ her political ambitions.
    5. Theft and fraud – Some officials steal state assets kept under their
    watch or those assets made available to them by virtue of their positions
    in government. Fraud involves using deception to convince the owner
    of funds or assets to give them up to an unauthorised party. A good
    example is where a person in authority misdirects company funds into
    non-existent companies and then later transfers them into a personal
    account. Acquiring publicly owned assets such as money through illegal
    means is the most common form of corruption.
    6. Institutional corruption – This form of corruption can happen where
    conflicts of interest are not managed. Institutional corruption takes place
    when those who are in charge of a project make decisions about those
    projects in their own favour, not considering other people who are in dire
    need and depend on those projects. For example if an official is foreseeing
    a water project to help people in a dry locality have piped water, that
    official may make the decision to have fewer pipes so that he can spend
    less in the project and reserve more finances for him/herself.
    7. Extortion and blackmail – Extortion and blackmail involve the use
    of threats to gain access to another person’s information or property.
    This can be the threat of violence or false imprisonment as well as
    exposure of an individual’s secrets or prior crimes. A good example is
    where an influential person threatens to go to the media if they do not
    receive speedy medical treatment or where a person demands money in
    exchange for continued secrecy.
    8. Abuse of office/ discretion – This refers to the misuse of one’s powers
    and decision-making facilities. Examples include a judge dismissing a
    criminal case unjustly or a customs official using their position to allow
    a banned substance such as drugs to be imported or exported with the

    intention of gaining financially from it.

    Exercise 2

    In about two paragraphs, write about four forms of corruption and cite

    African examples where possible. Give your essay a relevant title.

    8.3 The causes and effects of corruption

    8.3.1 Causes of corruption

    Activity 3

    How does corruption affect the society?

    Corruption starts within a person. The desire to make money or acquire
    certain privileges lures people to accept bribes or do certain things for their

    own gain and so they become corrupt.

    The following are the major causes of corruption:

    1. Ambiguity of laws - Most constitutional laws are not clear on matters
    of corruption and this creates loopholes for people to get away with
    corruption cases.
    2. In most cases, corruption begins from the top officials and people in
    positions of authority. This makes people feel secure in corruption deals.
    3. Bribing provides an alternative to following long procedures. People
    who can afford these alternatives would not take the trouble to follow
    these procedures.
    4. Poor enforcement of law on property rights leads to a misconception
    that violation of these rights has little or no consequences.
    5. Poor governance – The overall system of governance that has no place
    for moral and ethical values kills any spirit of justice that would help
    overcome corruption.
    6. Personal greed and desire for money or wealth with no regard for
    morality.
    7. The desire to serve personal interests rather than public interest at work
    place. This may be due to weak supervision in the public sector.
    8. Lack of awareness on matters of law and the justice system in the wider
    population. This renders people incapable of reporting incidents of
    corruption. This is because if someone does not recognise a crime or
    an act of injustice committed against them, then it is hard for them to
    act or resist it.
    9. Fear of victimisation. If one really needs a service and his/ her request
    for the service is met by demands for a bribe, this person may fail to resist
    offering the bribe out of the fear that resistance may cause difficulties in
    achieving his/ her goals.
    8. Some slogans encourage self–centeredness and therefore inspire
    corruption. For example: ‘take advantage while you can’; ‘everyone
    does it’ etc.
    9. Systems that do not emphasise on accountability and transparency also
    cause corruption.
    10. Slow and unreliable judicial processes such that even when one gathers
    enough courage to report corruption, the procedures involved take long
    and may actually not be effective enough to discourage the crime. The
    procedures are also costly to follow through.
    12. There is lack of moral criteria in promotions. Promotion should be
    based on proven integrity and responsibility but this is not always the
    case. Promotions are at times based on corruption and this creates a
    system built on the vice of corruption.
    13. Lack of will to prosecute those in power. Most of the times reports on
    corruption point at influential public figures whose cases are downplayed
    as those in charge often feel like they have less power to penalize them.
    In conclusion, the causes of corruption can be said to be built around

    personal, cultural, institutional and organisational factors.

    8.3.2 Effects of corruption

    Corruption is all about taking advantage of someone else’s condition and the
    possibility of gaining from it. It becomes a social issue when it becomes an
    assumed culture whereby people in a society cannot access public services
    and resources without bribing those in authority. The result of this is that
    the poor suffer more as they lack the social networks and funds to access
    these services. National resources and opportunities therefore end up being
    owned by those in power and those with the means. The gap between the
    rich and the poor widens and oppression and exploitation become rampant.
    What results is a society whose economic development is crippled as the
    revenues supposed to develop the nation are misappropriated and unequal
    distribution of resources denying a high percentage of the population an
    opportunity to develop.
    Corruption has far reaching negative effects from the individual level,
    community level, national level, all the way to the international level. These

    effects are:

    1. Corruption undermines economic development, distorts political systems
    and halts infrastructural development.
    2. It kills a person’s sense of morality. Every act of corruption leads
    to oppression of one party to benefit another. It is therefore an act of
    immorality.
    3. A system of corruption enhances social inequality as resources are
    utilised by those in power and the rich.
    4. It leads to political instability as leaders are not elected out of integrity
    but through corrupt means.
    5. Corruption undermines human rights. A society where people are
    deprived of their rights lacks in peace and people are always in a struggle
    for a dignified life.
    6. At the community and national level, corruption slows down development
    as resources meant to drive development projects are pocketed by the
    ruling class.
    7. Corruption encourages illegal activities and crime as criminals and law
    breakers are able to bribe their way out. The rule of law is compromised.
    8. The authority and integrity of public administration structures is
    undermined.
    9. Corruption leads to depletion of national wealth. Selfish individuals use
    the national resources for personal advancement. They convert public
    wealth to private property.
    10. It also causes inflation. It is responsible for increased costs of foods and
    services as the revenue that would have been used to subsidise these
    necessities is misappropriated.
    11. Corruption leads to unequal allocation of resources which leads to
    imbalance in economic development. Some regions are improved while
    others remain marginalised.
    12. It discourages people from working together for the common good. This
    may lead to frustration and general apathy among the public which can
    create a weak civil society that is not unified.
    13. Corruption results in social inequality and widens the gap between the
    rich and the poor, causes civil strife, increased poverty and lack of basic
    needs like food, water and drugs.
    14. It also causes jealousy, hatred and insecurity.
    Corruption is therefore is a bad practice. It undermines the legitimacy of
    a government, weakens state structures, reduces productivity and hinders

    national development.

    Exercise 3

    What do you think should be done to corrupt officers in your country?

    8.4 Fair competition

    Activity 4

    Debate on the following motion: ‘Fair competition and respect are
    unattainable in modern society.’
    Fair competition means that the same rules and conditions are applied to all
    participants and that the actions of some do not affect the ability of others
    to compete. People can only compete fairly when all the advantages and
    opportunities are equally provided to all competitors.
    In trade, fair competition means a situation where business people compete
    on balanced factors such as price, quality and service. This means that there
    is no monopoly of business; rather, there is opportunity for all who are
    interested in the business.
    Healthy competition can improve a country’s economic performance. Open
    business opportunities reduce the cost of goods and services and therefore

    contributes to improving the economy.

    8.4.1 Advantages of fair competition

    1. It leads to friendship among competitors.
    2. Respect for one another.
    3. It promotes honesty and fairness in business transactions.
    4. It encourages teamwork.
    5. It promotes economic growth and poverty reduction. It can lead to
    significant reforms in the business world due to increased competition.
    6. Fair competition helps consumers to get a good deal and contentment for
    what they spend. It ensures that good quality products are produced.
    7. Fair competition leads to the urge of being better in the market. It
    encourages competitors to innovate. This reduces pressure on costs and
    produces more returns due to efficiency in production.
    8. It lowers prices for consumers.
    9. It enhances technological advancement.
    10. Consumers have a wider variety to choose from; hence they become
    more informed on different qualities of products that can be available.
    11. There is availability of products in different prices, and therefore all

    classes of people are catered for.

    8.4.2 Justification for fair competition

    If there was only one airline that was offering international transport, no
    matter the quality of the services that it would offer, travellers would have
    no option but to use it. This kind of airline can be said to be a monopoly.
    However, if the market was open and there were many other options for
    air travel, this airline would be forced to ensure that its services are of good
    quality for it to survive in the transport industry. This would ensure that

    consumers get value for their money.

    Exercise 4

    Discuss with your partner the ways in which your society tries to be fair

    to everybody.

    8.5 Respect of property rights

    Activity 5

    1. What is happening in thisl

    picture?

    2. Who do you think the pens

    belong to?

    3. Who has the right to the

    pens?






    In most cases, disagreement over who owns property or how property
    ought to be used leads to strife and at times violence. These disagreements
    arise from disrespect for property rights or unclear definition of ownership.
    Property rights determine how a resource or property is owned and used. A
    property can be owned by an individual, a group of individuals, an association

    or the government.

    Property rights are made necessary by the fact that many people live together
    either in a family, a community or the wider society. If each person lived
    alone, then there wouldn’t be a need for property rights. In essence, property
    rights help to ensure a peaceful coexistence among members of a family or
    community as they ensure that ownership to property is defined.
    Apart from ownership, property rights also determine the relationship of
    other parties linked to the property. Violation of these rights is punishable
    and this reduces incidents of disrespecting others property rights.
    A person’s property rights can be said to have been violated when:
    • someone destroys the property
    • someone uses it without permission from the owner
    Property such as land can also be infringed upon when:
    • Someone grabs the property (such as land)
    Property rights enable a property owner to have control over the property in
    the following ways:

    (i) The right to use the property - this means that a property owner has
    the right to decide whether and how to use the property. For example, if
    someone owns a piece of land, it is within their right to decide whether
    to put the land to use or not and how to use it.
    (ii) The right to earn income from the property - an owner of a property
    may decide to hire it out or put it to personal use.
    (iii) The right to transfer the property to others - this is where someone
    decides to sell his/ her property to someone else or even give it without

    any financial returns.

    (iv) The right to enforcement of property rights - this means that one
    who owns a property has the right to exercise all the rights pertaining

    ownership of that property.

    Advantages of property rights

    1. Property rights provide security for the future. This is in matters of
    inheritance of his/her property. When someone is the owner of a
    property, he/ she has the right to transfer ownership to an individual of
    choice. Once ownership has been transferred, the property rights protect
    the new owner such that no one else can claim the property.
    2. Property rights also act as a catalyst for socio- economic progress as
    people want to work hard to own their own property. If all property were
    communally owned, people would not find much prestige in owning
    property.
    3. The boundaries of how a property should be used also enhance peace
    and harmony in the society.
    4. It is a source of prestige and gives one a higher social status.
    However, property rights may lead to greed for property, capitalism, inequality

    and corruption.

    Exercise 5

    What makes it difficult for people to realise their full property rights?

    8.6 Extended work

    Imagine you have started a small business in your village. How would you

    promote fair competition in your business?

    8.7 Unit summary

    Forms of corruption

    1. Bribery
    2. Embezzlement
    3. Nepotism
    4. Patronage
    5. Theft and fraud
    6. Institutional corruption
    7. Extortation and blackmail

    8. Abuse of office

    Causes of corruption

    1. Ambiguity of laws
    2. Long procedures in carrying out a transaction (bureaucracy)
    3. Poor enforcement of law on property rights
    4. Poor governance
    5. Personal greed and desire for money or wealth
    6. The desire to serve personal interests rather than public interest

    8. Lack of awareness on law and the justice

    Effects of corruption

    1. It undermines economic development, distorts political systems and
    halts infrastructural development.
    2. It kills a person’s sense of morality.
    3. It enhances social inequality as resources are utilised by those in power
    and the rich.
    4. It leads to political instability as leaders are not elected out of integrity
    but through corrupt means.
    5. It undermines human rights.
    6. It slows down development as resources meant to drive development
    projects are pocketed by the ruling class.
    7. It encourages illegal activities and crime as criminals and law breakers
    are able to bribe their way out.
    8. The authority and integrity of public administration structures is
    undermined.
    9. It leads to depletion of national wealth.
    10. It also causes inflation.
    11. It leads to unequal allocation of resources which leads to imbalance in
    economic development.
    12. It discourages people from working together for the common good.
    13. It results in social inequality and widens the gap between the rich and
    the poor, causes civil strife, increased poverty and lack of basic needs
    like food, water and drugs.

    14. It causes jealousy, hatred and insecurity.

    Advantages of fair competition

    1. It leads to friendship among competitors.
    2. Respect for one another.
    3. It promotes honesty and fairness in business transactions.
    4. It encourages teamwork.
    5. It promotes economic growth and poverty reduction.

    6. It ensures that good quality products are produced.

    8.8 Test your competence

    1. Read the case study below then answer the questions that follow.

    Gasore had shop in his village. He had to travel for long distances to get
    goods to sell in his shop. For this reason, he sold the goods at his shop at
    double the expected price. Most villagers did not like this but had no other
    alternative.
    However, Gasore was very kind to his customers. He always packed the
    goods they bought for them with a smile. He also sold only approved goods
    and refused to deal in goods bought in the black market. For this reason, the
    villagers loved him.

    Questions

    a. Identify any unfair operating practices that Gasore engaged in.
    b. What are the fair operating practices that Gasore practised?
    c. In what way do you think the fair business practices benefitted the
    people of Gasore’s village?

    2. Read the story below then answer the questions that follow.

    There once lived a king who ruled in far island. He made all laws for his
    people. He distributed land to his people and dictated who could own what.
    He argued that everything in the island belonged to him. For this reason, he
    would take people’s property at will.
    Sometimes he would take other people’s cattle for his private party. He would
    also take their land and give to foreigners who brought him goods. This made
    the people of the island unhappy.

    Questions

    a. Do you think the king respected property rights? Explain your answer.

    b. What are the effects of not respecting property rights?

  • UNIT 9: Environmental Management and Population Dynamics

    Key unit competence: To be able to overcome environmental

    degradation.

    Introduction

    Environmental management is an issue many governments in the world
    are grappling with. Environment refers to the surrounding or conditions
    in which a person, animal or plant lives. There are six key elements of
    natural environment that are significant when talking about environmental

    degradation. These are:

    1) Atmosphere
    2) Water resources
    3) Soil
    4) Oceans
    5) Forests

    6) Living species

    Many international fora have been held to discuss ways of conserving the
    environment. Population increase has been blamed for many environmental
    problems. In this unit, we will study in depth environmental management

    and population dynamics.

    9.1 Rwandan and global environmental degradation

    Activity 1

    1. What do you think are the causes of environmental degradation?
    Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
    depletion of resources such as air, water and soil. There are many causes of

    environmental degradation. The following are some of the causes:

    1. High population growth
    2. Deforestation
    3. Wetlands encroachment
    4. Overstocking
    5. Monoculture
    6. Pollution
    7. Landfills

    8. Natural causes

    1. High population growth: Rapid population growth puts strain on
    natural resources which results in degradation of our environment. More
    population means more demand for basic needs. Most of these basic needs
    such as food, clothes and shelter are obtained from the natural resources.
    As the population increases, more space to grow food and build homes is
    needed. This leads to other factors of environmental degradation: wetland

    encroachment and deforestation.

    2. Deforestation: Deforestation involves
    lthe cutting down of trees. Trees can be
    felled for various reasons. The most
    common reasons are:
    i. To use of forest land for agriculture or
    animal grazing
    ii. To harvest wood for fuel and house
    construction
    iii. Logging to make way for more homes and industries
    3. Wetlands encroachment: Wetlands are places where there is shallow
    water or very soggy soil at least part of the time. They include marshes
    and swamps. Wetland encroachment involves intrusion of humans into such
    natural areas either for farming or settlement. Wetlands play a vital role in
    conservation of the environment. They cleanse and rejuvenate rivers. They
    also prevent flooding by holding water. In this way, wetlands help keep river
    levels normal and filter and purify the surface water. During storms, and
    whenever water levels are high wetlands accept water. When water levels are
    low, they slowly release water.
    4. Overstocking: Overstocking of grazing animals has impact on the
    environment in two major ways. First, there is the physical impact of the
    animal on soil as they move around. Secondly, there is the chemical and
    biological impact of the faeces and urine that the animals deposit to soil.
    Physically damaged soil can be even more susceptible to the chemical and
    biological impact of faeces and urine.
    5. Monoculture: Monoculture, also known as monocropping, is where
    farmers opt to specialise in farming only one type of crop year after year.
    This practice has severe implications on the environment as it depletes
    nutrients from the earth and weakens the soil making it unable to support
    healthy farming. Once the soil weakens, farmers are forced to use chemical
    fertilizers to encourage plant growth and fruit production. These chemicals
    in turn disrupt the natural make-up of the soil and contribute further to
    nutrient depletion. Monocropping also contributes to the spread of pests and
    diseases. These are further treated with chemicals. When these chemicals
    reach ground water or become airborne, pollution results.
    6. Pollution: This is the contamination of air, soil, or water by the discharge
    of harmful substances. Pollution can be on air, water or land.
    7. Landfills: A landfill is a place where refuse and other waste material are
    buried and covered with soil. They come from the large amount of waste that
    gets generated by households, industries, factories and hospitals.
    8. Natural causes: Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and
    wildfires can totally crush nearby animal and plant groups to the point where

    they can no longer survive in those areas.

    Exercise 1

    Discuss with a friend the constituents of the environment and show

    human dependence on the environment.

    Effects of environmental degradation

    Activity 2

    What effects of environmental degradation do you see around your

    school?

    1. Impact on human health: Air pollution from toxic gases coming from
    industrial exhaustion can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and
    asthma. Millions of people are known to have died due to indirect effects
    of air pollution. Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage to our ears
    when exposed to continuous high sounds like honking of vehicles on a
    busy road or machines producing a lot of noise in a factory or a mill.
    2. Global warming: This is the gradual increase in the overall temperature
    of the earth’s atmosphere. It is generally attributed to the greenhouse
    effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
    3. Loss of biodiversity: Biodiversity is the variety of life in the world or
    in a particular habitat or ecosystem. Pollution leads to loss of various
    kinds of life right from small organisms, to aquatic life to human life.
    Biodiversity is important for maintaining balance of the ecosystem. This
    happens through combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting
    water sources and stabilising climate. When any kind of life in the
    ecosystem is lost, one of these elements is affected. Deforestation, global
    warming, overpopulation and pollution are few of the major causes of

    loss of biodiversity.

    4. Ozone layer depletion: Some air pollutants lead to depletion of the
    ozone layer which is responsible for protecting the earth from harmful
    ultraviolet rays. Its depletion leads to emission of harmful radiations back
    to the earth.
    5. Effects on tourism industry: When there is water pollution and the
    green cover is replaced by plastic waste and other landfills, the natural
    environment that constitutes tourist attraction sites such as waterfalls,
    wetlands and wildlife are destroyed. This will definitely affect the tourism
    industry. Landfills are also known to produce foul smell when burned and
    they pollute the environment and destroy the beauty of the city. This can
    be a setback to tourism.
    6. Droughts: Depletion of natural resources such as forests due to
    deforestation interferes with climatic conditions such as rainfall as the
    water catchment areas are interfered with in the process. Intrusion in

    wetlands is another cause of lack of rainfall.

    7. Desertification: Cutting down of trees can lead to desertification.

    9.2 Conservation of the environment

    Activity 3

    In what ways do you think we can conserve the environment in Rwanda?
    Rwanda has done a lot towards the conservation of nature. It’s a national
    policy for all citizens to plant trees. The ‘cut one, plant two’ policy has almost
    become a common practice though it’s still challenged by the unsensitised
    members of the society. This is aimed at averting environmental degradation,
    adverse climatic changes and the sustainability of the natural environment.
    Environmental conservation is a gradual process of small changes that are
    more sustainable and can improve life. The following are ways of conserving
    and protecting our environment:
    1. Planting trees
    2. Conserving water
    3. Ensuring proper disposal of waste
    4. Using less fossil fuel-based products
    5. Buying recycled products
    6. Protecting wildlife
    7. Educating others on environment friendly habits
    Exercise 2
    With a reference to your own home as a Rwandan, explain some of
    the activities you have tried to do in order to be identified as a nature

    conservationist.

    9.3 The relationship between economic growth, social development

    and environmental protection

    Activity 4

    In groups, choose representatives and help them prepare a 5-minutes talk on
    the impact of war on the environment.
    The three concepts are closely linked in that economic growth ensures the
    satisfaction of material human needs and aspirations. This leads to social
    development.
    All human activities that are designed and implemented for the economic
    growth of a country and the social needs may impact on the environment
    either directly or indirectly.
    However, in as much as human beings strive to achieve social development,
    environmental conservation should be observed. Economic development
    is associated with technological and industrial advancement. If people are
    not sensitive to the environment, so much can go wrong in matters of the
    environment while pursuing economic growth.
    Some economic activities can be destructive to the environment even though
    they are income generating. For example, in commercial agriculture, farmers
    may have to use fertilisers and pesticides in order to have higher produce
    that maximises profits. The practice can lead to economic growth but at the
    same time the chemicals are likely to destroy the natural resources such as
    the soil and water.
    Other human activities that can have adverse effects on the environment
    include: diversion of water courses, the extraction of minerals, emission of
    heat and gases into the atmosphere due to industrial processes, deforestation
    as a result of people using trees as raw materials to make commercial
    products and genetic manipulation of natural plants to have more produce
    at lower costs.
    It is also important to note that environmental degradation can be quite
    costly to a country. The cost of land reclamation is high. These may involve
    restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and protection of
    endangered species.
    The economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry. When
    the natural resources that serve as tourists’ attraction sites are polluted and
    diminished, this impacts negatively on the tourism sector. When there are
    fewer tourists visiting a country, the revenue also goes down and as a result
    the socio- economic development of that country is affected.
    Another way in which environmental protection is related to socio- economic
    development is that pollution can cause diseases on the population. Disease
    is an economic aspect in the society because it means incurring costs in
    medical procedures and incapacitating a part of the population since when
    people get sick, they are less productive.
    Therefore, even as we strive for economic growth and social development,
    we should avoid over-exploitation of natural resources to avoid depletion. We
    should pursue development that encourages environmental sustainability.

    Exercise 3

    Discuss how man’s desire to achieve economic growth and social
    development has impacted on the environment.

    9.4 The benefits of renewable energy resources in comparison
    with unsustainable finite resources
    Activity 5

    Give the types and examples of energy resources that are used in Rwanda
    An energy resource is something that can provide energy. Energy can be
    in the form of heat, light, a force that moves objects, electricity etc. Energy
    consumption among human beings has increased over time.
    Most of the energy we use today comes from fossil fuels. These have
    consequences on the environment. This is because, they are non- renewable
    and when burnt, they produce emissions that pollute the environment. Fossil
    energy sources include oil, coal and natural gas. Fossil fuel industries drill or
    mine these energy sources, burn them to produce electricity, or refine them
    for use as fuel, for heating or transportation. A high percentage of human
    emissions come from burning fossil fuel.
    Energy sources can be classified into two types: non-renewable and

    renewable.

    1. Non-renewable energy resources are the resources that can be exhausted
    by use. Examples of these are the fossil fuels which include coal, gas, oil
    etc. They are also referred to as unsustainable finite resources.
    2. Renewable energy resources are those that regenerate as fast as they are
    consumed and are continually available. Examples are: wind, water, solar
    and geothermal.
    There are many forms of renewable energy. Most of these renewable
    energies depend in one way or another on sunlight. Solar energy is the direct

    conversion of sunlight using panels or collectors.

    9.4.1 The advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy

    resources

    Advantages

    1. They are renewable and therefore sustainable. They will never run out.
    2. Renewable energy facilities generally require less maintenance than
    traditional generations. Their fuel is generated from natural and available
    resources which reduces the costs of operation.
    3. Renewable resources produce little or no waste products, hence they
    have minimal impact on the environment.
    4. Renewable energy projects can extend economic benefits to many
    geographical areas since most projects are located away form large urban
    centers and suburbs of capital cities. These economic benefits may be

    from the increased use of local services as well as tourism.

    Disadvantages

    1. It’s difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are as large as
    those produced by non-renewable fuel generations. This implies that
    we may need to reduce the amount of energy facilities or if not, have a
    balance of many different power sources.
    2. There is unreliability of supply because renewable energy relies on the
    weather for its source of power. Hydro generations need rain to fill dams
    to supply flowing water. This causes unpredictability and inconsistence.
    3. The current cost of renewable energy technology is by far higher than
    the fossil fuel generation. This is because it is a new technology and as

    such it has a large capital investment.

    9.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of non-renewable energy

    resources

    Advantages

    1. They seem abundant e.g. oil, gas and coal. It is believed that if channelled
    correctly, the supplies will be safe for the future generations.
    2. They seem widely available and affordable e.g. oil and diesel are still good
    choices for powering vehicles. They are cost effective and much easy to
    produce and use. They have market value e.g. the produce makes money
    and pays workers. This boosts the economy.
    3. The non-renewable energy sources base can help the governments
    to possess bargaining tool to help their economy stay afloat despite
    struggling with their trade practices
    .
    Disadvantages

    1. Because they come from sources on earth, once they are used up, they
    can’t be replaced or revitalised.
    2. Pollution through the products they leave behind and mining causes
    damages to the environment. Fossil fuels contribute to global warming
    through the high levels of emissions that they produce.
    In conclusion, renewable energy resources, unlike the non-renewable
    resources, are sustainable. They can never run out and hence the future

    generation can also use them.

    Exercise 4

    a) Identify some of the key resources that man harvests from nature for
    survival but must be consumed sustainably.
    b) Explain the merits and demerits of the different types of energy

    resources used in Rwanda.

    9.5 Extended Work

    a) In your groups, you have about 3 weeks to research information about an
    energy saving stove, write detailed notes on how it is constructed.
    b) You are then advised to use local raw materials to construct an energy

    saving stove which you will share with your parents.

    9.6 Unit summary

    Causes of global degradation

    1. High population growth
    2. Deforestation
    3. Wetlands encroachment
    4. Overstocking
    5. Monoculture
    6. Pollution
    7. Landfills

    8. Natural causes

    Effects of environmental degradation

    1. Ill health
    2. Global warming
    3. Loss of biodiversity
    4. Ozone layer depletion
    5. Desertification
    6. Decreased earnings from tourism
    7. Drought
    How to conserve the environment
    1. Planting trees
    2. Conserving water
    3. Ensuring proper disposal of waste
    4. Using less fossil fuel-based products
    5. Buying recycled products
    6. Protecting wildlife

    7. Educating others on environment friendly habits

    9.7 Test your competence

    Read the case study below and then answer the question that follows.

    Charles lived on the slopes of a mountain. He kept so many cattle in his
    small piece of land. Because they destroyed all the vegetation in his land, soil
    erosion became a problem to him. Gulleys cut across his farm. His animals
    could not cross from one side of the farm to the other. Soon, they had little

    to eat. To reclaim the land, Charles started building gabions.

    Question

    Write an essay showing the environmental degradation that Charles faced
    and the approaches he used to conserve his farm. Suggest other possible

    conservation methods that Charles could use.

  • UNIT 10:Scientific Research, Health and Well Being

    Key unit competence: To be able to analyse the role of science and

    technology to improve healthy behaviours.

    Introduction

    This unit is about the major role played by science and education in enhancing
    health in the social lives of Rwandan citizens and the world at large.
    Study these pictures and say how they promote or show decline of good

    health in the society.

    l

    10.1 Rwanda’s socio – economic and demographic indicators

    (RDHS)

    A

    10.1.1 Incidence and prevalence of HIV/AIDS by age and

    gender

    Activity 1

    Study the graph below showing HIV prevalence by age as captured in

    Rwanda in 2011. In groups, answer the question that follows.

    l

    Question

    Explain the HIV prevalence in the following age brackets:
    a) Below 15 years
    b) 15 – 24 years
    c) Above 25 years

    Even though Rwanda was among the first African countries to record cases
    of HIV and AIDS, she has had a remarkable improvement in the war against
    AIDS with incidents of HIV and AIDS mortality dropping with more than
    8% per year. This can be seen in the decreasing new cases of infection per
    year. For example: During the early 1990s, Rwanda experienced over 25,000
    new HIV cases per year. In 2013, the country recorded about 10,200 new
    HIV infections, half the number in the previous decade even as the overall
    population grew. Studies have also showed that 83% of Rwandans living with
    HIV and AIDS have successfully repressed the virus. This improvement can
    be attributed to the Rwandan government’s early action and high standards
    for HIV care.
    According to a study carried out by United Nations in the year 2014, people
    living with HIV and AIDS in Rwanda were estimated to be 210, 000 of the
    total population. 190, 000 of these were adults aged 15 years and above and
    22, 000 were children aged 0-14 years. 85, 000 children were orphaned as a
    result of AIDS. Deaths caused by AIDS in 2014, were estimated to be 3,000.
    From these numbers, it is estimated that 60% of the adult population living
    with HIV/AIDS are women.
    HIV and AIDS is more prevalent among women and girls than their male
    peers in every age group. Young women aged 18-19 years are 10 times more
    likely to acquire HIV and AIDS than young men of the same age. HIV and
    AIDS is higher among women living in urban areas, those who are widowed,
    divorced or separated, women with secondary education or higher, and
    among those living in the highest wealthy class. In the 20-24 age categories,
    young women have a 5 times higher risk of HIV and AIDS infection than
    their male peers.
    Among men, HIV and AIDS prevalence is higher among older men, although
    men have a lower HIV and AIDS prevalence than women in all age groups
    except those aged 40-44. It is higher in men living in urban areas, those who
    are divorced or separated, and those with no education. Research also shows
    that HIV and AIDS is more common among the wealthy men than the poor.
    From these statistics on HIV and AIDS prevalence, it is clear that a large
    population of those at risk of HIV and AIDS are in the most productive age
    of their lives. In addition to the health strain this condition puts on individuals
    and their families, it is also significant to the country’s economy because
    when a large population of the most productive workforce either lose their
    lives or the capacity to take up their responsibilities, the whole economy is
    distabilised. Orphaned children also may lack opportunities to better their
    lives, such as education and moral support. A large amount of the country’s
    resources are also directed to medical concerns and matters of development

    no longer get first priority. What results is a weak economy.

    Exercise 1

    The table below shows the HIV prevalence by age and gender among
    Rwandans in 2013. Study it and answer the questions that follow.

    HIV prevalence by age and sex

    l

    Source: Rwanda AIDS Indicator and HIV Incidence Survey 2013 (Rwanda
    Biomedical Centre)
    Questions
    1. Explain HIV prevalence among men.
    2. Explain HIV prevalence among women.

    3. Comment on the general prevalence of HIV by age in Rwanda.

    10.1.2 Infant and maternal mortality rate

    Activity 2

    Study the table below showing the evolution of child mortality rate between

    1978 and 2012 by sex and then answer the questions that follow.

    l

    Sources: Rwandan 1978, 1991, 2002 and 2012 Censuses (NISR) as
    captured in January 2014 Thematic Report: Mortality by National

    Institute of Statistics of Rwanda.

    Questions

    1. Explain the trend that can be seen in the table above.
    2. Critically analyse this trend giving reasons why this trend is the way it is.
    3. Why do you think the mortality rate among males is higher than that of
    females?
    According to the table shown in Activity 1, infant mortality has been going
    down in Rwanda. This is except for the year 2002 when it went up. However,
    with the improved quality of health services provided by the government,
    the situation has improved drastically. This has dropped to a record low of
    deaths among males and deaths among females by 2012.
    The major cause of mortality amongst children is malaria, followed by
    anaemia, acute respiratory infection, and diarrhoea – all of which are
    preventable through comprehensive and well-coordinated interventions,
    such as the distribution of mosquito nets, improved access to water and
    sanitation, better cooking stoves, and simple health interventions such as

    rehydration salts (Ministry of Health et al 2009)

    Exercise 2

    Explain the causes of child mortality as displayed in the pie chart below.

    k

    10.1.3 Factors contributing to a reduction in infant mortality rate

    1. The increase in skilled health care providers during childbirth has been
    especially important for women and for children. The government of
    Rwanda has been improving the maternal health services by ensuring
    that there are enough trained doctors, nurses and midwives to offer the
    required services in ensuring that there are as few death cases as possible
    associated with maternity and child care. By 2012, there was one doctor
    per 16,000 people and one nurse per 1,300 people. Before 1997, Rwanda
    had no trained midwives, but now there are around 1,000.
    2. Improvements in immunisation to children of five years and below and
    exclusive breastfeeding of children up to six months after birth have also
    been very effective in reducing child mortality in Rwanda.
    3. The fact that parents have been encouraged to plan their families to a size
    they can provide sufficient care for, has also been a positive factor towards
    maintaining healthy families, where mothers have good reproductive
    health and children are have access to health facilities and live healthily.

    Today the average family size in Rwanda is about four children per family.

    Exercise 3

    1. Brainstorm on the causes of the high HIV and AIDS prevalence in the
    Rwandan society.
    2. There has been an improvement on the maternity related deaths
    in Rwanda since 1994. Explain some of the reasons leading to the

    improvement.

    10.2 Medical research and ethics on HIV and AIDS

    Activity 3

    There are many diseases today whose cause, cure/ prevention are
    known. In groups brainstorm on how these causes, cure or prevention
    were discovered.
    Medical research refers to an organised way to learn more about health
    in general, and also about better ways to prevent and treat diseases in the
    future. Research involves finding out the facts about a situation in order to
    address it in the best way possible. Without research therefore, leaders in a
    government would be making decisions based on assumptions which can at
    times be untrue. This makes it absolutely important especially on matters
    of health such as HIV and AIDS. The government of Rwanda has come up
    with policies that encourage research such as The Health Sector Research
    Policy which establishes research projects on three main communicable
    diseases; HIV and AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. Research on these areas
    will enhance proper use of resources in the prevention and treatment of
    these diseases.
    In conducting this research, information has to come from the people within
    the society. Most of the sources of information may be victims of the disease.
    Therefore people seeking this information have to be sensitive and have the
    right judgement of the right approach to use; rules and standards can also
    be applied to draw a line on what is acceptable and what is not when doing
    research on HIV and AIDS. These specific rules and values are known as
    ethics.
    Ethics are specific values, standards, rules and agreements people adopt to
    conduct any practice such as professions.
    The medical profession is one that critically requires ethics because it
    deals with delicate social matters and if not ethically practised, can cause

    psychological and social harm to the people concerned.

    Ethics on HIV and AIDS research

    Activity 4

    If you were a researcher, how would you apply ethics to get information
    about HIV and AIDS from patients suffering from the disease?
    HIV and AIDS is a disease characterised by a suppressed immune system. Its
    cure is yet to be discovered but research by doctors has come up with Antiretro
    viral drugs that help in HIV/AIDS management. With the ARV therapy,
    patients can realise their full lives. HIV/ AIDS just like any other disease is a
    sensitive issue especially when victims are involved and as such professionals
    must apply ethics when gathering information for research purposes.
    The following are some of the ethics to be observed:
    1. Matters of socio-cultural setting must be considered. When conducting
    research, AIDS should be viewed as a disease that affects humans not
    merely biologically, but also socially in terms of their conceptions of
    sexual behavior and their belief systems of disease, illness and sickness.
    2. There is need observe medical ethics in order to avoid stigma in the
    process of research. ‘Vulnerable populations’ refers to people in need
    of special care, support, or protection because of risk of abuse or
    neglect. For example; if not treated with respect and human dignity,
    people suffering from HIV and AIDS can be vulnerable to stigma. That
    is why it is important to be sensitive and conscious to other people’s
    vulnerability when conducting research.
    3. In order to interview or take any pictures of individuals, they must be
    well informed of how the information will be used for them to make
    a decision whether they want to be involved or not. This aspect is
    called informed consent. It is against ethics to gather information from
    children in the absence of an adult who’s taking responsibility of them.
    4. The dignity and rights of vulnerable populations must be upheld.
    Matters of privacy and confidentiality, of people suffering from HIV
    and AIDS must be observed. Individual health status is confidential to
    the individual. When gathering data on HIV and AIDS from people, the
    information gathered should be maintained anonymous as a way of
    protecting them from any unwanted negative publicity.
    5. Stigma and discrimination; because of the stigma surrounding HIV
    and AIDS, many people are unwilling to openly discuss the illness.
    According to UNAIDS, ‘The stigma associated with AIDS has silenced
    open discussion, both of its causes and of appropriate responses.
    6. Considering this situation the risk of harm when researching on HIV
    and AIDS must be minimal. Participation in giving information and
    informed consent must be carefully obtained; consent should be given
    not due to desperation or lack of other options but out of willingness.
    7. Fair representation of both sexes when doing research is part of ethics.

    This is because, some cultures consider women inferior and this may

    lead to gender imbalance especially if the information gathered is
    meant to be used in decision making for the whole society. Sexual roles
    and gender relationships play a great role in the understanding of HIV
    and AIDS.
    The power set up in the society between men and women influences HIV
    transmission. Women are attributed lower rank in many societies, making
    them particularly vulnerable to HIV infection as they lack the support and
    socio-economic status to fully determine their sexual relations. That is, in
    some traditional cultures, women do not have the power to determine who
    their sexual partners are. When collecting data therefore, researchers should
    make sure that their sources represent both sexes fairly. In this way, the
    information gathered will not be biased in any way.
    In conclusion, it is important to note that as much as medical research is
    important in determining crucial social aspects such as ways of controlling
    the spread of HIV and AIDS and improving human life, the process of research
    must be undertaken with responsibility. Ethics should guide any research in
    order to avoid socio- cultural/ psychological harm to the interviewees or the

    people helping in giving information

    Exercise 4

    As partners discuss the ways in which you would ethically relate with
    your friend if he/she openly shared with you that he/she is HIV positive.

    Refer both to school and community environments.

    10.3 The role of health education in promoting sustainable

    health behaviour in relation to HIV/ AIDS and reproductive

    health

    Activity 5

    You must have some knowledge on how unbalanced diet, unhygienic
    habits and irresponsible sexual behaviour cause diseases. Share your
    knowledge in groups.
    Health education is a process of learning aimed at helping people to improve
    their health by adding on to their knowledge and influencing their attitude
    towards a healthier lifestyle. Education plays a great role in exposing people
    to information about possible causes of diseases and therefore enlightens
    them on preventive measures. Diseases come in different circumstances;
    some are caused by unhygienic habits such as failure to adopt hand washing
    habits or not boiling drinking water, others are caused by poor diet such
    unbalanced nutrition.
    Reproductive health refers to a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing
    in all matters relating to the reproductive system, at all stages of life.

    Importance of health education on reproductive health

    1. Education on sexuality and health imparts skills on how to relate
    appropriately with people of the opposite sex and other interpersonal
    relationships, such as relationships with parents and peers. Communication
    and decision making when it comes to peer pressure and knowledge
    about the body and how it functions, the menstrual cycle of girls, among
    other related topics on sexuality are some of the important things to
    learn.
    2. Health education saves lives and improves reproductive health.
    Reproductive health education in most developing countries has not
    been well utilised because discussion of issues such as sexual intercourse
    and sexuality make people feel uncomfortable. This influences parents
    and guardians and other knowledgeable members of the society to be
    silent on reproductive health matters. This has consequences because
    teenagers due to lack of knowledge end up messing up by experimenting
    their sexuality and through peer influence, they engage in irresponsible
    sexual behaviour.
    3. People especially women have lost their lives due to reproductive health
    related issues. Care before and during pregnancy, during delivery and
    after childbirth saves women’s and children’s lives and prevents ill health
    and disabilities.
    4. A number of people especially adolescents contract sexually transmitted
    infections due to lack of knowledge on how to prevents the spread and
    treatment of such diseases.
    5. Prevention of unwanted pregnancies can reduce cases of unsafe abortion
    which is one of the causes of maternal deaths.
    6. Sexual and reproductive health information and services can reduce
    the prevalence of STIs, including HIV, to which many young people are
    especially vulnerable.
    7. Sexual and reproductive health care education can also be a way to
    engage men as well as address gender roles and responsibilities, gender
    based violence, sexual abuse and harmful practices. Some of the harmful
    sexual behaviour include sexual harassment and abuse cases such as
    rape.
    8. Girls between the ages of 20-24 years are more vulnerable to STIs including
    HIV than young men. Despite this situation, they rarely make use of the
    available health services partly due to the fact that they have little or no
    knowledge on how to best use them when they need them. Increased
    knowledge and a positive attitude towards acquiring reproductive health
    knowledge is necessary among the youth. This will no doubt reduce the
    risk of infection and facilitate treatment to those already affected.
    9. It fosters knowledge of positive living by giving guidance to those suffering
    from HIV and AIDS and other diseases on how to go about treatment
    and live their lives as desired by working towards achieving their goals.
    In the same way, discrimination and stigmatisation against any member
    of society on the basis of his/ her health situation is highly discouraged.
    This is because all members of the society should live harmoniously
    supporting each other in order to achieve social cohesion.

    The following activities are important in carrying out reproductive health
    education:
    • Promotion of healthy sexual behaviour; this includes, abstinence, proper
    use of condoms and avoiding high risk sexual behaviour such as: having
    multiple sex partners, or engaging in commercial sex relationships.
    • Encouraging the use of health services for diagnosis and treatmentfor
    example, in case an individual develops symptoms of a sexually
    transmitted disease, he/ she should seek medical diagnosis and advice
    on treatment.
    • Prevention and care at the primary healthcare level- emphasis should
    be put on preventive lifestyles rather than curative measures. That is
    even though there is cure for the sexually transmitted diseases, the best
    approach should be to abstain from irresponsible sexual behaviour, as
    this helps in maintaining a well lived life without early responsibilities of
    parenting and also keeps one safe from diseases and anxieties of early
    pregnancy.
    • Encouraging parent/ guardian/ teacher/ peer educator to adolescent
    communication on sexual matters- adolescents should be able to open
    up on their challenges in order to get proper advice.
    In a nutshell therefore, reproductive health education, empowers the
    vulnerable members of the society especially adolescents and women by
    equipping them with knowledge on the best way to approach issues of sexual
    and reproductive health. It is also relevant to the male gender in encouraging

    a responsible sexual behaviour.

    Exercise 5

    The picture shows Gasore and his
    omother. His mother is talking to him
    about responsible sexual behaviour.
    What is the importance of holding such

    talks with our parents/guardians?

    10.4 The impact of progress and innovation in science and

    technology including ICT

    Activity 6

    Imagine a world without the technological gadgets shown. How different

    would it be from the current situation?

    k

    Technology has been part of our lives it plays very crucial roles in our daily
    lives. Practically almost all sectors of life involve use of technology. It saves
    life, makes work easier and the world a better place to live in.
    Innovation is creating new value or modifying what already exists into
    something more valuable and efficient.
    Innovation can be viewed as appreciation of better solutions that meet
    arising needs. Some of the ways in which innovation occurs is by:

    1. Creating new technology in infrastructure such as communication and
    transport
    2. New production techniques in production enterprises or
    3. New farming methods in agriculture
    The question then is: how does this innovation impact on science and
    technology?
    Science is the coordinated human effort to understand the history of the
    world and how it works. Scientists apply the knowledge and understanding
    of the natural world to improve the living conditions.
    Technology refers to knowledge that deals with the creation and use of
    technical means. Innovation therefore is central to technology since it is all
    about creation that adds value to the existing means.
    Innovation also directly impacts on science as it makes it easier to carry out
    scientific procedures of finding evidence and meaning of nature in relation
    to social life.
    Innovation has led to advances in science and technology and in return due
    to the increased ability to create, distribute and exploit knowledge there has
    been an improvement in wealth creation and the quality of life.
    ICT (Information and Communications Technology) is evidence of how great
    an impact innovation can have on the society. Were it not for innovation,
    the information and communications industry would not be as advanced
    as it is today. So many applications have been innovated on cell phones
    and computers which make life easier and more comfortable. Individuals,
    companies and governments have been empowered to use more efficient
    means in going about their businesses. For example, through the introduction
    of electronic business transactions such as western union, banking, money
    transfers and other ways of electronic commerce. An example is M-pesa in
    Kenya, a mobile payment under vodaphone subsidiary Safaricom.
    Business has also been enabled online via internet. Companies transact their
    services on the website which makes it convenient and reduces costs.
    Social life has also been upgraded through availability of advanced technology
    in entertainment and media such as radio networks and television, music
    systems and internet. Communication via social media also provides a
    medium for people to interact and share ideas which is a major aspect of
    development. It has led to introduction of improved social media platforms
    including the internet, Facebook, Twitter and Skype through the use of
    electronic gadgets such as computers and mobile and the mobile phones. All
    these make communication easy, cheap and convenient.
    The internet has made it possible for people from all over the world to share
    knowledge on virtually all fields. This provides information for research
    purposes in scientific research. This includes health research about HIV and
    AIDS and other epidemics like Ebola, Marburg, Yellow fever, food science
    research, medical research for vaccines, synthetic biology, medical theories
    and technologies, and climatic research. Researchers can access scientific
    information from the internet which links the whole world irrespective of
    space and time.
    Innovation can be shared as knowledge through institutions that offer
    technology courses and inspire creativity in young minds. In this way, human
    capacity is built and an enabling environment provided for future innovation.
    This spurs economic growth at the national and global level.
    Innovation has also led to improvement in education. This is because teachers
    can use technology such as projections as their teaching tools so as to cater
    for visual aids of learning.
    Innovation is playing a significant role in health. Most medical procedures
    including tests and treatments are done through technology. In the past it
    was difficult to carry out medical checkups because doctors/physicians
    didn’t have tools but now, technology has made it very easy.
    There are many diseases without cure and many treatments for diseases that
    still need to be improved.
    In the transport system, technology eases movement of both people
    and goods. This is made possible by the existence of various means of
    transport such as the road, water or air transportation. Since transport has
    made movement over long distances possible, people are able to travel to
    other continents and this enhances cultural interaction and international
    relationships.
    The use of traffic lights to coordinate movement and control traffic congestion
    is a result of technology. Innovators are still coming up with new ideas on
    how to conserve the environment while still embracing technology. For
    example ideas have been proposed on alternative sources of energy apart
    from the commonly used fossil fuels.
    Agricultural sector has also greatly improved as a result of technological
    advancement. Through progress and innovation highly productive seeds,
    animal species and environmental-friendly agricultural fertilisers have been
    invented. This has improved commercial and subsistence farming in different
    global societies, thereby improving global economic development.
    Innovation provides a source of income to so many people. Information
    Technology experts, for example, in sharing their knowledge through teaching
    or in business deals such as mobile phone and other electronics traders are
    able to earn a living from it. Businesses also earn revenue for the country,
    China for example is widely known for its extensive businesses in mobile
    phone trade.
    In conclusion, progress in innovation contributes a great deal to science
    and technology as it is the backbone of all technology. Without the creation
    and invention of new ideas technology and science would not advance.
    Technological advancement has far reaching implications most of which are
    positive as already discussed as it decreases the need for manpower and is
    time saving e.g. use of computers and home appliances such as washing
    machines, cookers, among others. Some implications however can be
    detrimental. For example: environmental pollution, moral values degradation
    due to uncontrolled information from the internet and disruption of natural
    relationships among members of a society as people get used to use of
    electronic gadgets over interpersonal social interaction.

    Exercise 6

    In your groups, discuss in detail the impact that science and technology
    has had on the Rwandan health sector in the last decade
    .
    10.5 Extended work
    Either

    1. Refer to any orphanage in your country. Identify and explain the reasons
    for the high numbers of children living in orphanages in Rwanda.
    2. What challenges do the caretakers face and have they tried to overcome
    them?
    Or
    You have been asked to find out the causes of the HIV/AIDS prevalence
    particularly in your community. What ethical values are you going to observe?
    What challenges do public health units face with HIV/AIDS patients and
    how have they been tackled?

    10.6 Unit summary
    Medical research and ethics on HIV and AIDS

    1. Be sensitive to the beliefs and culture of people involved.
    2. Avoid any form of stigma in the process of research.
    3. Seek permission from participations, subjects or their guardians
    beforehand.
    4. Respect the dignity and rights of all.

    Ways in which health education promotes sustainable reproductive
    health

    1. It imparts skills on how to relate appropriately with people of the
    opposite sex.
    2. It saves lives and improves reproductive health.
    3. It equips women with knowledge on the necessary measures to take
    during and after pregnancy in order to have healthy children and also
    live healthy lives.
    4. It equips adolescents with knowledge on how to manage and prevent
    the spread of sexually transmitted infections.
    5. It reduces cases of unsafe abortions and maternal deaths.

    10.7 Test your competence

    1. Discuss the impact of health education on the lives of the people of
    Rwanda.
    2. Explain how progress in innovation, science and technology have

    affected the medical field and therefore people’s lives.

  • UNIT 11:Heritage and Culture

    Key unit competence: To be able to appreciate national heritage,

    cultural preservation and recognise their impact on lifestyle.

    Introduction

    As Rwandans, there are things that belong to us by virtue of being born in

    Rwanda. There are also historical events or processes that have a special
    meaning in our memory. Then there are sites that are of great significance to
    us all and which have been registered by the government as being of national
    importance to the history of the nation. All these things are what we can
    collectively refer to as our heritage. This unit explores national heritage, the

    elements that characterise it and ways in which it can be preserved.

    Activity 1

    Study the pictures below. Say what is shown in each picture.

    2

    11.1 Elements of national heritage

    In Activity 1, you identified some things that are specific to us as Rwandans.
    These form a part our national heritage. Our national heritage includes all
    those cultural aspects or traditions that have been passed down through
    generations. Broadly, there are three elements of national heritage. These

    are:

    1. Fabric
    2. Stories

    3. Culture

    1. Fabric

    Activity 2

    What do the following pictures show about Rwanda?.

    l

    l

    The pictures above show different fabrics that identify us as Rwandans: the
    national flag, the umushanana dress code and the modern dress. However,
    the national fabric goes beyond just our dress. It involves physical structures
    and objects that carry memories and have symbolic meanings to the people.
    These can be greenstones, old bottles, objects left behind by early settlers or
    even reminder of our culture such as the presidential palace in Kanombe and
    the King’s palace in Nyanza.
    It also involves our social fabric: the values we consider important and
    the way we relate with one another. To instill the right values and promote
    social cohesion which strengthens our social fabric, programmes such as the
    following are carried out in Rwanda:
    a. Itorero
    Traditional Itorero was a cultural school where Rwandans would learn
    language, patriotism, social relations, sports, dancing, songs and defence. This
    system was created so that young people could grow with an understanding of
    their culture. Participants were encouraged to discuss and explore Rwandan
    cultural values. The tradition of Itorero also provided formative training for
    future leaders.
    As part of efforts to reconstruct Rwanda and nurture a shared national
    identity, the Government of Rwanda drew on aspects of Rwandan culture
    and traditional practices to enrich and adapt its development programs to the
    country’s needs and context. The result is a set of Home Grown Solutions -
    culturally owned practices translated into sustainable development programs.
    One of these Home Grown Solutions is the Civic Education Program, also
    known as Itorero.
    Itorero was reintroduced in 2009 as a way to rebuild the nation’s social
    fabric and mobilise Rwandans to uphold important cultural values. The
    culture of an intore (a person who has received the teachings of Itorero)
    is regarded highly. Itorero creates opportunities for participants to enhance
    positive values, build a sense of responsibility through patriotism and gain
    professional knowledge.
    The National Itorero Commission is responsible for overseeing the
    implementation of the program and of ensuring that Rwandans from all walks
    of life have the opportunity to take part. Between 2007 and 2012, Itorero
    ry’Igihugu (the National Itorero Commission) trained 284,207 intore including
    teachers, executive secretaries, farmers, community policing committees
    and members of the Rwandans abroad community.

    b. Ndi Umunyarwanda

    Rwanda is a country that has had more divisive politics than mostpostindependence
    African states. It is this division that led to the 1994 genocide
    against the Tutsi in which many lives were lost. Keeping quiet and hoping
    that people will forget this and move on with their lives is likely to pose a
    danger of future recurrence.
    To avoid this, the leadership of Rwanda aims to inculcate true Rwandanness
    (Ndi Umunyarwanda) among all Rwandans, founded upon Rwanda’s national
    philosophy – Agaciro. This is to be done through the Ndi Umunyarwanda
    programme. This programme aims at bringing reconciliation and with it the
    essence of our nationhood. This will lead to national cohesion and unity of

    purpose.

    2. Stories

    Activity 3

    In groups, narrate to each other stories that you have heard from your
    grandparents or older relatives
    Stories, such as the ones you told each other in Activity 3 from a great part
    of our national heritage. They are an easy way of communicating societal
    norms, values and morals. They also describe both real and fictional events
    that have occurred over time explaining happenings over the course of
    history. We often encounter stories through reading, listening from oral
    tradition especially in folk tales and watch them from documentaries that are
    visual records of historical occurrences. They describe and explain history.
    Oral traditions are told with so much creativity and this makes them interesting
    to share. They enhance understanding of the past practices or people’s way
    of life and make meaning of our cultures clearer.
    Apart from oral traditions, stories can be told in other ways: written literature,
    recorded stories as in videos and movies etc. They can be creatively
    constructed or told as real events. Real stories remind us of the people
    involved in major events of our history and the places where these events
    happened as well as the processes involved. Creative stories on the other
    hand, are constructed to represent the real events. They are told in a more
    interesting way. They include legends, songs, plays, folk tales, epics, etc.
    For example in Rwanda, there are the royal myths called lbitekerezo which
    means thoughts and narratives of past events.
    There is also royal poetry known as the lbisigo. This is a record of the deeds
    of the kings in peotic form. It existed from ancient times.
    The ubucurabwenge is a list of the order of kings of Rwanda beginning with
    the reigning king to the first king of man; son of king Shyerezo Nkuba.

    It is through stories that generations pass on their identity and heritage.

    3. Culture

    Activity 4

    Study the following pictures in groups. Explain how they form part of our

    culture.

    k

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    The pictures you studied above form a part of the Rwandan culture. The
    clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses we live in, our costumes and
    other items of art, the language we speak and the ceremonies we celebrate
    make up our culture. But culture goes beyond these. It also includes the
    practices, beliefs, values, and symbols that we share, and that are passed
    along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
    Rwanda is blessed with a very rich culture as shown in the pictures above.

    The following are other examples of the Rwandan culture.

    a. Intore dance

    Intore is a sort of war dance which encourages those who wage war or hunt.
    It is also danced in the royal court to cheer up the king. The carefully selected
    dancers are called intore. Intore means “the elite” or “leader.” Those who are
    part of an Intore troupe are selected for their exceptional physical and moral
    qualities. During their training, not only do they learn to dance but they also
    receive education in moral values. The Intore dancer is characterised by

    elegance and littleness.

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    Intore dancers

    b. Umuganura (Harvest day)

    Umuganura means “Thanks Giving Day”. It was performed by Rwandans
    at the beginning of every harvest. It was a very big event in the kingdom
    as Rwandans celebrated their achievements in terms of harvest both at the
    kingdom and family level.
    Umuganura today has broadened its meaning from formally being agro-based
    harvest to include achievements from other sectors that have contributed
    to the development of the country such as: health, education, ICT, sports,
    mining, infrastructure, culture, tourism etc. The aim, like it was in early days
    of celebrating Umuganura, is to thank God for the harvest and to strategise

    for the next season to ensure that the harvest is good.

    u

    Participants in Umuganura

    c. Inkinimba

    Inkinimba dance is usually performed by the farmers to celebrate their
    harvest. It can also be performed when telling stories about the Rwandese
    culture, history or when praising the Rwandese heroes and kings. It is the

    symbol of strength and stamina, specifically for cattle farmers.

    11.2 The role of cultural preservation

    Activity 5

    You have already learnt a lot about culture. Why do you think it is
    necessary to preserve culture? Discuss in groups.
    Since times are changing and people are becoming westernised, culture
    has greatly changed. What was culturally acceptable ten years ago may
    not be embraced in today’s cultural context. Therefore it is necessary to
    preserve culture. The following are some of the reasons for preserving

    culture:

    1. It safeguards a community’s traditions, good practices and ways of life
    from being eroded.
    2. It enables in a country to keep its heritage and maintain it.

    3. It guides on performance of cultural practices such as naming of children, payment of dowry and burying the dead.

    How culture can be preserved

    Activity 6

    Discuss ways in which culture can be preserved?
    We can preserve culture in the following ways:
    1. Participating in family traditions. For example sharing religious beliefs
    or customs valued by one’s parents enables one to understand and
    appreciate culture, which causes one to respect and honour that aspect
    of cultural heritage.
    2. Learning to speak the ancestral language that an individual is born into.
    Language comprises idioms, proverbs and music, which express the
    values of a specific group of people.
    3. Sharing knowledge and information about each culture’s way of dress,
    music, art and storytelling.
    4. Keeping traditional artwork in museums as cultural artifacts.
    5. Through social gatherings where songs, proverbs and stories can be
    shared. For example, in Rwanda culture is preserved in oral literature

    such as:

    • Amateka y’Imiryango - histories of major families.
    • Ibyivugo - self praises and heroic poetry
    • Indirimbo z’Ingabo - army music
    • Amaziha y’inka - pastoral poetry
    • Imyasiro - hunting poetry.
    • Imigani - proverbs and sayings
    • Ibisakuzo - riddles and enigmas

    • Inanga - songs by stringed instruments.

    6. Maintaining family history through giving children names of dead

    ancestors in order to keep their legacy and name alive.

    11.3 Impact of differing cultures on lifestyle and habits

    Activity 7

    In your class, look at the various classmate’s favourite sports. If you do
    not know, ask them. Do you find girls to prefer certain games to others?
    How about boys? Do you think their preference has anything to do with
    culture?
    Are men expected to behave in a certain way according to culture? How
    about girls? What are some of these expectations?
    The term lifestyle can mean interest, opinions or habits that define how an
    individual or group of people lives. Lifestyle entails both psychological and
    physical factors. The physical factors that influence life styles include the
    following; the economic status of a person, level of education, geographical
    location, gender, age among others. Psychological factors on the other hand
    include the personal values, preferences and cultural orientations.
    Culture therefore is a major aspect that influences how individuals live in
    other words their lifestyle.
    As discussed earlier, culture can be viewed from the physical symbols of a
    community or mere practices and beliefs. A rural setting promotes a more
    defined culture as compared to an urban setting due to the fact that in the
    rural area the people living there share the values that constitute culture
    while in urban areas there is a mix of cultures as people migrate from various
    cultural backgrounds and come together. In the rural also, there is more open
    space which encourages a social life unlike in towns where the open space
    is limited hence individualism results. This is why most cultural practices are
    widely practised in the rural areas.
    Differing cultures impact on lifestyle and habits in the following ways:
    (i) The food one is likely to prefer is to a large extent determined by how an
    individual has been socialised, that is the cultural background. In most
    cultures, certain food types are meant for men as they are perceived
    to need more heavy meals. This is due to the fact that gender roles in
    the society define the manual works needing more energy as masculine
    roles hence meant for men. The way foods are prepared is also a cultural
    aspect. A lot has however changed in the recent past as the traditional
    cooking methods are gradually being replaced by western ideas on how
    food should be cooked. Food preferences are also changing. People
    seem to be shifting from the natural foods from the farm to processed
    foods. This is especially happening in towns.
    (ii) The mode of dressing is also determined by culture. This is however
    being eroded as people adapt to the western influences on dressing.
    (iii) The kind of houses people live in is another aspect of lifestyle influenced
    by culture. Not only the type of the house but also the way in which
    people share their spaces influenced by culture in various ways. In some
    cultures for example, parents should not share a roof with their children
    who are married. Others have specific positions where individuals
    should have their houses built depending on their status in the family.
    This is also changing over time as contact with other cultures through
    education, urbanisation and media has slowly dissolved these values
    and today a very small space can be shared by all members of the family
    including the in-laws.
    (iv) Cultural setup also shapes attitude among members of a community. For
    example, some cultures exalt men above women and men view women
    to be inferior on the basis of gender. This leads to habits of disregarding
    girls to an extent of denying them education in some places. In the same
    regard, boys grow with the belief that they are supposed to be manly and
    not show emotion. That they should be tough and do the heavier duties
    in the society, play the rough games and pursue the more demanding
    careers. These are however perceptions instilled by culture and should
    not in any way be emulated. Civilisation has brought a positive change
    on the issue of gender equality and more emphasis is being put in
    providing equal opportunities for both girls and boys and enhancing a
    sense of equality in the society. This new culture encourages the view
    that gender roles complement each other and none of them is superior
    to the other.
    (v) Habits are also influenced by the major practices in one’s cultural
    background. For example, you will find certain social groups engaging in
    activities such as weaving, carving, dancing, etc. they draw these habits
    from the cultural activities. Others are culturally hunters, due to their
    geographical locations.
    Language spoken is an aspect of culture. Education is however providing
    optional languages such as English and this is slowly bringing a change
    in a people’s mode of interaction.
    (vi) Religion and spirituality, also impact on a person’s lifestyle and habits.
    Religion more than anything else has a strict sense of right and wrong.
    This means that one can only do what his/ her religion allows them
    to do. Be it matters of what food to eat, how to dress or with whom to
    associate. Communities that have one dominantly shared religion will
    be a very close-knit community. This is because all cultural values and
    associations are commonly believed and preserved. In our country we
    have religious beliefs that hold our society together and it’s a common
    thing for people to be influenced by their religious affiliation.

    Other factors that impact on lifestyle
    1. Migration

    Migration is the movement of individuals from one geographical area to
    another almost always with the intention of starting a new life or because of
    occupational, family or other individual reasons. This means that one leaves
    his original cultural background and will pick up new lifestyle habits from the
    new environment

    2. Education

    Education is the root to civilisation having both positive and negative effects
    on an individual. Education and exposure through television and the internet
    has led to people taking on other people’s culture and beliefs and leaving
    their own culture.

    3. Language

    Language as a means of communication will always help to establish its own
    sense of culture. Where you do not your first language, you may fail to get
    certain aspects of your culture.

    11.4 Influences of culture on what is considered acceptable and
    unacceptable sexual behaviour
    Activity 8

    You have heard of taboos on sexual behaviour in your community, discuss
    some of these taboos.
    A taboo is a prohibited act based on a social custom. They therefore spell out
    what is socially acceptable and what is not. When an individual engages in an
    unacceptable behaviour, then they are liable to a punishment. Taboos differ
    from one community to another. Taboos are meant to curb irresponsible or
    harmful behaviour and what is morally acceptable depends on the society in
    which an individual lives.
    Some of the issues addressed by these taboos include; rape, homosexuality,
    abortion, prostitution, conducting sexually suggestive behaviour in public,
    incest (sexual relations between members of the same family) and sex
    between unmarried people. In some communities, traditionally the young
    woman to be married did not have to give consent; dowry was paid without
    her knowledge and marriage was an arbitrary act where the men took her
    by force to her new home. In other communities, this could be considered as
    aggression and harassment of young girls by forcing them into marriage. In
    the same way, for some communities, there are boundaries to the communities
    from which a man can choose a marriage partner.
    Apart from the traditional taboos, the modern society is organised in such a
    way that citizens of a country are governed by a constitution. The constitution
    is a set of laws guiding the members of the society on what is unlawful and
    how it is punished. In some countries, sexual behaviuor such as homosexuality
    and abortion are outrightly prohibited while in other constitutions it is not. In
    virtually all laws, rape and sexual harassment are totally unacceptable.

    Exercise 1

    Describe harmful social and cultural practices that have a negative impact
    on health.

    11.5 Ways in which culture, human rights and social practices
    influence gender equality and gender roles
    Activity 9

    1. In your family set up, what roles do the female members of the family
    do that would seem inappropriate for the male family members to do?
    2. Who defines the roles that are meant for either men /women?
    Gender is the state of being either male or female. Culture plays a great
    role in socialising people to their respective roles. Since culture is passed
    on from one generation to another, cultural practice that determine gender
    roles are passed on from parents to their children, grandchildren and great
    grand children.
    Even though culture socialises members of the society to particular roles, it
    is important to note that members of a society are equal and whatever roles
    they play contribute to the good of the entire community. These roles; be it
    babysitting or earning for the family, are all equally important

    Human rights and social practices
    Activity 10

    Write a list of the various human rights you know
    Every human being deserves certain things vital for life. The global law
    states that human rights must be observed as they are universal for all people
    regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, ethnic origin, color, religion,
    language, or any other status. For example: the right to education, food and
    shelter, health among others. We are all equally entitled to our human rights
    without discrimination. These rights are all organised, co-dependent and
    indivisible. They are often determined by the law and universally accepted.
    Article 1 of The Human Rights declares that “All human beings are born free
    and equal in dignity and rights.” This means that it is wrong to consider any
    sex (male/ female), race, ethnic group or other groups inferior as the Human
    Rights Declaration prohibits this and maintains that all people are equal.

    11.6 Unit summary
    Elements of national heritage

    1. Fabric
    2. Stories
    3. Culture

    The role of cultural preservation

    1. It safeguards a community’s traditions and good practices from being
    eroded away.
    2. It enables a country to maintain its national heritage.
    3. It guides in performance of cultural practices within a community.

    Impact of differing cultures on lifestyle and habits

    1. It leads to introduction of different foods to a community.
    2. It introduces varied modes of dressing to a community.
    3. It brings about construction of new types of houses to live and do
    business in.
    4. It shapes the beliefs and attitudes of the people.
    5. Members of the community may form new habits.
    6. A new religion or aspects of another religion may be introduced into
    the existing one.

    11.7 Test your competence

    Describe Rwanda’s national heritage showing clearly the rich cultural
    diversity in the country.

  • UNIT 12: Gender and Society

    Key unit competence: To be able to relate or interact effectively with
    families, peers at school and community

    Introduction

    The issues of gender, gender roles, gender equality and equity have recently
    been in the limelight across the world. In this unit, we will study how all the

    above gender-related issues relate to the society.

    12.1 Gender equality and equity

    Activity 1

    1. Take two minutes to individually think of what gender and society
    mean. Write your thoughts and then share them with your partner.
    2. If you were asked to put people in your community into groups, how
    would you categorise them?
    From your class discussions you have discovered that people tend to group
    themselves based on gender, sexuality, social class, religious convictions or
    even on tribal and racial basis. In this unit we will concentrate on gender

    equality, gender roles and families.

    Activity 2

    1. Discuss the possible meanings for the terms equality and equity. Use
    text books and dictionaries.
    2. Decide in your groups whether equality and equity are evident in your
    society.
    3. Discuss whether you think human beings need equality.
    Gender refers to the social understanding of being male or female. It goes
    beyond the biological meaning to a cultural meaning.
    Gender equality means that women and men as well as girls and boys
    enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protection.
    Gender equity is the process of avoiding discrimination on the basis of
    sex (male/ female). This can be by engaging both sexes in decision making,
    allocating resources equally and providing equal opportunities.
    In Rwanda, the Gender Monitoring Office which is a government body that
    ensures that all national activities are gender equitable including elections.
    Several organisations also work towards promoting positive masculinity
    which encourages men to be loving, caring fathers and partners who are
    supportive of gender equality and women’s empowerment.
    Gender equality means that each gender play roles of equal importance to
    the society. It is also important to note that biological characteristics relate
    the female gender to particular roles such as nursing infants as they have the
    maternal ability to do so.
    On the other hand, the masculinity of the male gender places them at a
    better position to carry out the more demanding manual jobs. This does not
    limit the women to domestic chores and neither does it prohibit men from
    carrying out domestic activities such as cooking. Equal opportunities such as
    education and resources enable girls, boys, men and women to make choices
    on what to do in life. For example, today there are many chefs who are men
    and architects who are women.
    Traditionally in Rwanda, activities such as drumming were left for men, but
    today, teams of girls drum with strength and skill. Fathers are encouraging
    daughters to do engineering and other courses that were perceived to be
    men’s domain. Several women, for instance, have joined the army.
    Gender complementarity is therefore the aspect of making both males
    and females carry out roles that support each other. This is because one

    gender cannot make a society. Both complement each other.

    How to promote gender equality

    Activity 3

    1. Discuss ways of promoting gender equality.
    2. Explain why it is important for the government to promote gender
    equality
    your discussions you have no doubt learnt that equality is necessary
    for all of us. Equality can be taught and practised starting from the school
    environment by creating a positive learning environment in which both boys
    and girls have positive role models and positive messages about responsibility.
    Gender equality in Rwanda has greatly improved. This is evident in the
    following areas:-
    • More girls are enrolled in school as opposed to the past when mostly
    boys went to school.
    • Women can access loans to start businesses and therefore become more
    self reliant.
    • Today, women are taking up high-end jobs that were dominated by the
    men. Instead of serving as personal assistants and secretaries, they are
    occupying managerial offices just as the male counterparts.
    • Laws are being put in place to allow the female gender to inherit property
    just in the same way the males are heirs.
    • Rwanda has maintained gender equality in terms of leadership as
    seen in the number of female leaders today. The number of female
    parliamentarians is 64%. This means that the majority are women.
    • Rape has been acknowledged as a very serious offence; there are heavily
    jail sentences for perpetrators.
    • Women have been given the right to choose whether to pool assets
    together with the husband or to keep them separate.
    Men, women, boys and girls should be encouraged to explore and understand
    how gender equality will benefit their families and communities. This can also
    help individuals understand their roles and place in the family and society.
    Good role models, both men and women have a big role to play in
    teaching and encouraging the different gender groups to develop their own
    responsibilities. A change in the way children are brought up is necessary.
    We should eliminate stereotypical influences on the child. This can be done
    by effecting change in the way we view: class and ethnicity, social norms
    about women and men, boys and girls –as well as their, capabilities, security,
    opportunities, empowerment and freedom. After the 1994 genocide against
    the Tutsi, the Rwandan people had an opportunity to experience women
    leadership. Women who make up a majority of those who survived acted
    as judges in Gachecha courts and played great roles in putting the country
    in order. Since then, the gender stereotypes has slowly faded and gender
    equality has played a major role in the growth of Rwanda as a nation.
    Gender equality can be promoted in schools, families and work places. The
    following are some of the ways in which gender equality can be promoted.
    1. Ensure equal pay and fair representation of men and women at all levels:
    male teachers assistants; female head teachers and other senior levels.
    2. Develop initiatives that promote education for all. This will facilitate
    equality in opportunities later in life. In Rwanda for instance, there is a
    compulsory education programme that has put boys and girls in primary
    and secondary schools in equal numbers.
    3. Challenge the existing stereotypes, that is, images that portray either
    gender in a certain way.
    4. Have clear and defined procedures for identifying and reporting sexual
    harassment for both sexes. The Rwandan government has provided
    hotlines for the police as a way of curbing rape cases. Sexual harassment
    is highly punished in Rwanda. Laws have been put in place to stop gender

    violence.

    Exercise 1

    State the meaning of gender, gender equality and equity.
    12.2 Benefits of gender equality and complementarity
    Activity 4
    Debate on the following motion:
    A gender balanced society is better than a gender imbalanced society.
    Discuss the main points raised by each side after the debate
    There are benefits when gender equality and complementarity is exercised.

    These benefits are given below:

    1. When women are presented with equal opportunities as men, they are
    able to acquire education as opposed to when they do not enjoy gender
    equality.
    2. Career progression for women becomes easier when there is gender
    equality and complementarity.
    3. Women are able to enjoy financial independence and new roles in society
    when gender equity is put in practice.
    4. When women are given the same opportunities as men, there is human
    development in the society.
    5. When all members of the society have the opportunity to earn, there is
    likely to be improved economic growth.
    6. When women get equal opportunity as men, they also enjoy freedom,
    choice and happiness.
    7. Gender equality improves economic and social conditions for everyone.
    When both parents are earning, families are healthier and better fed. Their
    income, savings and investments go up. This extends to the community
    and the entire nation.
    8. When both girls and boys live free from rigid stereotypes that limit their
    potential, they are able to exploit their full potential in a way that benefits
    themselves and the society they live in.
    9. In organisations and institutions where there is gender balance, there is
    likely to be better decision-making and more effective implementation of
    these decisions as everyone is involved in decision and therefore own the

    decisions made.

    Exercise 2

    Highlight the benefits of gender equality and complementarity.

    12.3 Gender roles and gender stereotypes

    Activity 5

    Act out the following dialogue and answer the questions that follow.
    Interchange the roles and let mother play the role of father and Jacob’s
    sister play the role of Jacob and vice versa.
    Father: (Arriving home from work carrying a newspaper) How are you
    Jacob?
    Jacob: (watching TV) Am fine dad.
    Father: Where is your sister? I need a cup of tea.
    Jacob: She is washing the utensils.
    Father: How about your mother?
    Jacob: She is picking vegetables from the garden.

    Father: Can you make a cup of tea for me?

    12.3.1 Gender roles

    The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines gender roles as socially
    constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society
    considers appropriate for men and women. Simply put, they are the roles that
    men and women are expected to occupy based on their sex.
    Traditionally, many Western societies have believed that women are more
    nurturing than men. Therefore, the traditional view of the feminine gender
    role prescribes that women should behave in ways that are nurturing. One way
    that a woman might engage in the traditional feminine gender role would be
    to nurture her family by working full-time within the home rather than taking
    employment outside of the home. Men, on the other hand, are presumed
    by traditional views of gender roles to be leaders. Them traditional view
    of the masculine gender role, therefore, suggests that men should be the
    heads of their households by providing financially for the family and making

    important family decisions.

    Activity 6

    Explain the gender roles in the following pictures

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    12.3.2 Gender stereotypes

    Gender stereotypes are over-generalisations about the characteristics of
    an entire group based on gender. A man might say women aren’t meant
    for combat, while a woman might say men do nothing but watch sports.
    Stereotypes are not always necessarily true because they come from making
    general conclusions about a group of people based on mere assumptions.
    These general conclusions cannot be true for all people because individuals
    have different desires, feelings and thoughts. Both the female gender and

    the male gender have been stereotyped in the society. The following are

    examples of gender stereotypes:

    1. Women are rational beings.
    2. Men are tough and protective.
    3. Men are neither neat nor and clean.
    4. Women make good secretaries and teachers.
    5. They are also viewed as fragile and emotional, caring and more appropriate
    for jobs like nursing.
    These stereotypes begin right from childhood once the sex of a child is known.
    The newborn is welcomed in a very stereotyped setting that’s decorated with
    items suggesting how he/she ought to grow. Girls are made to love dolls and
    take care of them as women take care of children while boys are bought car
    toys and video games. While growing, they are assigned roles in the same
    way. Boys can watch TV while girls do all the cleaning and cooking, unless
    there is a fence to trim. Boys are also encouraged to do outdoor sports such
    as bicycle riding and hiking. These stereotypes grow with children and are

    passed on to generations.

    12.3.3 Why are stereotypes simple assumptions?

    Stereotypes are mere assumptions because as discussed earlier, individuals
    have different desires, feelings and thoughts. It would therefore be untrue to
    say that all men are leaders and all women are submissive because there are
    women leaders. Some women are also doing well in the technical careers such
    as pilots, mechanics and so forth, in the same way men are growing interest

    in cosmetics industry, hairdressing and others are chefs in restaurants.

    Exercise 3

    Identify various gender roles and gender stereotypes in your community.

    12.4 Impact of gender stereotypes on individuals, families

    and society

    Activity 7

    Case study

    One day, Mary’s mother came home and found the house in a mess.
    Dirty dishes were left
    don the dining table.
    The floor was dirty
    and the basket was
    full of dirty clothes.
    Mary was feeling
    unwell and was lying
    on the sofa while
    her brother was
    playing his video
    game. What was the
    best thing for Mary’s

    mother to do?

    Gender stereotypes portray teaching or serving in a hotel as female careers
    while higher medical professions are perceived to be male careers. From the
    discussion above, however, you realise that none of these careers belong
    only to men or women. Holding on to these beliefs has very negative impacts
    on individuals, families and the society at large. For example, the assumption
    that women are more emotional than rational is demeaning to the female
    gender and makes them look inferior to the male gender. This can lead to
    disrespect in the family and consequently break the harmony that should be
    in a family
    Gender stereotypes portray teaching or serving in a hotel as female careers
    while higher medical professions are perceived to be male careers. From the
    discussion above, however, you realise that none of these careers belong
    only to men or women. Holding on to these beliefs has very negative impacts
    on individuals, families and the society at large. For example, the assumption
    that women are more emotional than rational is demeaning to the female
    gender and makes them look inferior to the male gender. This can lead to
    disrespect in the family and consequently break the harmony that should be

    in a family.

    The following are the effects of gender stereotypes on individuals, family and

    society:

    1. It can cause psychological distress to an individual. For example, where
    a boy is told that he should not cry in public, he is likely to suppress
    his emotions to prove his masculinity yet undergo a lot of emotional
    suffering.
    2. It can easily reduce an individual’s self-esteem. When women are viewed
    as passive members of the family who must always be submissive and have
    no place in decision-making, their sense of value is ideally diminished.
    They may end up feeling unwanted yet they are a central part of the
    society in real sense and can make great leaders.
    3. Stereotyping can prevent individuals from pursuing their dreams such as
    a person’s career of interest. This denies such a person the opportunity
    to live a fulfilling life. For example, a female student may have interest
    in a mechanical job, but the fear of not meeting the expectations of the
    society may hold her from pursuing her dream career hence not achieving
    her full potential.
    4. It can be used as a basis for discrimination. For example, this can happen
    in the family when sharing household chores. The girl child, for example,
    may be overwhelmed with responsibilities such as preparing meals,
    cleaning, laundry and buying grocery while her male siblings engage in
    fun activities.
    5. It can lead to subordination of one gender in society. For example, in the
    earlier days, women were not allowed to vote. This denied them of the
    right to elect leaders of their choice.
    6. It can bring confusion and disagreement in the family about whose
    responsibility it is to provide for the family. Though any member of the
    family can be the breadwinner depending on the situation, stereotyping
    that presumes that the man should fend for the family can be detrimental
    when the man in the family is not able to earn for one reason or another.
    He may feel incapable of doing his duty even when he is not to blame.
    This can also have a negative impact on the family because the idea that
    a woman should not fend for the family is a hindrance to improving the
    living standards of the family as the income comes from one source.

    Exercise 4

    1. Explain the impact of gender stereotypes on individuals, families and
    society.

    2. Write an essay on gender issues in the society today.

    12.5 Unit summary

    Gender - the social understanding of being male or female.
    Gender equality – a situation where women, men, girls and boys enjoy the
    same rights, resources, opportunities and protection.
    Gender equity - the process of avoiding discrimination on the basis of sex
    (male/ female).
    Gender complementarity - the aspect of making both males and females
    carry out roles that support or complement each other.
    Gender roles - socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes
    that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.
    Gender stereotypes - over-generalisations about the characteristics of an
    entire group based on gender.

    Benefits of gender equality and complementarity

    1. When women are presented with equal opportunities as men, they are
    able to acquire education as opposed to when they do not enjoy gender
    equality.
    2. Career progression for women becomes easier when there is gender
    equality and complementarity.
    3. Women are able to enjoy financial independence and new roles in
    society when gender equity is put in practice.
    4. When women are given the same opportunities as men, there is human
    development in the society.
    5. When all members of the society have the opportunity to earn, there is
    likely to be improved economic growth.
    6. When women get equal opportunity as men, they also enjoy freedom,
    choice and happiness.
    7. Gender equality improves economic and social conditions for everyone.
    8. When both girls and boys live free from rigid stereotypes that limit
    their potential, they are able to exploit their full potential in a way that
    benefi ts themselves and the society they live in.
    9. In organisations and institutions where there is gender balance, there is
    likely to be better decision-making and more effective implementation
    of these decisions as everyone is involved in decision and therefore

    own the decisions made

    Impact of gender stereotypes on individuals, families and society

    1. It can cause psychological distress to an individual.
    2. It can easily reduce an individual’s self-esteem.
    3. Stereotyping can prevent individuals from pursuing their dreams such
    as a person’s career of interest.
    4. It can be used as a basis for discrimination
    5. It can lead to subordination of one gender in society.
    6. It can bring confusion and disagreement in the family about whose

    responsibility it is to provide for the family.

    12.6 Test your competence

    Read the case study below then answer the questions that follow.

    Rose was working in an institution that took care of children. Though she
    was more learned than most of her male counterparts, she was always given
    the responsibilities of taking care of children and feeding them. Whenever an
    opportunity arose for promotion, she was always overlooked with a simple

    explanation, ‘You are a woman’. This hurt Rose a lot.

    Questions

    1. Identify any gender issues in this story.
    2. What gender roles do you find in this story?
    3. Explain the gender stereotype seen Rose’s case.
    4. Suggest possible solutions to the challenges Rose was facing at her

    work.

  • UNIT 13: The Arts and Society

    Key unit competence: To be able to describe and compare various
    forms of art.

    Introduction
    Art plays a major role in society. It is a skill that has been there even in early
    civilisation. The society employs the use of art for various purposes. In this

    unit, we will study how art relates to the society.

    13.1 History of arts

    Activity 1

    1. Brainstorm on the meaning of art.
    2. Find out from any relevant material, either a dictionary or textbook, the
    various forms of art.
    3. Think of the media and the community you live in. What are the forms
    of art that can be found there?
    There are different definitions of art. Each individual explains art uniquely.
    Simply put, art is a collection of creative human activities and the expression
    of those activities. It usually involves the results of the imagination and

    activities that lead to the production of works of art. It mostly involves

    creativity.
    Art is as old as human kind. It began with the Stone Age man who had
    paintings and curving of sculptures. Some of these paintings and carvings
    may not have survived time but some of the ancient art works and artists are
    still popular today. The ancient man carried out these art activities as a way

    of expressing his understanding of the world around him.

    13.2 Forms and uses of art

    Activity 2

    1. In pairs, discuss how you can categorise the various forms of art you
    know of.
    2. What is the value of art to any society?
    In your discussion on what comprises art, you may have found out that most
    art works are majorly for aesthetic purposes. This means that art is about
    creating beautiful products that can be appreciated. However, art does not
    only involve beautiful creations for appreciation, some art works are useful
    in other ways apart from appreciation. Some activities go beyond the value
    of beauty to other functions such as weaving beautiful baskets to be used in
    carrying grocery, or artistically baking a cake to be eaten at a wedding. Other
    art works such as sculptures of national figures are symbolic and carry social
    memories of past experiences. Paintings and sculptures can also symbolise
    an idea. For example, a carving that portrays a beautiful African woman
    holding a baby presents the idea of an ideal African woman and the noble
    role they play in nurturing life.
    Depending on the function they serve and the manner of presentation, art

    can be categorised into various forms. They include:

    1. The visual arts: Artists use paint, canvas, stones and clay among other
    materials to create physical or static art objects. They include paintings,
    drawings, carvings and sculptures.

    2. Performing arts: These are art forms where artists use their voices
    and/or the movement of their bodies, often in relation to other objects, to
    convey artistic expression. Performing
    farts include a variety of disciplines
    but all are intended to be performed
    in front of a live audience. Artists who
    participate in performing arts in front
    of an audience are called performers.
    Examples of these include actors,
    comedians, dancers, magicians, circus artists, musicians and singers
     3. Media arts: These are arts that use media devices. They include:

    photography, visual designs and computer art.

    4. Culinary arts: This is what we commonlyu
    call cuisine. It involves foods that are traditionally
    eaten and are part of a people’s culture. When this
    happens, the method of cooking becomes an art.

    5. Literature: This includes novels, plays, poetry and short stories. At one
    point in your studies, you must have come across poems, read various novels

    or story books. These are forms of art.

    Uses of art
    1. It is used to communicate an idea e.g. a painting or carving.
    2. It is used to entertain e.g. a dance or music.
    3. It is used to give pleasure. Observing beautiful art gives pleasure.
    4. It fosters community interaction by bringing people together during art
    activities.
    5. It is a means for self expression. Through art, artists are able to express
    their feelings and ideas.
    6. Art preserves history and expresses the human experience. A good
    example are the prehistoric sites and genocide sites in Rwanda. A piece
    of art can hold memories of the past experiences of a group of people or
    even an individual.
    7. Art has been used as a way of communicating beliefs.
    8. Forms of arts and culture naturally manifest aspects of socio-economic
    activities popular among certain people.
    9. Art has a way of increasing global interactions as people of different
    cultural origins appreciate art from other regions.
    10. Through art, education on social matters is enhanced. For example, the
    drama and music festivals held in schools have music and poems that are

    based on educational themes that address social issues.

    13.3 Characteristics of fine art by region (African, European,

    Asiatic, Egyptian, Greek, Italian, American, Chinese)

    Activity 3

    Fine art is the making and study of visual arts. Different regions have a
    different sense of art. This is because most works of art reflect the cultural,
    environmental and political contexts of the regions in which they are created.
    In Africa, for example, some of the fine arts include:
    (a) Pottery. This is due to the fact that in traditional Africa, a pot was useful

    in cooking and storing drinks.

    k

    (b) Masks. These are associated with religious
    kceremonies as African Traditional Religion had a lot
    to do with spirituality. Different masks represented
    various deities.
    Royal regalia, especially in West Africa, was common
    due to the monarchy system where there was a
    royal family ruling a kingdom.


    (c) Sculptures, paintings and carvings, for
    example the timber carvings, tinga tinga paintings
    and Makonde sculptures of East Africa.
    (d) Zimbabwe is known for its soapstone sculptures
    of birds and impressive buildings, while some of
    South Africa’s art includes clay figures of cylinder shaped heads

    with a mixture of both human and animal features.

    k

    Chinese fine art is characterised by calligraphy, ceramics, engravings,
    jewellery, paintings, photography, sculptures, ivory carving, stone carving,
    woodwork, embroidery and textile works, weaving and government seals.
    European modern art does not portray much of nature. Its earlier art was
    however influenced by the church. The art includes architectural designs,
    paintings and sculptures. Most of these art works reflected the history of the
    church. This was followed by an interest in myths of gods and goddesses in
    art. However, for so many years now, European art has not been based on
    religion or any particular ideology. Instead, it is influenced by the politics of

    either the state or other institutions.

    Asia is known mainly for dance and theatre performances. From the earliest
    times in East Asia, dance, music and dramatic performances by masked
    characters served a religious function. The masked characters were meant
    to act as supernatural beings during various rituals. Hand puppets, sculptures
    and paintings were common in South Asia.
    Egyptian art is mostly characterised by paintings,
    osculptures and statues. In painting, all colours have
    meaning. Artists used six colours. These were: red,
    green, blue, yellow, white and black. Red, the colour
    of power, symbolised life and victory, as well as anger
    and fire. Green symbolised new life, growth and fertility,
    while blue symbolised creation and rebirth. Yellow
    symbolised the eternal, such as the qualities of the sun
    and gold. Yellow was the colour of Ra and of all the
    pharaohs, which is why the sarcophagi of the Pharaohs
    was made of gold. Funeral masks were made of gold to
    symbolise the everlasting and eternal pharaoh who was now a god. White
    was the colour of purity, symbolising all things sacred and was typically used
    in religious objects and tools used by the priests. Black was the colour of
    death and represented the underworld and the night.
    Sculpturing also involved carving and casting metal. For Egyptian sculptures,
    the head and legs had to be visible while the eyes and the upper body were
    to be viewed from the front. Male statues had to be darker than female
    ones. When seated, the subject’s hands had to be on
    jhis/her knees. Gods too were depicted according to
    their position in the hierarchy of deities and always in
    the same guise. For instance, Horus (the sky god) was
    always represented with a falcon’s head while Anubis
    (the god of funeral rites) was always depicted with a
    jackal’s head.
    Greek fine art, on the other hand, is characterised by
    very distinct features. Even though it has aspects of
    sculptures and paintings, its art did not draw meaning
    from supernatural deities. The ancient art featured
    statues of naked male Greeks and clothed women. Art
    later advanced to monuments of heroic warriors, fine
    metal works, weapons and jewellery, mainly placed in
    graves to show the social status of the deceased. There
    was also decorated vessels such as jugs and flower
    vases.
    Italian fine art entailed well designed architecture. In the later days, there
    emerged wall paintings, mosaic ceilings, floor work and funerary sculpture.
    Other artists carved statues of biblical characters such a King David and the
    disciples of Jesus.
    American fine art is characterised by paintings where all available space is
    covered with flat figures arranged in geometric patterns. Visual art, includes
    brightly coloured masks, ceremonial costumes, bracelets and necklaces, as
    well as a range of clay, stone and wood sculptures.
    Mosaic art was frequently used to decorate masks as well as architecture.
    Megaliths, which are arrangements of stones, were used to create a type of
    monument. Rock art and wooden carvings as well as mural paintings are also

    common in American art.

    l

    Exercise 1
    Explain the characteristics of various types of fine art categorising them

    by the regions.

    13.4 Various forms of art including architecture, painting, fashion,

    photography, sculpture and music from a variety of cultures, styles

    and traditions

    Activity 4

    1. In groups, perform a traditional song and a secular song that are
    common. Identify the differences between the two.
    2. Discuss the various dresses and costumes worn during traditional
    ceremonies such as weddings
    Art forms differ from one culture to another due to the fact that shared artistic
    qualities and aesthetic conscience exist across cultural barriers. For example,
    certain architectural designs, sculptures, fashion and music are associated

    with particular cultures. Let’s look at the following distinctions:

    13.4.1 African art

    African art exhibits form, composition and presence. In most cases, it serves
    as a metaphor for the African view of the origin and evolution of the universe
    and dramatically harmonises humanity and the environment. African art has
    both spiritual and social significance.
    Different social spheres such as family, clan, communa
    groups and tribe
    kreflect their identity through art.
    A major characteristic of African art is that it touches 
    on human emotions. Some are subtly expressed
    while others are overtly expressed.
    Consider the Yoruba iron figure. Here, the blacksmith
    artist has transformed iron, a natural element of the
    earth, into an image that suggests the very powers
    of life. The arms and legs, elongated and enlarged,

    show energy around the static environment.

                                                                                                                             Iron figure from Yoruba

    Another characteristic of African art is its j

    intricate details. For example, a statue of a

    Lumbo mother and child captures the essence

    of the maternal relationship. The tilt of the

    head and the kneeling pose with turned feet

    show life. The large left hand cradles the

    entire child while the heavily lidded, downcast

    eyes depict serenity and peace. The image

    therefore portrays the universal nurturing role

    of a mother.

    African music can also be looked at as
    an art. It can at times be unaccompanied
    by instruments. Some music is however
    performed with instruments.
    There are many different instruments that are
    used in African music. These vary from region
    to region. The many different types of drums  
    are called membranophones because they
    have skin. The other main types of instruments
    can be categorised as shown below:
    (a) Idiophones: These are instruments that involve banging for them to
    produce sound. They include:
    • Rattlers (shakers)
    • Bells
    • Mbira (thumb piano)
    • Xylophones or balaphones
    • Clap sticks
    • Slit gongs
    • Stamping tubes
    (b) Aerophones: These are instruments that are played by blowing air
    through them. They include:
    • Flutes (bamboo, horn)
    • Ocarinas
    • Panpipes
    • Horns from animal tusks
    • Trumpets made from wood or metal
    • Pipes being single or double reeds
    • Whistle
    (c) Chordophones: These are stringed instruments. Examples are:
    • Zithers
    • Lutes (kora)
    • Lyres
    • Musical bows
    The most common features of African music are:
    • Basic form of all songs is ‘call and response,
    • Melodies are usually short and simple and repeated.
    • Melodies can be changed at will by other singers so that we end up with a
    theme and then variations on that theme. This is ideal as a song can serve
    many functions.
    • Performers often improvise new melodies while others continue the
    original melody creating a polyphonic texture.
    African fashion is diverse depending on the community. In Rwanda, for
    example, the umushanana, which consists of a wrap skirt with enough gathers
    at the hips and a sash that drapes over the shoulder, is a dress for women.
    Traditionally, this dress was mainly worn by older women but with the

    changing times, umushanana is now mostly worn during formal occasions.

    k

    Umushanana with women and men’s traditional attire

    For other parts of Africa such as Uganda, traditional fashion comprises of
    many variations. However, the most popular of them in women and men is
    Gomesi and Kanzu. The pure traditional dresses of the Ugandan people also
    consisted of many personal adornments like body marks, tattoos and facial
    paintings. Similarly they were also fond of wearing various ornaments like
    bracelets, earrings, nose pins, beads and headgears. Ankle jingles, bird
    feathers and cowrie shells also played an important role in the adornments

    of the people of Uganda.

    13.4.2 Indian art

    Indian art such as the paintings, carvings and sculptures represent the deities.
    Multiple arms indicate that the figure is a deity, representing their superhuman
    powers. Asanas are the postures used to reflect the mood of the deity – the

    mood can be fierceness or relaxation.

    j

    A deity belonging to the Indians
    The Buddha is usually seen in either a meditative lotus position or standing.
    Half-closed eyes symbolise meditation, emphasising looking inwards and
    cultivating spiritual control. A third eye in the middle of the forehead signifies

    the deity’s divine wisdom and power.

    k

    Buddha
    Fire represents destructive, purifying power. Drums, since they make sound
    that travels through the air, represent ether, the prime substance from which
    all creation was derived.
    Snakes are symbols of regeneration and fertility. They are positive symbols
    with no association with evil as is the case with Western art. The art on
    deities emphasises certain attire appropriate for that particular deity and
    may at times represent the story behind the powers of that deity.
    Indian art is often united with architecture, serving the purpose of aiding
    devotees in ritual worship. The exterior walls of most Hindu temples are in
    most cases decorated by images of these deities.
    Indian art is also characterised by a strong appeal to senses. For example,
    the twining plant forms leaves, flowers, vines, as framing devices around
    sculptures, niches, doorways and gateways. They are as well integrated into
    sculptural design. These symbolise fertility, growth and prosperity.
    Indian sculptures and paintings are also characterised by
    lsharp expression of sexuality. This is portrayed by idealised,
    voluptuous female bodies. Yakshis (nature spirits) represent
    procreative abundance and bounty and represent the
    generosity of the gods. The female form is based on the
    vajra (2 headed thunderbolts) or the double drum. Both
    have full rounded forms connected by a narrow waist in
    the middle. The yakshis and Hindu goddesses are largebreasted,
    narrow-waisted, round-hipped beauties.
    Idealised, sensual male bodies are shown as well with smooth, simplified body
    volumes and very little muscle definition. This is different from the Western
    ideal of the male. Explicit references to sexual union symbolise the creative
    force within the universe. This is seen from the abstracted sexual organs (the
    male linga, the female yoni), particularly in Shiva temples, symbolise creative

    force and the union of the male and female principles.

    Fashion

    Indian women hold sari as their dress of identity. Even though
    kother styles have emerged, women put on sari to occasions and
    ceremonies. The sari is usually adorned with jewelry to create

    a dazzling look common among Indian women

    u

    Indian men are known to dress in Lungi which is tied at the waist or
    a Sherwani. This is the long, dazzling, often jeweled jacket that you
    see men wearing on special occasions. It is traditionally a wedding
    jacket, but can be worn for other events. Most of the Indian attires

    are functional

    Music

    Indian music consists of folk, classical and pop music, among others. The
    Classical music is characterised by microtones, notes, ornamentations and
    melodies improvised from grammar and rhythmic patterns used in percussion
    also known as tala. A large number of instruments are used in Indian music
    and some of the key ones are the Sitar, Veena, Dhol, Tabla, Harmonium,

    Shehnai, Bansuri, etc.

    13.4.3 Western art

    Music

    A distinct art of the West is the Ballet dance: Ballet, theatrical dance in which
    a formal academic dance technique — the danse d’école — is combined with
    other artistic elements such as music, costume, and stage scenery.

    Architecture
    Western construction methods progressed from the most primitive shed
    roof and simple truss to the vertical posts, or columns, supporting horizontal
    beams, or lintels. In 19th century, with the advent of cast-iron and steel
    construction, a new architectural age dawned and higher, broader and lighter
    buildings became possible. Later, these architectural designs improved and
    today computerised architecture comes in more creative designs.

    Fashion
    Western women of the old times wore full skirts that nearly reached the floor,
    with the fullness concentrated over the hips to create a broad horizontal
    profile. Under the gowns, women of fashion wore heavily boned stays
    (or corsets) that extended from the bust to below the hips. On their feet,
    women wore high-heeled shoes, and in their hair, which was swept up in high
    coiffures, they wore jewels and flowers. Gowns were also made of relatively
    heavy, crisp fabrics, which enhanced the feeling of weight and presence.
    These garments projected a heaviness and commanding flamboyance
    characteristic of furniture and architecture of the time as well.
    The following years adapted lighter weight fabrics. Skirts were rounded and
    often finished with a train, and waistlines moved higher. Men`s fashions were
    derived from military models. However, the modern times have a wide range
    of fashion incorporated from all over the world.
    13.5 Classification of arts by fine arts and applied arts
    Activity 5
    Have you come across decorated baskets, pots or wooden objects? How
    about framed photographs or simple paintings? Discuss the difference in
    function between them.
    By definition, fine art means creative art, especially visual art, whose products
    are to be appreciated primarily or solely for their imaginative, aesthetic
    or intellectual content. They only serve the purpose of appealing to the
    senses. They include: painting, sculpture, architecture, music, poetry, film,
    photography, conceptual art, printmaking and performing arts which include
    theatre and dance.
    The applied arts, on the other hand, are the application of design and
    decoration to everyday objects to make them aesthetically pleasing. These
    objects apart from depicting art, are useful in day-to-day activities. Examples
    of applied art are basketry, weaving and pottery as long as the products of
    these art works are not for mere decoration but are also useful in household
    or outdoor activities. The main difference between the fine arts and applied
    arts is that fine art is used only for beauty purposes while applied art has

    utility value.

    Exercise 2

    With illustrations, differentiate between fine and applied arts.

    13.6 Rwandan unique arts and craft

    Activity 6

    Describe the unique art of Rwanda.
    Considering that Rwanda is a unified country in terms of language and
    culture, occupied by the Banyarwanda, their culture is more concrete
    than in other regions where culture is diversified.

    Traditional handicraft which forms part of Rwandan art includes:

    ju

    One of the major unique arts of the Banyarwanda is the Imigongo paintings.
    These paintings are made using cow dung and are produced by locals from

    the village of Nyakarambi near Rwandan’s Rusumo Falls.

    h

    Rwanda paintings
    Music and dance also play an important role in the tradition of Rwandan
    people. They express among other values; bravery, excellence and humour.
    Traditional songs are often accompanied by a solitary lulunga, a harp-like
    instrument which is made of eight strings.
    The most famous traditional dance is Intore, a highly vigorous dance consisting
    of three components - the ballet, performed by women; the dance of heroes,
    performed by men, and the drums. Traditionally, music was transmitted
    orally with styles varying between the social groups. Drums were of great
    importance. Traditionally, the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the
    court of the umwami. Drummers usually played together in groups of seven
    or nine.
    A wide range of traditional handicrafts is produced in rural Rwanda, ranging
    from ceramics and basketry to traditional wood carvings and contemporary
    paintings. Rwanda’s traditional Agaseke baskets are some of the unique form
    of handicraft that are famous the world over. Most of the art works, however,
    are functional items rather than purely for decoration. Examples include:
    Woven baskets and bowls.
    Architecture is also part of Rwandan art and craft. Houses with dome-like
    round shape made from cedar poles, linked with bamboo and reeds and
    thatched with grass or banana leaves were a common sight in rural Rwanda
    before colonialism. Later, clay walling with the walls decorated with bold
    geometrical patterns became common for the circular thatched houses.
    Today, the clay-filled timber framed walls have been replaced with sundried
    brick walling.
    The people of Rwanda also have a strong oral tradition. Their oral tradition
    entails poetry and folk stories. The epic musical poetry also known as
    ibitekerezo and the royalty poems also known as ubucurabwenge and ibisigo
    form the rich oral tradition of the Banyarwanda. Through them, most of the
    country’s moral values and history have been passed from one generation to

    another.

    13.7 Importance of the various forms of art to an individual,

    national and global community

    Activity 7

    Which kind of Rwandan music catches your attention the most? Discuss
    the role played by performing artists in Rwanda.
    At the individual level, art is a way of communicating beliefs and expressing
    ideas about the human experience. The artist passes his/her imagination
    through creating a piece of art that elucidates meaning to the audience. It is
    a fact that some stories, feelings or ideas cannot be well put in words, but a
    painting or a photograph exposes all aspects including the emotions of the
    time and the mood. However, stories can also be creatively narrated.
    At an individual level, art provides an opportunity for pleasure. Art appeals
    to the senses hence giving pleasure to the viewer, listener or reader. At a
    national level, art serves a communal purpose. For example, the paintings on
    the historic encounters of a people, serve as a preservation of that particular
    experience in symbolic forms. Whenever members of that particular
    community experience the art, they relate it to their past experiences.
    Sculptures also serve as symbols as they hold meanings that can be shared
    by the entire community. A sculpture of a political figure, for example,
    symbolises the ideas represented by that particular political group which he/
    she stood for/ stands for.
    Music and dance as forms of art also help in bringing people together, hence
    encouraging social interaction among members of a community.
    Art also preserves history. For example, both oral and written literature tells
    the stories of past experiences. Works of literature do not die, but are passed
    from generation to generation. In this same way, these collective experiences
    are passed from generation to generation.
    Art also contributes to the national identity of a group of people. For example
    communities, even nations have attire with which they are identified. Most
    of these attires are traditional and are commonly worn during occasions or
    ceremonies. Music and dance are also culture oriented
    Internationally, art can be a means of distinguishing various nations. The
    uniqueness of art that belongs to a particular nation can draw people from
    other nations to that appreciate it. Therefore, art serves as a tourist attraction

    and in this way it contributes to the national revenue significantly.

    Exercise 3

    1. In your study groups discuss the importance of arts.

    2. Link different forms of art and their applications.

    13.8 Unit summary

    Forms of art

    1. Visual arts
    2. Performing arts
    3. Media arts
    4. Culinary arts

    5. Literature

    Uses of art

    1. It is used to communicate an idea e.g. a painting or carving.
    2. It is used to entertain e.g. a dance or music.
    3. It is used to give pleasure. Observing beautiful art gives pleasure.
    4. It fosters community interaction by bringing people together during art
    activities.
    5. It is a means for self expression.
    6. Art preserves history and expresses the human experience.
    7. Art has been used as a way of communicating beliefs.
    8. Forms of arts and culture naturally manifest aspects of socio-economic
    activities popular among certain people.
    9. Art increases global interactions as people of different cultural origins
    appreciate art from other regions.

    10. Through art, education on social matters is enhanced.

    Importance of the various forms of art to an individual, national

    and global community

    1. Art is a way of communicating beliefs and expressing ideas about the
    human experience.
    2. It provides an opportunity for pleasure.
    3. Sculptures serve as symbols as they hold meanings that can be shared
    by the entire community.
    4. Art preserves a community’s or a nation’s history.
    5. Art can be used to express the national identity of a group of people.
    6. Art can be a means of distinguishing various nations.

    13.9 Test your competence
    Art serves different roles in society. With reference to arts from Rwanda,
    explain the role of art to the following:
    (i) an individual,
    (ii) a nation,

    (iii) the global community.

    Glossary

    Applied arts - the application of design and decoration to everyday objects
    to make them aesthetically pleasing.
    Architecture - the process of planning, designing, and constructing buildings
    and other physical structures.
    Career - an occupation or profession, especially one requiring special
    training, followed as one’s lifework.
    Channel – a medium through which messages are communicated.
    Citizenship – the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as
    being a member of a country.
    Cohesion - the bonds or unity between members of a community or society.
    Gender complementarity – the view that men and women have different
    but complementary roles and responsibilities in life.
    Decode – to find or understand the true or hidden meaning of something.
    Degradation – the process in which the beauty or quality of something is
    destroyed or spoiled.
    Encode - to put a message into the form of a code so that it can kept secret.
    Equality - the quality or state of having the same rights, social status etc.
    Equity - fairness or justice in the way people are treated.
    Ethics - rules of behaviour based on ideas about what is morally good and
    bad.
    Feedback - the response of an audience to a message or activity.
    Fine art - a visual art considered to have been created primarily for aesthetic
    and intellectual purposes and judged for its beauty and meaningfulness.
    Habit - something that a person does often in a regular and repeated way.
    Heritage - something possessed as a result of one’s natural situation or birth.
    Identity - the qualities, beliefs, etc., that make a particular person or group
    different from others.
    Indifference - absence of compulsion to or toward one thing or another.
    Job - the work that a person does regularly in order to earn money.
    Leisure - time when you are not working; time when you can do whatever
    you want to do.
    Manipulation – act of controlling someone by artful, unfair, or means
    especially to one’s own advantage.
    Mortality rate - the number of a particular group of people who die each
    year.
    Non-renewable – not able to be replaced by nature or natural processes.
    Performing arts - art forms in which artists use their voices and/or the
    movements of their bodies, often in relation to other objects, to convey
    artistic expressions.
    Property rights – rules determining how a resource or economic good is
    used and owned.
    Receiver – one who receives something such as a message.
    Renewable - able to be replaced by nature
    Revenue - money that is collected for public use by a government through
    taxes.
    Sender – one who sends.
    Stereotype - to believe unfairly that all people or things with a particular
    characteristic are the same.
    Visual arts - art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture,
    printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking and architecture.
    Welfare - a government programme for poor or unemployed people that
    helps pay for their food, housing, medical costs, etc.

    References
    1. Crispin, Hughes. (2006). Education for Global Citizenship: A Guide for
    Schools. London, UK: Oxfam Education.
    2. Senyonga, Moses. (2000). Reflections in General Paper: A
    Comprehensive Guide. Kampala, Uganda: Fountain Publishers.
    3. Shuayb, M. (2012). Rethinking Education for Social Cohesion:
    International Case Studies. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
    4. Timothy, Dallen J. (2011). Cultural Heritage and Tourism. Bristol, UK:
    Channel View Publications.
    5. Uwanziga, J. Nzamuita.(2015). Manners in Rwanda: Basic knowledge
    of Rwandan Culture, Customs and Kinyarwanda Language. Kigali,
    Rwanda: New Times.
    6. Vivante, Bella. (1999). Women’s Roles in Ancient Civilisations: A

    Reference Guide. Westport, USA: Greenwood Press.


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  • Topic 17

  • Topic 18

  • Topic 19

  • Topic 20

  • Topic 21