Topic outline

  • General

  • UNIT 1: COMPUTER SECURITY

     Introductory activity

    Jane is an accountant in charge of payroll preparation in the Ministry of 
    Finance of Rwanda. She has a computer which, two months ago was 
    working quickly and properly. Every day she uses internet connection for 
    operating some online transactions, she also used a flash disk to share 
    her work with different workmates. Today her computer is no longer 
    responding quickly as before, when connecting a flash disk on her 
    computer some data are lost others hidden, some data are duplicated, 
    disorganized and most of the time her computer restarts itself while she

    is working.

    Discuss the main different causes of the above-mentioned issues of Jane's computer
    identify the risks of an unsecured computer 
    Describe how this computer can be secured
    Describe how data stored in a computer can be protected

    Activity 1.1

     What do you understand by security of the computer?
     1. How a computer user can protect data and information stored in that computer?
     2. What will happen if a user leaves his/her computer without switching it off?

    1.1.1 Computer security
     Computer security means techniques developed to safeguard information stored 
    on a computer. It is also the protection of computer systems and information 
    from harm, theft, and unauthorized use. The standard for a good security tells us 
    that 10% of security safeguards are technical, 90% of security safeguards rely 
    on the computer user to adhere to good computing practices.
     
    Computer security is everyone’s responsibility; this means that everyone who 
    uses a computer or mobile device needs to understand how to keep their 
    computers, devices and data secure. 

    1.1.2. Computer security related terms 
    Security: This is a state of feeling safe and protected. Something that provides 
    a sense of protection against attack, harm or loss is security. 

    Malware:     It is a file or code, typically delivered over a network, that infects, 
    explores, steals or conducts virtually any behavior an attacker wants. And 
    because malware comes in so many variants, there are numerous methods to 
    infect computer systems.
     
    Spyware: Spyware is software with malicious behavior that aims to gather 
    information about a person or organization and send it to another entity in a 
    way that harms the user. It installs itself on your computer and starts covertly 
    monitoring your online behavior without your permission. 

    Trojan horse     : A trojan horse, is a type of malware that conceals its true content 
    to fool a user into thinking it’s a harmless file.
     
    Worm:     A computer worm is a program containing malicious code that attacks 
    host computers and spreads via a network. Network worms exploit security 
    vulnerabilities in various applications. Due to the availability of the internet, they 
    can spread all over the world within a few hours of their release.
     
    Adware : Adware (or advertising software) is the term used for various pop-up 
    advertisements that show up on your computer or mobile device. Adware have 
    the potential to become malicious and harm your device by slowing it down, 
    hijacking your browser and installing viruses and spyware.

    Authentication    : This is a process used to identify individuals based on 
    username and password. This process establishes whether; Someone or 
    something is in fact who or what is declared to be.  Authentication ensures that 
    the individual is who he or she claims to be but nothing about access rights of 

    an individual.

    Authorisation: This is permission to perform action.
     Username: A username is a name that uniquely identifies someone on a 
    computer system. For example, a computer may be setup with multiple accounts, 
    with different usernames for each account.

    Password:     A Password is a word, phrase, or string of characters intended 
    to differentiate an authorized user or process (for the purpose of permitting 
    access) from an unauthorized user. A password is used to prove one’s identity, 

    or authorize access to a resource.

     Username is almost always paired with a password. This username/password 
    combination is referred to as a login, and is often required for users to log in 
    to computer or websites. For example, to access the e-mail via the Web, it is 
    required to enter the  username and password. Once, it is done the username 

    may appear on the screen but the password is kept secret. 

    Application activity 1.1

     1. Explain the meaning of the term Computer security. 
    2. Identify consequences of security violation
     3. What is the role of applying password and username to login to a page?

    1.2 Importance of computer security
    Activity 1.2
    The school accountant, wanted to make a payroll, but was unable to find 
    the final updated list of school employees on his/her computer. He/she 
    remembered that some days ago, she/he gave the same computer to the 
    school secretary to write a letter. 

    The school accountant decided to use any list found on his/her computer. 
    1. Discuss the impacts that may arise when the School Accountant 
    uses any list found on his/her computer
     2. In pairs, discuss what can be the solution for the next time for not 
    losing either the letters or the list
     3. Apart from the School Accountant and Secretary, who else has the 
    responsibility to protect the computer? Support your answer with 

    positive impacts of protecting a computer in different ways

     The importance of computer security is to protect the computer and its data as 
    well as its user’s identity. The data and information that most users store on their 
    hard drives are often far more valuable than the computers themselves. Broadly, 
    the importance of computer security lies in how harmful it can be if that data is 

    lost.

    Companies often store a lot of very sensitive information electronically, including 
    trade secrets, customer lists and extensive corporate documents, both finished 
    and those in progress. The importance of computer security is obvious in these 
    contexts. It is perhaps less obvious for home computer users, but it is no less 

    essential.

    When computer hackers gain access to a computer, they can often see 
    everything that is stored there. This might include bank information, tax 
    identification documents and sensitive health information, along with 
    more ordinary files such as Word Processing documents and family 
    photos. Cyber criminals can use personally identifiable information to steal 

    identities and perpetrate fraud.

    The importance of computer security also extends to larger network security. 
    A compromised computer can be manipulated and made into an agent of a 
    cyber crime ring. As one example viruses and malware are often designed to 

    hijack and exploit email address books. They can sometimes also turn home 

    computers into bots, which are computers that have been taken over and are 
    made to network with others all over the world to perpetrate crime. Computers 
    that have fallen victim to bot networks are not fully used by their owners, often 
    they run very slowly and constantly their memory space is diverted to running 

    malicious scripts.

    Security of computer should help protect the confidential and important data 
    stored on a hard disk storage.
     
    The major importance of computer security is:
     Protect the computer
     Protect data 
    Protect user’s identification.
     This is mainly because data present in the computer can be misused by 
    unauthorised intrusions. 
    • Purpose of computer security is to: 
    • Keep your information on computer protected 
    • Maintain your computer’s overall health 
    • Help prevent viruses and malware 
    • Help programs run more smoothly

     Generally, computer security helps keep information safe

     Application activity 1.2

    1. Give the major importance of computer security
     2. Discuss different kinds of data to be protected.
     3. Discuss and write a brief report on the importance of computer 

    security at your school, in financial institutions and in education field.

    1.3 Computer threats

    Activity 1.3

    A consultant in the finance field joined her office as usual in the morning, after 
    switching on her computer, she realized that it goes slowly, some data on the 
    hard disk were unavailable, and faced complications of saving document on 
    the hard disk, yet the computer was before operating properly for long time ago.
    – Describe the reasons of the above issues and propose what could be 

    the solution.

    1.3.1 Threats

     A threat, in the context of computer security, refers to anything that has the 
    potential to cause serious harm to a computer system. A threat is an activity, 
    attack, situation that may happen, with the potential to cause serious damage. 

    Threats can lead to attacks on computer systems, networks and more.


    1.3.2 Threat categories
     Knowing how to identify computer security threats is the first step in protecting 
    a computer. The threats could be intentional, accidental or caused by natural 
    disasters. Computer threats can be physical or logical.
     • Physical threats 
    • Logical threats.

    a) Physical threats
     Digital storage media and hardware are subject to numerous internal and 
    external forces that can damage or destroy their readability. Below are some 
    cases of physical threats :
     • Improper storage environment with high temperature, humidity, light, dust 
    • Over use mainly for physical contact media, 
    • Natural disaster such as fire, flood, earthquake
     • Inadequate hardware maintenance, 
    • Hardware malfunction
     
    b) Logical threats
     Logical threats are events or attacks that remove, corrupt, deny access, allow 
    access, or steal information from a computer without physical presence of 
    somebody. These include viruses, worms, trojans, spyware, adware, SQL 

    injection etc.

    1.3.3. Difference between logical threat and physical threats
     
    Physical threats may include theft, vandalism and environmental damage 
    while logical threats are those that may damage your software systems, data, or 
    network without damaging your hardware. 
    General threats to information systems can cause the following:

         Hardware failure: A malfunction within the electronic circuits or 
    electromechanical components (disks, tapes) of a computer system. Example: 
    a CPU socket damaged.

         Software failure : The inability of a program to continue processing due to 
    erroneous logic. Example: A crash of a computer program.
     
    Electrical problems: Are faults caused by electricity like a low-resistance 
    connection between two points in an electric circuit through which the current 
    tends to flow rather than along the intended path.
     
    User errors    : Is an error made by the human user of a computer system in 
    interacting with it. Example: A system file deleted unintentionally by a user.

     Program changes     ; modifications made to program. Example: a simple 
    modification in a program can affect the whole software.
     
    Theft of data, software, services and equipment.     When a physical or 
    logical component of a system is stolen, the whole system stops. Example: 

    A computer cannot run without a RAM or cannot run with corrupted software.

    Application activity 1.3

     1. Discuss the difference between logical and physical threats 
    2. In the school computer lab, take one computer and remove all 
    available RAMs in the computer. Discuss what happens to the 
    functioning of the system.
     3. Conduct a diagnostic of the school computer lab. From the diagnosis 
    enumerate the different threats found in the computers.

     4. Discuss the effect of both logical threats and physical threats

    1.4 Computer virus

     Activity 1.4

     n the school computer lab, when one student inserted a flash disk in one 
    computer, all files are immediately deleted and the flash disk becomes 
    empty. Another student discovers that when he/she opens a document in 
    my Ms Word, the content is displayed in unknown characters. 
    In groups, discuss what should be the causes for such problems.

    1.4.1 Definition
     Computer viruses are unwanted software programs or pieces of code that 
    interfere with the functioning of the computer. They spread through contaminated 
    files, data, and insecure networks. Once it enters your system, it can replicate 
    to produce copies of itself to spread from one program to another program and 
    from one infected computer to another computer. Viruses are self-replicating 
    computer programs that interfere with the functioning of the computer by 

    infecting files, data, programs, etc.

     1.4.2 Types of Computer Virus 
    1. Overwrite Virus
     It is the simplest computer virus that overwrites the code of the host computer 
    system’s file with its own malicious code. The content of the infected file is 
    replaced partially or completely without changing the size of the file. Thus, it 
    destroys the original program code by overwriting it with its defective code. The 
    infected files must be deleted or replaced with a new copy as this virus cannot 

    be removed or disinfected.

     2. Append Virus
     As the name suggests, this virus appends its malicious code to the end of the 
    host program’s file. After that, it alters the file’s header in a way that the file’s 
    header is redirected to the start of the malicious code of the append virus. Thus, 
    this code is executed each time the program runs. However, it does not destroy 
    the host program; rather, it modifies it in a way that it holds the virus code and 

    enables the code to run itself.

     3. Macro Virus
     Macro virus alters or infects the macros of a document or data file. It is embedded 
    as a macro in a document and adds its codes to the macros of the document. 
    The virus spreads when infected documents or data files are opened in other 

    computers.

     It also spreads through software programs, which execute macros such as Ms 
    Word, Ms Excel. Each time a document is opened using these programs, other 

    related documents will also get infected.

     4. Boot Virus
     The first macro virus, which was named concept, spread through emails with 
    attached Ms Word documents. It infected MsWord 6.0 and Ms Word 95 
    documents, which were saved using Save as option. Fortunately, it did not 

    cause any harm, except for displaying a message on the screen.

     Boot virus or boot sector virus alters the boot sector program stored in the 
    hard disk or any other storage device such as floppy disks. It replaces the boot 
    sector program with its own malicious version. It infects the computer only when 
    it is used to boot up the computer. If it enters after the boot-up process, it will 
    not infect the computer. For example, if someone forgets to remove the infected 
    floppy disk when the computer is turned off and then turns on this computer, it 

    runs the infected boot sector program during the booting process.

     Usually, it enters into the system through corrupt media files, infected storage 
    devices, and insecure computer networks. The spread of this virus is very rare 
    these days due to the decline in the use of floppy disk and use of boot-sector 

    safeguards in the present-day operating systems.

    5. Resident Virus
     The resident virus stays permanently in the primary memory (RAM) of the 
    computer. When the computer is turning on, this type of virus becomes active 

    and corrupts the files and programs running on the computer.

     6. Multipartite Virus
     Multipartite virus spreads and infects in multiple ways. It infects both the boot 
    sector and the executable files stored on the hard drive simultaneously. When 
    the computer is turning on, the boot sector virus is triggered as it latches on 
    to the hard drive, which has the data for starting up the computer. Once it is 

    triggered, the program files also get infected.

     7. File Infector Virus
     It is one of the commonly found computer viruses. It mainly infects the executable 
    files; the files with .com or .exe extensions. The virus becomes active when the 
    infected file is executed. The active virus overwrites the file partially or completely. 

    Thus it may destroy the original file partially or completely.

     8. Computer Worm
     Computer worm is similar to a virus but is technically different from the virus. It 
    can replicate and spread like a virus, but unlike viruses, it does not need a host 
    program to spread. Being able to self-replicate it can produce multiple copies 
    of itself. It spreads through networks such as an email sent to an infected email 

    id can infect your system with a computer worm.

     9. Trojan Horse
     Trojan horse is a malware like a virus or a worm, but it is technically different from 
    both. It can’t replicate like virus and worm. Trojan horse hides itself in a program. 
    Once you install any such program, the trojan horse enters into your computer. 
    It can provide unauthorized access to a computer, send files to other computers 

    and may delete files or can make other unwanted changes in a computer.

     10. Cavity virus
     It is also known as a spacefiller virus. As the name suggests, this virus tends to 
    install itself by occupying the empty sections of a file. It is not easy to detect this 

    virus as it fills the empty spaces without changing the size of the file.

    11. CMOS Virus
     It infects the CMOS, which stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor 
    and is a memory chip that contains the system configuration. This virus can 

    erase or reset the system configuration.

     12. Companion Virus
     It resides itself in a file whose name is similar to another program file, which is 
    executed normally. When the program file is executed, the virus gets activated 
    and performs malicious steps such as deleting the files on a computer hard 

    drive. Globe virus is a first known companion virus, which was found in 1992.

     13. Encrypted Virus
     It encrypts its payload to make its detection more difficult. It comprises two 
    parts: An encrypted virus body and a decryptor, which decrypts the virus when 
    it is executed. After decryption, the virus can execute itself in order to replicate 
    and become a resident. Furthermore, it is different from cryptolocker, which is a 

    computer virus that encrypts the hard drive data and holds it for ransom.

     14. Executable Virus
    It is a non-resident computer virus, which resides in an executable file. Whenever 

    the infected file is executed, it infects the other files. 

    15. Polymorphic Virus

    It creates its thousands of copies itself; in each copy, it changes the sequence 
    and byte values to evade detection by antivirus software. Even the best 
    antiviruses may not be able to detect this virus. Polymorphic viruses affect data 
    types and functions and generally spread through spam, infected sites, and 

    while using other malware.

    16. Rabbit Virus

     It is also known as wabbit, a fork bomb. It is capable of creating new processes, 
    and each of the new process further creates new processes. This process 
    continues until this virus utilizes all the available resources in the system and 
    system falls short of resources. It may cause the target system to slow down and 
    crash. For example, it is like an infinite loop that repeatedly creates processes 

    that consume lots of CPU cycles and operating system resources.

    17. Stealth Virus

    It is a hidden computer virus, which specifically attacks operating system 
    processes. It usually hides itself in partitions, files or boot sectors and is capable 
    of going unnoticed during antivirus or anti-malware scans making it capable of 

    intentionally avoiding detection.

     18. Web Scripting Virus

     The web scripting virus is a kind of computer security vulnerability through 
    websites which breaks our web browser security. This virus allows the attackers 
    to inject client-side scripting into the web page. It can steal our information from 
    the web browser. This type of viruses is usually used to attack the sites with a 

    larger population such as social networking, e-mail, etc.

     1.4.3 Characteristics of a Virus
     Following are a couple of characteristics of any virus that infects computers.
     • They reside in a computer’s memory and activate themselves while the 
    program that is attached starts running. For example: They attach 
    themselves to the explorer.exe in windows OS because it is the 
    process that is running all the time.
     • They modify themselves after the infection phase making it so hard for 
    an antivirus to detect them.
     • They always try to hide themselves in the operating systems by 
    encrypting themselves into cryptic symbols and decrypting themselves 
    when they replicate or execute.
     
    1.4.4 Symptoms of a Computer Virus
     There are many warning signs or symptoms which show that a computer is 
    infected with a virus, some of which are as follows:
     • Slow computer performance: The computer may work slowly. The 
    result for this is that it will take more time to open or shut down, to open 
    a file, a document or a computer application, etc. The operating system 
    and internet speed may also slow down.
     
    • Frequent pop-ups    : A virus may cause unusual frequent window pop-ups.
     • Hard drive issue: The hard drive may exhibit unusual high activity 
    even when it is not in use. It may cause unwanted changes to the hard 
    drive and may freeze or crash this device.
     • Frequent crashes : One may experience frequent sudden system 
    crashes while playing games, watching videos, or doing some other 
    work using the infected system. A blue screen appears when it crashes.
    • Unknown programs: Unwanted programs may open or start 
    automatically when the computer is turning on. These programs are 
    found in computer’s list of active applications. Sometimes, the window 
    shuts down unexpectedly without any reason.
     • Unusual activities: The computer may perform differently, such as 
    not being able to log into accounts. The hardware, software, or OS may 
    start malfunctioning leading to crashing the system abruptly.
     • Network issue : Sometimes, there is a high network activity even if the 
    computer is not connected to the internet and vice versa.
     • Unnecessary advertisement: It is normal that sometimes 
    advertisements may come to the computer screen while browsing, but 
    when it comes when not browsing, it may indicates a virus on that 
    computer.
     • Affected applications : Some viruses are developed to affect 
    specific applications. Consequently, some applications may not work if 
    the computer is infected.
     • Blocked by antivirus sites: An antivirus site may deny access to a 
    computer that is infected by a virus.
     • Dialog boxes : Many dialog boxes keep appearing suddenly on a 
    computer screen. 
     • Printer issues : A printer attached to an infected computer may print 
    documents without getting any command or in an inappropriate manner.
     • Changed Homepage: A home page may get changed without being 
    done by the user. 
    • Strange messages: One may see strange error messages on a 
    computer such as «cannot rename the folder as a folder with the same 

    name already exists»

    1.4.5 Anti-virus installation

     • In this case Kaspersky 2017 is going to be used as an example of how 
    to install an antivirus. Before the installation of Kaspersky 2017 on a 
    computer, the following preparation has to be made:
     • Make sure that the software is on external storage device or on another 
    computer which is on the network; 
    • Check if the computer meets the requirements of Kaspersky Anti-Virus 2017; 
    • Make sure no antivirus software of Kaspersky Lab or other vendors is 
    installed on your computer; 
    • Check if there is any incompatible software and remove it;
     • Close all running applications; 
    • Check if it is Kaspersky Anti-Virus 2017 installation under Windows 

    10, then click on the Desktop tile on the start screen.

    Standard Installation: 
    1. Download the installation file from Kaspersky Lab website and run it. 
    Then, the user follows the instructions given by the system. 

    2.      If the antivirus Kaspersky installation file is saved in another computer 
    on the same network, connect to that computer and run the executive 
    file from it or move it using a removable storage. The instructions will be 
    followed as in the point above 

    3.      Insert the disc into the CD/DVD drive if it contains the Kaspersky 
    installation file. If the installation does not start automatically, run the 

    installation file manually. Click Install.

     1.Read the License Agreement in the window that appear afterward by 
       clicking on the respective link. Accept its terms to install the application. 
       Respond to other windows that may display as the installation continues

    2.Wait until the installation is complete. Make sure the Start Kaspersky 
    Anti-Virus check box is selected, then click Finish

    Note    : A virus scan is the process of using anti-virus software to scan and 
    identify viruses in a computing device. It is recommended to scan any external 
    storage connected to computer before using it.

    Application activity 1.4
     1. Explain clearly what will happen If a computer is infected by virus 
    that shows the following signs or symptoms:
     ii) Slow computer performance
     iii) Frequent pop-ups
     iv) Hard Drive issue 
    v) Frequent crashes 
    vi) Unknown programs
     2. Give the difference between resident virus and non-resident virus

     3. What do you understand by executable virus?

    1.5 Computer attacks

     Activity 1.5

     One day, an ICT teacher found the messages belowon some computers in 
    computer lab. 
    1. Discuss which kind of messages they are
    2. Explain the reason why some computers may display the above 
        messages
    3. Give the solution that can help the ICT teacher avoid those types of 

    messages in computers

    A Computer attack is any attempt to gain unauthorized access to a computer, 
    or computing system with the intent to cause damage. Computer attacks aim 
    to disable, disrupt, destroy or control computer systems or to alter, block, de

    lete, manipulate or steal the data.

    1.5.1 Ways of computer attacks

    1. Virus

     Viruses spread when the software or documents they get attached to are 
    transferred from one computer to another using a network, a disk, file sharing 
    methods, or through infected e-mail attachments. Some viruses use different 

    stealth strategies to avoid their detection from anti-virus software.

     2. Trojans
     A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a type of malicious code or software that looks 
    legitimate but can take control of your computer. A Trojan is designed to 
    damage, disrupt, steal, or in general inflict some other harmful action on your 

    data or network. A Trojan acts like a genuine application or file to trick you.

     3. Worms
     A computer worm is a program containing malicious code that attacks 
    host computers and spreads via a network. Network worms exploit security 
    vulnerabilities in various applications. Due to the availability of the Internet, they 

    can spread all over the world within a few hours of their release.

     4. Website Hacking
     Attackers can run code, install malware, steal or modify data by exploiting 
    vulnerabilities. Typically, hackers snoop around and crawl websites to identify 
    underlying vulnerabilities and weaknesses and accordingly, orchestrate attacks 

    and data breaches.

     5. Cybercrime
     Hacking is identifying and exploiting weaknesses in computer systems and/or 
    computer networks. Cybercrime is committing a crime with the aid of computers 

    and information technology infrastructure. 

    6. Unwanted content
     Unwanted content can come in various different forms and can have a negative 
    impact on how things are perceived. It is generally personal information that 
    is displayed on a computer when connected to the internet without the user’s 

    consent.

    7. Attacks through computer network
     Actions taken through the use of computer networks to disrupt, deny, degrade, 
    or destroy information resident in computers and computer networks, or the 

    computers and networks themselves.

     Examples : 
    Unauthorized access. 

    Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks. 

    8. Attacks by means of removable media  
    Data can be lost or sensitive data can be leaked. In many cases this data loss 
    comes at a high price both in reputational damage and financial loss. Another 
    security risk in the use of removable media is the introduction of malware from 

    one device to another.

     Denial of Services attack
     A denial-of-service attack is a cyber-attack in which the perpetrator seeks to 
    make a computer or network resource unavailable to its intended users by 

    temporarily or indefinitely disrupting services of a host connected to a network.

    Application activity 1.5

    1. Explain different ways of how a computer can be attacked.
     2. What is a computer attack?
     3. Identify any 5 examples of computer attacks
     4. Visit you school computer laboratory and detect whether there are 

    some computers which have been attacked or not.

    1.6Threats protection 

    Activity 1.6

     A group of O’level students went to do a research in computer laboratory 
    and found that some computers have those messages as shown on the 
    images below. They tried to close those messages but still the computers 

    did not work properly. 


    1. Explain why those messages were displayed on the computer 
    screens.

     2. Explain can be done in order to make those computers work properly 

    1.6.1 Computer antivirus 
    There are many antiviruses, which are programs that can help to protect a 
    computer from viruses. It scans the system and cleans the viruses detected 
    during the scan. Some of the popular antiviruses include Avast, Quickheal, 
    McAfee, Kaspersky, etc

    • Basic functions of Antivirus Engines:This is the core of any antivirus 
    product. All antivirus engines have three components to function 
    accordingly. It is important to understand these functions because it 
    will help for better manual cleaning of viruses. 

    • Scanning    : When a new virus is detected in the cyberspace, antivirus 
    producers start writing programs (updates) that scans for similar 
    signature strings.

     • Integrity checking    : This method generally checks for manipulated 
    files in OS from the viruses.

     • Interception    : This method is used basically to detect Trojans and it 
    checks the request made by the operating system for network access.

    The following image shows the schema for an antivirus engines functionality.

    Types of anti virus

    1. Free Antivirus Software

    The free versions of anti-viruses have nearly identical malware detection scores 
    to the paid versions produced by the same company, but the commercial 
    antivirus makes a small difference in the performance of security. Examples 
    of such antiviruses are Avast Antivirus, AVG Antivirus, Panda Antivirus, 
    Bitdefender Antivirus, and Microsoft Security Essentials. When the 
    computer to be installed is a server, there will be a need to have a commercial version

    2. Commercial Antivirus
    These are the ones that are got after paying a fee. The buyer then gets a key 
    that will be entered when the antivirus is being installed. Note also that all the 
    producers of the free antiviruses offer their commercial versions. Some of 
    the commercial antiviruses are: Kaspersky Anti-Virus, McAfee AntiVirus Plus, 
    Webroot Secure Anywhere Antivirus, and Bitdefender Antivirus Plus These 

    antiviruses can be downloaded as free trials from the maker’s websites.

    The Kaspersky Antivirus has an excellent score in anti-phishing and gives a 
    useful bonus in security tools like credit card protection in computers. McAfee 
    Antivirus Plus can protect all the operating systems like Windows, Mac OS, 
    Android, and iOS devices and has very good malicious URL blocking and anti
    phishing. Webroot SecureAnywhere Anti virus has features like recovery of files 
    encrypted by ransomware, very fast scan, handles unkown malware and uses 

    small amount of disk space.

     When using the above type of antivirus, modified, replaced or deleted files and 
    the shared libraries should also be checked. They generally infect executable 
    program files with extension like .EXE, .DRV, .SYS, .COM, .BIN. Malwares 
    changes extension of genuine files, for example: File.TXT to File.TXT.VBS.
     
    For the system administrator of a webserver, be aware of another form of malware 
    which is called webshell. It generally is in a .php extension but with strange file 
    names and in an encrypted form.When those types of file are detected from any 
    computer, they must be deleted.

     • Detecting a Computer Error from a Virus Infection

    This section explains how to detect a computer or OS fault from a virus because 
    sometimes people and system administrators mix the signs.

     The following events are most likely not caused by a malware:
     • Error while the system is booting in bios stage, like Bios’s battery cell 
    display, timer error display.
     • Hardware errors, like beeps RAM burn, HDD, etc.
     • If a document fails to start normally like a corrupted file, but the other 
    files can be opened accordingly.
     • Keyboard or mouse doesn’t respond to any commands
     • Monitor switching on and off too often, like blinking or vibrating, this is 

    a hardware fault.

    On the other hand, the following signs in a computer system are caused by malware:
     • The computer shows a pop-up or error tables.
     • Freezes frequently.
     • It slows down when a program or process starts.
     • Third parties complain that they are receiving invitation in social media 
    or via email by computer user.
     • Files extensions changes appear or files are added to the system 
    without computer user consent.
     • Internet Explorer freezes too often even though the internet speed is 
    very good.
     • Hard disk space is full all the time, even when there seem to be few files 
    and folders in the computer.
     • Files and program sizes changes comparing to its original version.

     • Installation of an antivirus 

    To install an antivirus program on a computer, follow the steps below:

     Insert the CD or DVD into the computer’s disc drive. The installation process 
    should start automatically, with a window opening to guidance through the 

    installation process.

     • If the antivirus program is downloaded from the Internet, find the 
    downloaded file on computer. If the downloaded file is a zip file, unzip 
    the file to extract and access the installation files. Look for a file named 
    setup.exe, install.exe, or something similar, then double-click that file. 
    The installation process should start, with a window opening to help 

    guide through the install process.

    1.6.2 Anti-Spyware

     Anti-spyware is a type of software that is designed to detect and remove 
    unwanted spyware programs. Spyware is a type of malware that is installed on 
    a computer without the user’s knowledge in order to collect information about 
    them. This can pose a security risk to the user, but more frequently spyware 
    degrades system performance by taking up processing power, installing 
    additional software, or redirecting users’ browser activity.

     Anti-spyware is an antivirus software primarily utilized to scan a hard disk 
    for viruses, worms, and Trojan horses, and removes, fixes, or isolates any 
    threats that are found. Antispyware software scans the hard disk and registry for 
    traces of spyware and adware to removes them or prompt the user to remove 

    them.

    For preventing a computer to be affected by spywares the installation of an anti 
    spyware is needed. Such anti spyware are: TotalAV, Outbyte PC Repair, Restoro, 

    Advanced SystemCare, Iolo System Mechanic, Malwarebytes Adwcleaner, etc

    Applying antispyware
     The computer user can download and install a free or commercial AntiSpyWare 
    then run it and scan the computer as it was done for antivirus to remove found 

    spyware.

    1.6.3 Firewalls

    Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming and 
    outgoing network traffic based on an organization’s previously established 
    security policies. It can be  a At its most basic, a firewall is essentially the barrier 

    that sits between a private internal network and the public internet.


     A firewall can be a hardware or a software. Afirewall can help protect a network 
    by acting as an intermediary between the internal network and outside traffic. It 
    monitors attempts to gain access to the operating system and blocks unwanted 
    incoming traffic and unrecognized sources. The Benefits of a firewall include 
    among others preventing hackers and remote access, protecting data, network 

    monitoring, protecting against Trojan and other malicious software, etc.

     Firewalls are also categorized based on how they operate. Based on their 

    method of operation, below are different types of firewalls:

    3. Packet Filtering Firewalls

    Packet filtering firewalls are the oldest, most basic type of firewalls. Operating 
    at the network layer, they check a data packet for its source IP and destination 
    IP, the protocol, source port, and destination port against predefined rules to 
    determine whether to pass or discard the packet. Packet filtering firewalls are 
    essentially stateless, monitoring each packet independently without any track 
    of the established connection or the packets that have passed through that 
    connection previously. This makes these firewalls very limited in their capacity 

    to protect against advanced threats and attacks.

     Packet filtering firewalls are fast, cheap, and effective. But the security they 

    provide is very basic. 

    4. Circuit level gateways
     Circuit-level gateways verify established Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 
    connections and keep track of the active sessions. They are quite similar to 
    packet filtering firewalls in that they perform a single check and utilize minimal 
    resources. Primarily, they determine the security of an established connection. 
    When an internal device initiates a connection with a remote host, circuit-level 
    gateways establish a virtual connection on behalf of the internal device to keep 

    the identity of the internal user hidden.

     5. Stateful Inspection Firewalls

    They verify and keep track of established connections to perform packet inspection 
    to provide better, more comprehensive security. They work by creating a kind of 
    table with source computer addresses, destination computer address, source 
    computer port and destination computer port once a connection is established. 
    They create their own rules dynamically to allow expected incoming network 
    traffic instead of relying on a static set of rules based on this information. They 

    therefore drop data packets that do not belong to a verified active connection.

    6. Application level Gateways 

    Also called Proxy Firewalls, application-level gateways are implemented 
    at the application layer via a proxy device. Instead of an outsider accessing 
    your internal network directly, the connection is established through the proxy 
    firewall. The external client sends a request to the proxy firewall. After verifying 
    the authenticity of the request, the proxy firewall forwards it to one of the internal 
    devices or servers on the client’s behalf. Alternatively, an internal device may 
    request access to a webpage, and the proxy device will forward the request 

    while hiding the identity and location of the internal devices and network.

    1.6.4 Access control 

    Every computer user needs access to a password that is shared with them. 
    The user makes a request to access the password. The request is sent to the 

    designated administrator(s) for approval.

     1. Main category of users
     • Administrator 
    An administrator is someone who can make changes on a computer that will 
    affect other users of the computer. Administrators can change security settings, 
    install software and hardware, access all files on the computer, and make 
    changes to other user accounts.
     • Local user 
    Local user accounts are stored locally on the server. These accounts can be 
    assigned rights and permissions on a particular server, but on that server only. 
    Local user accounts are security principals that are used to secure and manage 
    access to the resources on a standalone or member server for services or users.
     
    To create a new user account in Windows 10, follow these steps:
     1. Right-click the Windows Start menu button.
     2. Select Control Panel 
    3. Select User Accounts .
     4. Select Manage another account .
     5. Select Add a new user in PC settings .
     6. Click on “I don’t have this person’s sign-in information”
     7. Click on Add a user without a Microsoft account

     After following all these steps, the following window will be displayed :

    1. On the above window, enter the username and the password the new 
    user will use to login.
    2. Choose and answer the questions which help in recovering an account 
    when the password is forgetten.
     3. After clicking on Next, a new user account will be created.

     Note    : The Administrator account is the first account that is created during 
    the Windows installation. The Administrator account has full control of the 
    files, directories, services, and other resources on the local computer. The 
    Administrator account can create other local users, assign user rights, and 

    assign permissions.

    Application activity 1.6

    1. Describe different functions of an anti virus
     2. Differentiate AVG anti virus to Microsoft security essentials
     3. Briefly differentiate the types of firewall
     4. a) At your school, the anti-virus used or installed in computers is for 
    how many users ?
     5. b)  Suppose that, the anti-virus keys are stolen by someone else to 
    use it on network. What can be the consequences for that anti-virus 
    users in that school ? 

    6. c) How the computer users can avoid that illegal action ?

    Activity 1.7

     In the school computer laboratory, to enter in a secured computer with 
    password, someone needs to be given that password. If it has been 
    forgotten, it becomes impossible to work with that computer. Answer the 
    following questions :
     1. What is the importance of login to computer with password ?
     2. List other security measures that can be used to protect a computer.

     3. Explain how data stored in computer can be protected from damage ?

    1.7 Threat prevention
     Computer viruses can easily spread through the internet and email, causing 
    potential harm to a computer’s data, files and hard drive. Viruses are commonly 
    disguised as hyperlinks, pop-ups or email attachments of images, greeting cards, 
    audio or video files. Use the following instructions to help keep the computer 

    safe from viruses, hackers and other malicious attacks.

    1. Use Strong Passwords

     It is very necessary to keep data safe by creating unique, complex passwords. 
    The best passwords include a mix of numbers, letters, and symbols and are at 

    least 8 characters long.

    2. Keep everything up to date
     Another basic step to take is to make sure you have the latest versions of all 
    software installed on your devices. The importance of this is because software 
    updates include features designed to withstand the latest security threats. 
    Microsoft, Oracle, and other makers regularly update their software to eliminate 
    “bugs” that hackers could exploit.

     If a computer has an operating a system from many years ago, it’s defenseless 
    against any viruses or malware recently developed. Make it a habit to install all 

    new software updates as soon as they become available.

     1. Use Antivirus Software
     Antivirus software acts as a “vaccine” against virtual viruses. It can identify and 

    eliminate the threat that could harm a computer.

     2. Use a Firewall
     Using antivirus programs doesn’t automatically mean that there is a firewall in a 
    computer. Macs computers come with pre-installed firewall software. Make sure 

    it’s enabled to provide an extra layer of protection from viruses and malware.

     3. Install a popup blocker
     Many attacks happen through browsers, during everyone’s daily activities. 
    Hackers can gain access to any computer from one innocent click on the wrong 
    ad or link. An ad or popup blocker is essential to protecting any computer’s 
    data. It will prevent any unwanted pages from opening automatically. Never click 

    on, open, or download anything unless its source is known.

     4. Beware of Email Phishing Scams
     These appear in email form under the guise of a legitimate company. The goal is 
    to get the computer user to enter his/her personal information or to click on an 

    infected link that allows access to the computer.

     Some companies will have their own domain name for emails. If an email address 
    claims to be from Paypal or Netflix but ends with @gmail.com, it’s a scam.Other 
    signs include misspellings, poor grammar, and suspicious attachments, buttons, 
    or links. A legitimate company will never invite you via email to log in and provide 

    personal or billing information.

    5. Know the signs of infection
     There are different signs which may make one think about a computer being 
    onfected such as repeated error messages, unexpected shutdowns, a sudden 
    slowing down of a computer, a computer taking too long to shut down or restart, 
    new unknown toolbars, etc. Any of these signs could mean that the computer 

    is infected.

     6. Consider additional security features
     At the very least, it is better to perform weekly or even daily backups of all 
    important data. Store it securely in the cloud or on a separate hard drive. 
    That way, if the virus come accidentaly the vital information won’t be lost or 
    compromised. For extra protection, it is good to consider advanced security 
    measures like endpoint security. This protects not just not only the computer 

    but also the whole network.

     Application activity 1.7

     1. In group of 4 discuss the best practices that every user of the 
         computer should apply as routine in order to keep an installed 
          antivirus stronger.
     2. Install an available antivirus in the computer lab, update it and scan 
         the full computer then report you observed during the whole process 
          up to the end.
     3. Discuss the necessary recommendations to prevent viruses and 
          spywares from the computer

     4. Outline the signs of a computer which has been infected by virus

    End of unit assessment 1

     Part 1. Written
     a) What is computer security ? 
    b) What is the purpose of computer security ? 
    c) With an example, explain how you can protect a computer from 
    physical threats ?  
    d) By using examples, explain access control in authorization 
    e) Which type of attack that enable a computer user to access his/
     her e-mail address ?
     f) Identify consequences of security violation in computer security 
    context
     g) Discuss and write a brief report on the importance of computer 
    security at your school, in financial institutions and in education field
     h) With an example differentiate the physical threats to logical threats
     i) Explain the term “Executable virus”
     j) It is heard that some web site become hacked by unknown 
    people. Which strategies can be used to avoid young Rwandan 
    programmers to engage in that action ? 
    k) Using an arrow match the following in Group A with their 
    corresponding in Group B
     
    Part 2. Written
     In school computer lab, every student takes a computer and do the following 
    activities : 
    i) Create a user name and password to enter in that particular computer
     ii)  Add a new user on the computer

     iii) Update the anti-virus found on the computers

    To set a paragraph spacing follow these steps:


     2. Type the list, pressing Enter once to insert another bullet. When fini
    shed, simply press Enter twice.

     i)     To create a numbered list in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below.
     1. Position the cursor where the numbered list will be inserted.
     2. In the Home tab, click the Numbering tool. A number One should appear.

  • UNIT 2 :WORD PROCESSING

     Introductory activity
     1. The head teacher of your school buys a new computer which has 
    no software in it. He/she needs to prepare a report which to be 
    send to the District. What are the system software and application 
    software that the head teacher will need to achieve his purpose.
     2. You are asked by your head teacher to prepare a document 
    presenting the features of your school specifically its historical 
    background, Vision and mission, performance, statistics about 
    students and officers. 
     iii) Give steps used to launch application software that will be used to 
    perform this task 
    iv) The document to be created must comply with  the following:
     v)  It has titles and has highlights of words to which more attention 
    is needed. (The highlighted word can be made as: Bold, italic, 
    underlined depending on the preferences)
     vi) It has attractive colors depending on school preferences
     vii) It contains a table to present the school statistics information.
     viii)  It has a school image as the first page 
    ix) It contains the hierarchy of officers in the school which is created 
    using smart chart
     x) Has a header “My beautiful School” and footer as “Cantered page 
    number”.
     xi) Create a table of content for this document and save it on “My school” 

    as file name.

    2.1 Text formatting 

    Activity 2.1

    1. Open the new document of MS word 
    2. Name each icon commands by make a pointer/curser on each 
    icon from Font groups in home tab as shown on the below figure: 

    3. Write a function of each command from 1 to 6
     
    Formatting     is the process of enhancing the appearance of a document, making 
    it attractive. Text formatting involves enhancement of the appearance of the text. 
    Some of the common text formatting features includes font style, font size, font 

    colour, underline, change case and among others.

     2.1.1.Font Style
     By default, the font type of each new document is set to Calibri. HoweZer, Ms 
    Word provides many other fonts to use in customizing the text. To change text’s 
    font style/font face go through these steps:
     1. Select the text to modify 
    2. On the Home tab, click the drop-down arrow next to the Font box. A 
    menu of font styles will appear.
     3. Select and click on the font type to apply. Immediately the font style 

    changes.

    2.1.2 Font color
     The most common font color for word text is automatic (near black) but there 
    are other fonts available. To change the font color:
     1. Select the text to modify.
     2. 2. On the Home tab, click the Font Color drop-down arrow. The Font 
    Color menu appears.

     3. 3. Select the font color to use. The font color will change in the document.

     The color to choose from are not limited to the drop-down menu that appears. 
    Select More Colors at the bottom of the menu to access the Colors dialog box 

    and choose one of the colors.

    2.1.3 Font size
     The most used size of word characters is 12, however character size in Word 
    varies from 1 to 72 but can be increased even up. To change the font size go 
    through the following steps:
     1. Select the text for which the size is going to be changed. For example 
    type and select the text “My beautiful School”.
     
    2. Click on the     Home tab and click the Font size command from the Font 
    group then choose the desired size like 36. In the figure below the font 

    size of the text is now changed to 36.

    Note: It is possible to change the font size using the Increase Font Size and 
    Decrease Font Size commands

    2.1.4Changing text case
     The text case is about the presentation of characters in words. The available 
    cases are: Sentence case, Lower case, Upper case, Toggle case and Capitalize 
    each Word. To change the case:
     1. Select the text for which to change the case.
     2. On the Home tab, click the Change Case command in the Font group. 
    3. A drop-down menu will appear. Select the desired case option from the 

    menu

     • Sentence case: It capitalizes the first letter of each sentence.
     • Uppercase: It capitalizes all the all letters of your text.
     • Capitalize Each Word: It capitalizes the first letter of each word.
    • Toggle Case: It allows you to shift between two case views, e.g. to 

    shift between Capitalize Each Word and cAPITALIZE eACH wORD .

    2.1.5 Making text Bold, Italic, and Underlined

    The Bold, Italic, and Underline commands are used to help draw attention to 

    important words or phrases. To make text have these attributes do the following:

     1. Select the text to modify.
     2. On the Home tab, click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline (U) commands 
         in the Font group
     3. The selected text will be modified and made bold, italic and underlined 
    as in the next image if all the corresponding icons were clicked on as shown below.

    The functions of the used commands are given below:
     • Bold: It allows to make the text bold 
    • Italic: It allows to italicize the text 

    • Underline: It allows to underline the text

     Application activity 2.1

     1. What is the function of the following command in a 
    Word document?
     b) (a) Font size, (b) Font color, (c) Font style, (d) Bold, 
    (e) italic, (f) Change case

     3. 2. Write at least four lines of text which describes 
    “Your education background “and do the following:
     
    iv) Change font type of the first and second sentences to 
    “Poor Richard”, font size to “14”, font color to “Blue” 
    and make the sentences italic.

     v) Change the third and fourth sentence to the font type” 
    Tahoma”, font size “12”, font color “Red” and underline 

    those sentences.

    2.2  Paragraph formatting


    A Paragraph format contains one or more lines with a combination of words, 
    numbers and other characters. They are features used to improve the appearance 
    of an entire paragraph. They include among others Text Alignments, Bullets, 
    Numbering, Multi-Level list, Paragraph Indents, Sorting Text, Line Spacing and 
    many others.
     
    2.2.1. Text Alignment
     It refers to the arrangement of text relative to the left or right margin of a page. 
    There are four types of alignments namely: Left, Right, Centre and Justified 

    alignments.


    Steps:
     1. Select the text that needs to be aligned 
    2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group click either Align Left , Align 

    Right, Center  or Justify command

     2.2.2 Line and Paragraph Spacing
     Line spacing determines the amount of vertical space between lines of text. 
    Microsoft Word uses single line spacing by default. The selected line spacing 
    will affect all lines of text in the selected paragraph or in the paragraph that 
    contains the insertion point.
     To set a paragraph spacing follow these steps:
    • Select all of the paragraphs for which the spacing is to be changed (or place 
    the insertion point anywhere in a single paragraph that needs to 
    be changed). 
    • On the Home tab, click the “Line and Paragraph Spacing” 
    command.

     • Choose the line spacing among the different options

    The line spacing is shown in multiples. “2.0” is double spacing, “3.0” is triple 
    spacing, and so on. Select the line spacing needed and Word applies it to the 

    selected paragraphs.

     There is a way to choose another spacing, or revert to the original spacing, 
    click the “Line and Paragraph Spacing” option again and select a different line 

    spacing.

    2.2.3. Indentation

    It is the process of moving text away from the right or left margins by a given 
    interval. There are four different types of indents that can be applied to a 

    paragraph which are detailed in the table below:


    i) To Create a Left Line Indent follow the following steps:
     1) Position the cursor anywhere in the first paragraph of the document
     2) In the Home tab, click on the icon on the right bottom corner of the 
    Paragraph group (Paragraph Settings)
     3) In the dialog box that appears next to Alignment option, click on the 
    drop down arrow and choose Left. The other options available when the 

    drop down arrow is clicked are Right, Centered and Justified

     4) In the Indentation options, increase the Left Indentation to 1 inch by 
    clicking the Up-scroll arrow 
    5) In the Spacing options, select the spacing to apply
     6) To apply the new changes click OK
     Note that all the lines from the left side of the first paragraph moved over 1 inch.
     ii) To Create a Right Line Indent follow these steps
     1) Position the cursor anywhere in the first paragraph of the document
     2) In the Home tab, click on the Paragraph Settings icon from Paragraph group 
    3) In the new dialog box, next to Alignment options click on the drop down 
    arrow and choose Right. 
    4) Increase the indentation to the size needed
    5) Click OK to apply the new changes.
     2.2.3 Bullets and Numbering
     Bullets or numbering are used for a list. It is possible to apply automatically 
    simple bullets and numbering to lists in the document as it is being written.
     i) To create a bulleted list in Microsoft Word, follow the steps 
    below:
    1. Position the cursor where the bulleted list will be inserted.
    2. On the Home tab, click the Bullets tool. A bullet should appear.

     3. Type the list, pressing Enter once to insert another bullet. When finished, 
    simply press Enter twice.

    ii) To create a numbered list in Microsoft Word, follow the steps 
    below.

    1. Position the cursor where the numbered list will be inserted.
     2. In the Home tab, click the Numbering tool. A number One should 

    appear.


    iii) Multilevel numbering
     Multilevel numbering creates a numberings in which some numbers are 
    embedded among others therefore creating a logical hierarchy. 
    • How to set up multilevel numbering
    Before applying multilevel numbering to a document, firstly apply heading style 
    to the heading text.

    1. Select the text on which the numbering is to be applied 
    2. In the Home tab, click the Multilevel numbering icon in 
    the Paragraph group.
     3. There is an option to select an existing layout from the list to use as a starting point
    , or create a new numbering system from scratch. As you 
    hover over each thumbnail image, Word provides a larger image of the 
    numbering system.

    Application activity 2.2
    1. Type text in word processing software which describe your school.
     The first paragraph talks about school background, the second about 
    school Vision and weekly school schedule Save it as “Education” 
    and do the following
     b) Apply on the text a line spacing of 1.0
     c) Apply Right indent to the left on your first paragraph (school 
    background)
     d) Apply left indent to the Right on your Second paragraph 
    (school Vision)
     e) Apply the numbered list for weekly school schedule 
    paragraph
     f) With bulleted list, retype the name of commands labeled 
    by numbers in activity 2.1
     1. Select your school background then do the following:
     a) Indent the first sentence,
     b) Change the font type to “Time New Roman “, size =”12”, 
    line spacing =”2.0

     c) Change alignment from Left to Justified alignment

    2.3.Inserting table, picture and Shapes

    Activity 2.3

    By doing a research, discuss the tools used in Word shown in the screenshot below:


    MS Word allows for the insertion of many objects like Tables, Pictures, Shapes 
    equations, Symbols, Word Art. These objects make a document more beautiful 
    and easy to understand. Those different objects are inserted in a document by 

    using the Insert tab.

    2.3.1Table
     A table is a feature that is used to present information in an organized layout 
    consisting of rows and columns which intersect to make a Cell. To create a 
    table, first determine how many columns and rows that it will have. In Word, the 

    tool to make a table will look like the one shown below:

     i) Inserting a table in document
     There are two ways of creating a table namely:  Using the Graphic Grid and

     Using the Insert Table feature.

    a) Using the Graphic Grid
     1. Position the cursor where the table is to be inserted.
     2. Click on the Insert tab,
     3. Click the Table tool and select the number of rows and columns that 
    are needed.
     4. Use the grid to select how many columns and rows are needed. Choose 
    the number of columns and rows by dragging the mouse across the grid 

    and then clicking the left mouse button on the lowest right square.

    b) Using the Insert Table feature
    – On the Insert tab, click the Table tool 
    – Click on Insert Table option
    – In the dialog box that appears write the number of rows and columns 

    and click OK.

     ii Add a Row or Column
     To add a new column or row in an already created table do the following: 
    Place the cursor in any cell within the column or the cell next to which the new
     
    1. Place the cursor in any cell within the column or the cell next to which the 

    new column or row will be created and do a Right Click.

    2. In the options that will appear click on Insert 
    3. Next to Insert option click on one of the insert options like Insert Columns 
    to the Left. The Insert column/row options are shown in the window 

    below:

     iii.Delete a table Row or Column

    There is an option of deleting a row or a column which is not needed in the 

    created table. To do it follow these steps:

    To delete a row:
     1. Select the row to delete

     2. Do a Right Click and click on Delete Rows 

    To delete a column:
    1. Select the column to delete

    2. Do a Right Click and click on Delete Columns 

    Formatting a table

    Formatting a table is to give specific properties to a table, cell, row or columns 

    depending on what the user wants.

    a) Merging Cells and Splitting Cells.

     Merge Cells command is used to combine more than one cells to 
    appear as one large cell while Split cells command is used to divide a 

    cell into more than one cells to make it appear as many different cells.

    The following is the procedure for merging cells: 
    1. Select the cells to be merged.
     2. Do a Right Click and choose Merge Cells. 

    For splitting cells, do the following:
     a) Position the cursor in the cell to be split.

     b) Do a Right Click and choose Split Cells. 


    2.3.2.Picture
     Images of picture that are generated by a computer are called computer graphics. 
    Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, mathematical graphs, line graphs, 
    charts, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, 
    engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, 

    and color. A picture can be inserted from the Internet or from an existing file.

    a) Inserting pictures from the Internet
     1) Position the insertion point where the picture is to be inserted.
     2) Click Insert tab from the menu bar in the Illustrations group and click 

    Online Pictures icon.

     3)  If there is Internet connection, a dialog box is displayed
     4) Type the name of the image to be located in the box provided.
     5) Click on Go button to display the result on the window

     6) Click on the desired image then select Insert button

     b) Inserting pictures from an existing file
     To insert a picture from an existing file is done by following these steps:
     • In the Insert tab click on Pictures
     • Browse in the computer folders the images to insert and click on Insert 

    button

     b) Cropping a picture
     Cropping a picture is to reduce the size of that picture by removing undesirable 
    or unnecessary elements.
     
    Cropping an image is done in the following way:
     i) Select the picture by clicking it
     ii) Click the Format tab in the Picture Tools ribbon group.

     iii) Click the Crop tool.

     i) Crop handles appear on the sides and corners of the image. Hold down 
    the left button of the mouse and displace the mouse depending on how 
    you want to crop the image

     ii) Click and drag the crop handles where you want to crop.

     iii) To crop all four sides of a picture or graphic at once while maintaining the 
    graphic’s proportions, press and hold down Ctrl as you drag the handles.

     

    iv) Click the Crop button again when you’re finished setting the crop area

     2.3.3. Shapes
     A shape or figure is a graphical representation of an object or its external boundary, 
    outline, or external surface, as opposed to other properties such as color, texture, or 

    material type.

     i) Adding shapes

    Various shapes can be added in a Word document then formatted as required 

    by the user. Follow these steps to insert shapes

    1. Click on Insert tab from the menu bar, 
    2. Click Shapes icon from Illustration group. Different types of shapes 

    appear as shown in the figure below

    3. Click on the desired shape
    4. Position the pointer at the desired area of the document and drag it in the 
    desired direction to draw the shape by using the pointer which has now 
    changed to a plus sign.
     ii) Formatting Shapes
    To format in this case means to arrange it in the desired way. Some formatting 
    styles that can be applied on a shape include the following: changing the shape; 
    rotating the shape to an angle; and grouping a number of shapes into one image.

    1. Click the Shape Fill button from Shape styles in shape format
     and select a color to change the shape’s fill color.
     
    2.     Click the Shape Outline button and select a color and weight for the 

    shape’s outline, as well as dash and arrow styles.

    Click the Shape Effects button and select a shape effect, such

    as shadow, glow, or bevel.

    1. Select a shape style preset from the Shape Styles gallery. 

    Click the gallery’s More button to see more presets

    Application activity 2.3

    1. Use the Graphic Grid create the following table and save it as table 1


     a) Insert three columns to the right of the column containing house.
     b) Add two rows after the row containing Nyamahoro details. 
    c) Add another row on top and include the title “Examination Analysis”
     d) Save it as Table 2.
     e) Delete Nyamahoro’s details.
     f) Add the following details in the three columns added: Column 
    1(History, 67, 89, 98), Column 2 (Business, 77, 56, 34) and 
    column 3 (English, 74, 87, 65)
     g) Merge the cells containing the title. 
    h) Split the cell containing the name Habimana into two.

     i) Save it as MyTable. 

    Activity 2.4

     In the table below there is the price of a certain goods which increased from 
    2005 to 2022 as shown in the table below:

     How the above information could be interpreted without using table?

    2.4 Chart and SmartArt
     Smart charts are the charts by which we can show numerical facts 
    in visual form    . It shows the relationship between two or more numbers or 
    quantities. It generally uses a tabular form, bar charts, line charts, pie charts, or 
    pictographs to display data
     
    The Role of charts is: the following
    • Charts are used to summarize and display information in an easy manner 
    to understand.
     • Charts act as useful tools for conveying financial information. 
    • They are used to make patterns and trends in numerical order much 
    easier to see. 
    • Charts facilitate data analysis.
     
    2.4.1. Chart templates 
    a) Bar Chart (Bar graph) 
    A bar chart is a graphic representation of data with horizontal bars or objects. 
    Bar charts usually display horizontal bars or objects going across the chart 

    vertically, with the values displayed at the bottom of the chart.

    b) Column Chart
     A column chart is a graphic representation of data with vertical bars or 
    objects. Column charts display vertical bars (categories) going across the 
    chart horizontally (along the horizontal axis), with the values organized along the 

    vertical axis (on the left side of the chart).


     c) Line Chart (Line Graph)
     A line chart is a graphic representation of data plotted using a series of lines. 
    Line charts display lines going across the chart horizontally, with the values axis 

    being displayed on the vertical axis (left side of the chart).

    d)  Pie chart
     This is a circular chart sliced into sections; each section represents a percentage of 

    the whole. Pie charts do not display horizontal and vertical axes as other charts.

     2.4.2.Creating a chart or graph
     1. Prepare the data that is going to be used in making the chart 
    2. In Word, click where the chart will be placed.
     3. On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group click Chart.

     4. Click on the type of chart to be inserted

    1. The inserted chart is a default one. Edit the chart data so as to have the 

    needed chart

    2.4.3. Insert Smart Art Graphics
     SmartArt is a picture used to communicate information in many different ways. 
    It is an option that allows the user to create diagrams easily. Inserting Smart 
    Art Graphics in a document is another way to communicate effectively the a 
    message. Smart Art Graphics are :a list, process flow, cycle, a relationship or 
    an organization hierarchy, Matrix Pyramid and chart. The steps to insert smart art 
    graphics are outlined below:
     
    1. Place the insertion point in the document where the SmartArt graphic 
    will appear.
     2. From the Insert tab, select the SmartArt command in 

    the Illustrations group.


     3. A dialog box will appear. Select a category on the left, choose the desired 

    SmartArt graphic, then click OK.

     5 Select the SmartArt graphic. The text pane should appear on the left 
    side. If it doesn’t appear, click the small arrow on the left edge of the graphic.
     
    6. Enter text next to each bullet in the text pane. The text will appear in 
    the corresponding shape. It will be resized automatically to fit inside the 

    shape.

    Application activity 2.4

     1. S4 Accounting class has a total of 120 students. The 
    class teacher carried out a data survey to find out how 
    many students regularly eat meat, pork, chicken or fish at 

    home. The data below in the below table was collected


    a) Use the data given in the table above to create a clustered 
    bar chart 
    b) On the chart created change the chart titles and Axis titles to 
    make them reflect the king of data they show.
     2)  Below are the data of old persons in 10 Rwanda Districts as 
    published on igihe.com in its article of 7th December 2018. 

    Represent those data using Pie chart.

    Activity 2.5

     3) Observe the screenshot below taken from Word

    a) What among those the options shown on that screen is used to 
    insert headers in a Word document
     b) Differentiate the terms Header and Footer as used in a Word do-
    cument

    c) What is the importance of headers and footers in a document

         A header is a section of the document that appears in the top margin, while 
    the footer is a section of the document that appears in the bottom margin. 

    Headers and footers generally contain additional information such as     page 
    numbers, dates, an author’s     name, and footnotes, which can help keep 
    longer documents organized and make them easier to read. Text entered in the 
    header or footer will appear on each page of the document.

         2.5.1 Insert header and footer 
     To insert a header and footer in Ms word follow steps given below:

     1. Click on the     Insert tab at the top of the Ribbon
     2. Click on either Header or Footer drop-down menu in the Header & 

    Footer section.

     3. A Header or Footer drop-down menu will display on the screen with a 
    list of built-in Header or Footer options. Select your desired option from 

    the Built-in list.

    4. A Design tab with Header & Footer option will appear at the top of the 

    document (on the Ribbon), as shown in the screenshot below.

     2.5.2 Delete Header and Footer from Word document

     Position the cursor within the header or footer and press the Delete button on 

    the keyboard or

    1. Go to the Insert tab on the Ribbon and click on the Header & Footer option.
     2. A Header or Footer dialog will appear on the screen. Click on the Remove 

    Header or Remove Footer option.


    2.5.3 Add page numbers to a document
     Follow the following steps to add page numbers to a Word document:
     1. Click on Insert tab then on Page Numbering.
     2. Select Current Position.

     3. Choose a page number style

     Note: It is possible to have different formats of page numbers in one document. 
    For example the first part of a document can have letter page numbers while 
    other pages are numbers. Inserting such page numbers is done by inserting 

    sections from the place where the page number format changes. 

    Application activity 2.5

     You have a document of at least 5 pages whose content is about your 
    everyday lessons 
    a) In that document insert a footer text “Lessons for Senior 4” 
    b) Insert page header text “Studying is the key in life”
     c) By doing a research insert page numbers (in letters) i and ii in the 

    first two pages and numbers from those pages

    6.1Table of content

    Activity 2.6

     Using internet or other available resources Search and prepare a Word 
    document which describe computer hardware and software and save it 
    as “Information and Communication Technology”. Make sure the document 
    has at least 4 pages. Do the following with the created document:

     1. Do the following with the created document: 
    2. Change the Font Type to “Book Antiqua”.
     3. Change the Font Size to 12 and Line Spacing =”2.0” 

    4. Change Heading 1 to “Arial Black” and Font-size =”14”

     2.6.1. Steps to create a table of content

    A table of content is a list titles which are inside a document with 
    the page number where they can those titles can be found. To create 
    a table of content when the document is done in two steps namely 

    creating headings and inserting the table of content.

    • Creating headings

     In a Word document, headings are titles of different weight which 
    have text under them. Word provides different levels of headings 
    starting from heading one which is the highest level in a document. 
    The created heading texts are the ones that will appear in the table of 
    content. Follow these steps to create a heading:
     • Select the text and click on the Home tab

     • In the Style group Click on Heading 1 (or any other heading)


    The heading is different in appearance to other text and to other 
    headings which are not at its level. The font that a heading will have 
    can be changed by:
     • Do a right click on the heading to modify and click on Modify
     • In the dialog box that appears, choose the new formatting to 
    apply on the heading.
     • Inserting a table of content
     When all the titles that need to appear in the table of content have 
    been changed into headings, a table of content can now be inserted 
    by following these steps: 
    • Click where the table of content will appear
     • In the References tab click on Table of content

     • Choose one format of table of content to apply

    2.6.2 Updating the table of Content
     When some headings or titles were added or modified in a document, an update 
    of the table of content is needed.
     
    Below are the steps to follow for making an update of table of contents.
     
    Step 1: On the References tab, in the Table of Contents group, click Update 
    Table. Click “Update Table” button in the selected Table of Contents
     
    Step 2:     In the Update Table of Contents dialog box that displays, select “Update 

    entire table”. The new updated table of contents displays 


     2.6.3.Creating a list of tables and list of figures
     When creating a table of figures in a document, Microsoft Word searches for 
    the captions, sorts them by number, and displays them in that document.
     Creating captions which will generate a table of figures is done in this way:
     
    Step1: Add Captions to every Table in the document using procedure given 
    below:
     1. First select a Table on which a caption is needed.

     2. Click “Insert Caption” command on References tab.

     4. Repeat the procedure for all the tables in the document
     Step 2: Click where the Table of Figures will be inserted
     Step 3: On References Tab in the Captions group, click on Insert Table of 
    Figures to build the table
     
    A Table of figures dialog box will be displayed as shown in the picture below 

    and will automatically be inserted when the OK button is clicked.

     Below are optional steps to take before clicking OK:
     • Adjust Table’s formatting such as setting whether to show page 
    numbers or changing the style of tab leader. Use a preset style from 
    “Formats” drop down menu. In case you want to customize the style, 
    leave it set to “From Template”.
     • Click “Modify” and click again “Modify” in the style dialog box to 
    customize the style of the table. You can change the table’s font, size 

    and other settings in the two dialog boxes. Then c

    Application activity 2.5
    1. Create a document on ICT which has the following 
    headings: 
    Computer Hardware (Heading 1). Develop the content on 
    computer hardware by including the following these titles 
    which will be at the level of Heading 2:
     • Input Hardware
     • Output hardware 
    • Processing hardware 
    • Storage hardware 
    2. Create additional headings in Heading 2 where possible. 
    Those headings will be Heading  and Heading 4 
    3. Add a new title “SOFTWARE” in the document. Make 
    that title a heading appropriately and in it create other 
    headings. Update your table of content.
     4. Insert a table of content in your document basing on the 

    headings you have created

    Skills Lab 1
     Using Microsoft Word write a document about the profile of your school. 
    That profile should include the school’s background, current situation and 
    the plan for the future. Where possible include the pictures.

    End of unit assessment 2
     1. Use Microsoft Word, type the following document and save it as 
    ‘Certificate of Appreciation form’. This document is a certificate and 

    should have a page border as shown below.


     b) a) Use 1.5 line spacing for your work and no space after each 
    paragraph.
     c) b) Make the following changes to the title:
     iv)    Change the font of the name of the school to Stencil bold font face, 
    font size 26 and dark blue colour.
     v) Change the second line to font size 16 and bold
     vi) Change the third line to font size 14 and bold.
     a)  Leave enough space between “Province Name” and ICT Club to 
    accommodate a suitable graphic (good image) that will work like 
    your school badge
     b) Underline the heading, “Certificate of Appreciation” change it to 
    size 20 and color dark red.
     c) Use blue font color for signatories in font size 15.
     d) Apply dark red color to page border.
     
    7. 2) When a new student of senior one come to GS Karama, the 
    below stages must be applied:
     • Take a picture(Passport photo)
     • Present the bank sleep to school accountant

     • Get registration number(Reg Num) 

    End of unit assessment 2

     According to the above mentioned information, present that process using  
    Smart Art object
    – Take school uniforms
    – Go to classroom(S1) where the taken Reg Num is belong
    – According to the Reg Num, search and find the correspondence seat 
    in dining hall and bed in dorm.

     1. Use Microsoft Word, type the following document and save it as 
    ‘Certificate of Appreciation form’. This document is a certificate and 

    should have a page border as shown below.


     b) a) Use 1.5 line spacing for your work and no space after each 
    paragraph.
     c) b) Make the following changes to the title:
     iv)    Change the font of the name of the school to Stencil bold font face, font 
    size 26 and dark blue colour.
     v) Change the second line to font size 16 and bold
     vi) Change the third line to font size 14 and bold.
     a)  Leave enough space between “Province Name” and ICT Club to 
    accommodate a suitable graphic (good image) that will work like your 
    school badge
     b) Underline the heading, “Certificate of Appreciation” change it to size 
    20 and color dark red.
     c) Use blue font color for signatories in font size 15.

     d) Apply dark red color to page border.

    End of unit assessment 2
     1. 2) When a new student of senior one come to GS Karama, the 
    below stages must be applied:
     • Take a picture(Passport photo)
     • Present the bank sleep to school accountant
     • Get registration number(Reg Num) 
    According to the above mentioned information, present that process using  
    Smart Art objects- 
    Take school uniforms- - 
    Go to classroom(S1) where the taken Reg Num is belong
     According to the Reg Num, search and find the correspondence seat 

    in dining hall and bed in dorm.

  • UNIT 3 :MICROSOFT EXCEL

    Introductory activity

    Create the following table in a spreadsheet:


     i) Apply borders as done with the table above
     ii) Enter all data as provided in the table above 
    iii) Calculate staff allowances, Gross salary, deductions and Net 

    salary


    iv) Using SUM, AVERAGE, MAX and MIN, calculate the General 
    total of January Salary, Salary average, the staff who gain a big 

    salary and the one who get less salary than others.

    3.1 Worksheet and workbooks basics

     Activity 3.1

     1. Compare a worksheet and a workbook
     2. Outline 5 features of Ms excel
     3. Using internet search and discuss the following:
     • Amortization of a loan
     • Different steps of creating a loan amortization schedule

    Microsoft Excel is one of the spreadsheet programs that helps to store and 
    represent data in a tabular form, manage and manipulate data, create optically 
    logical charts, and more. 

    To open Microsoft Excel, click on the     Start button and search for the MS Excel 
    application. Double click on the Excel icon to open the Excel. When Excel opens, 

    an interface will appear. 

    3.1.1. Introduction on workbooks and worksheets

     A workbook is a collection of many sheets. A worksheet is made of rows and 
    columns that intersect each other to form cells where data is entered. In Excel 
    worksheet, rows are represented by numbers and columns by alphabets.
     
    A single Excel workbook can consist of several sheets, named Sheet1, Sheet2, 
    Sheet3, etc. One or more sheets can be added to an Excel workbook. By 

    clicking to the Plus (+) sign next to a worksheet name.

    A. Opening an existing workbook
     An existing Excel file (workbook) is opened in the same way as other files. First 
    know where it is located and open the folders where it is stored. When reached 
    double click it.

     An existing file can also be opened from an opened Excel file. To do it do the 

    following:

     In addition to creating a new workbook. An existing workbook may contain data. 
    It can be opened directly from the location where it is stored or through MS 

    Excel. Follow the given steps below:

    B. Worksheet environment
     A worksheet consists of many rows and colums and other tools that are used 
    to carry out different operations. When using a worksheet, the user has also to 
    be aware of the different views possible which will rule how the worksheet will 
    appear. There are three main views namely Normal View, Page Layout View 
    and Page Break View. 

    The different views are accesses by clicking to their respective icons which are 

    located in a worksheet near the bottom left corner.

    A worksheet contains different tools which are shown below:

    3.1.2. Operations on a worksheet
     Excel enables the users to perform several types of operations on Excel 
    worksheet and its data. For example, Rename a worksheet, insert a new 
    worksheet, delete a worksheet, and many more.

     A. To rename a worksheet
     A new worksheet named Sheet1 gets added to the workbook by default. Excel 
    allows its users to rename the worksheet name. A worksheet is renamed in 
    order to reflect its content. Follow these steps to rename a worksheet:
     1. Right-click on the worksheet to be renamed, then select Rename from 

    the worksheet menu.

    2. Type the desired name for the worksheet. In this case «januar» has 

    been written

    3.Click anywhere outside of the worksheets, or press the Enteron our keyboard.
    The worksheet will be     renamed.

    B. To create a new worksheet
     Excel provides a new sheet button (+ symbol) near the different worksheet 
    names that allow the users to add any number of worksheets to their currently 
    active workbook. To create a new worksheet click on that Plus button a new 

    worksheet is immediately created

    C. To delete a worksheet
     1. Right-click on the worksheet to be removed then select Delete from 

    the worksheet menu.

    3.1.3. Loan amortization worksheet 
    Loan amortization is the process of scheduling out a fixed-rate loan into equal 
    payments. A portion of each installment covers interest and the remaining 

    portion goes towards the loan principal.

    In banking and finance, an amortizing loan is a loan where the principal of the 
    loan is paid down over the life of the loan according to an amortization schedule, 

    typically through equal payments.

    Creation of loan amortization worksheet
     In order to create an amortization of a given loan follow these steps :
     1. Select the worksheet on which a loan amortization can be calculated. 
    2. Right click on the selected worksheet and click on Insert
     3. Click on Spreadsheet solutions on the insert window
     4. The select Loan Amortization

     5. Then click Ok

     The loan amortization worksheet will appear like in the window below

    Application activity 3.1

     1. UMURAZA Febronie is a secondary teacher at G.S. MUHAMBARA, 
    she went to UMWALIMU SACCO to request for a salary advance 
    loan of 2000000 Rwf to be payed in three years (36 months) . As 
    a loan officer, create a loan Amortization schedule for that teacher.
     
    2. Explain how you can :
     a) Add new worksheet 
    b) Delete a worksheet

     c) Rename a worksheet

    3.2. Cells basics

    Activity 3.3

     1. Given the following table created in a Excel:


     a) a. Using cells references, calculate the Total Price for each item and
     b) b. The General Total

     3.3.1 Cell references
     There are three types of references in Excel namely relative cell references, 
    absolute cell references and mixed cell references in Excel
     
    0. Relative Cell References
     By default, all cell references are relative references. Relative references are 
    changed when copied across different cells based on the relative positions of 
    rows and columns. For example, suppose this formula =B1*C1 is to be copied 

    from row 1 to row 2, the formula will become =    B2*C2. Relative reference is 

    useful when it requires to repeat a calculation across numerous rows or columns.

    1. Absolute Cell References
     Absolute cell reference is one in which the cell references being referred to do 
    not change like they did in a relative reference. To set an absolute cell reference 
    use the $ sign by pressing f4 to create a formula for absolute referencing. The $ 
    sign means lock, and it locks the cell reference for all of the formulas, ensuring 
    that the same cell is referred to all of them. To use a formula with absolute cell 
    reference use the $ (dollar sign) in front of every cell.

     
    2. Mixed Cell Reference in Excel
     A Mixed cell reference is a mixture of both relative and absolute cell reference. In 
    mixed cell reference, dollar signs are attached to either the letter or the number. 
    For example, $B2 or B$4. It’s a mix of relative as well as absolute reference.

    There are two types of mixed cell references:
     1. The row is locked while the column changes when the formula is copied.
     2. The column is locked while the column changes when the formula is 

    copied.

    3.3.2 Text Alignment 
    Text alignment is a feature that helps users to align text within worksheet cells. 
    It enables the composition of text documents with various text positions or 
    alignments on one or more cells within the Excel document. 

    a. Change Text Alignments from Ribbon
     The easiest and straightforward way to access text alignment options in 
    Excel is to use ribbon tools. Both horizontal and vertical alignment options 
    can be accessed by going to the Home tab and using the alignments from 

    the Alignment group.

    By default, Excel automatically aligns entered text contents to the left position of 
    the cell and numbers to the right position. Alignment options from the Alignment 
    group can be used to change the alignment accordingly.
     
    Follow these steps to align a text:
     • Select the text to be aligned
     • Click the tool to be used from the vertical alignment options and pick 
    Top Align, Middle Align, or Bottom Align, respectively.
     • Click the tools from the horizontal alignment options and pick Left Align, 
    Center Align, or Right Align, respectively.
     a) Change Text Alignments from Format Cells
     
    The Format Cells dialog box is another efficient way to change text alignments 
    in Excel cells. Perform the following steps to use this method:
     • First, select the cells on which to align texts.
     • Open a Format Cells dialogue box and launch a dialogue box by 
    clicking the arrow at the bottom right corner of the Alignment group 
    under the Home tab.
     • In the new dialog box that appears click on Alignment
    • Select the different types of alignment to be applied. If the text orientation 
    needs to be changed change it using the Orientation option which is 
    set by moving the needle or setting the text orientation degrees.

    • Click on OK to apply the new text alignment

    Alternately, pressing Ctrl+1 the keyboard shortcut keys combination can open 

    the Format Cells dialogue box.

     3.3.3 Setting Font
     Excel has a variety of built-in customizations that can help to change the 
    appearance of the sheet to a maximum extent. The font properties that can be 
    changed are: font type, font size, font color, and changing the text to bold, Italc 
    and Undelining the text. The font can be changed using the menu Ribbon or 

    using the Format Cells dialog box.

     • Changing Font Type
     To change the font type or style using the menu ribbon in one or more Excel 
    cells, perform the following steps:
     • Select the cell (s) consisting of the needed values to format.
     • Next, go to the Home tab and click the initial drop-down list under the 

    category font, as shown below :

    • We can scroll down to view all the installed fonts on computer click on 
    the desired font type/style to instantly use it in the selected cell (s).
     
    • Changing Font Size
     To change the font size in the desired Excel cells, perform the following steps:
     • Select the cells to adjust font size.
     • Go to the Home tab and click on the drop-down list associated with 
    the number (i.e., 11, 12, etc.), next to the Font drop-down list, under 

    the Category Fonts, as shown below:

     There is a selection of multiple pre-defined font sizes to choose from. to use the 
    desired font size, click the number from the list. However, if there is no suitable 
    size, type the number directly in the font size box and press the Enter key. 
    The font size can be quickly adjusted by clicking on Increase Font Size and 

    Decrease Font size tools, displayed next to the Font size box.

     • Changing Font Color
     To change the font color for the desired Excel cells, perform the following steps:
     • Select Excel cells to apply the desired color.
     • Next, navigate the Home tab and click the last drop-down list under 
    the category Font. It is associated with the letter ‹A› and a red color bar 

    below it. Refer to the screenshot below:

     • After clicking the drop-down arrow for the font color, click on the 
    desired color from the list of Theme Colors or the Standard Colors. 
    In this case the red color was clicked.
     
    Note: If the cell is empty while setting the font in Excel, then as soon as we start 
    typing text or data in the respective cell, the applied style, size, color, etc., will 
    be applied automatically.
     • Setting Font to use Bold, Italic, and Underline
     
    To change the font format in the desired Excel cell to make it bold, italic, or 
    underlined, perform the following steps:
     • Select one or more Excel cells to modify their respective values.
     • Go to the Home tab and click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline 
    (U) shortcut under the category Font. These tools help to change the 
    appearance of the selected cell accordingly. Now the text becomes 

    more black, underlined and oblique (italic)

    Application activity 3.2

     1. Discuss the different ways of text alignment
     2. Using the data of an Activity 3.2, apply the follwing :
     a. Align on top the first row 
    b. Make all items centered 
    c. Make the Total Price centered to the right side and make it be in 
    a red color
     d. Make the font size of General Total be 18 
    e. The font style should be Tahoma, Bold and Italic 
    f. Fill the whole table with green color

    3.3 Arithmetic operators in formula
     Activity 3.3
    1. What do you understand by an operator ?
     2. Give two examples of arithmetic operators and its uses

         In mathematics, the term   operator refers to a sign or symbol used to evaluate 

    mathematical operation. 

    The most basic mathematical signs are the arithmetic operators which include 

    addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (×), and division (÷). 


    In mathematical computing, the same operators are used but multiplication and 

    division operators are replaced with asterisk (*) and forward slash (/) respectively.

    The table below, gives a summary of the four arithmetic operators supported in 

    Excel and their functions :

    3.3.1 Addition operator 
    The addition operator (+) evaluates mathematical addition operation
     Example: The figure below represents data of students ‘performance in three 

    subjects. Find the total marks for every student

     To complete the total column, consider the below steps:
     a. Click on the first cell of the total column.
     b. Drag the mouse on the formula bar and type =B2+C2+D2
     c. Click on the bottom-right corner of that block and drag to the last cell of 
    the total column.
     d. And release the mouse, the result will appear on all the specified cells of 

    the column as it is shown below:

     3.3.2 Subtraction operator 
    The subtraction operator (-) evaluates mathematical subtraction operation
     Example: Using data stated in example above, Calculate the difference between 
    Mathematics marks for Kundwa and Kamali.
     Perform the following steps:

     a.Click on the cell where the difference/resultat will appear.
    b.. Write in cell the Substraction formulas =    B3-B2
    c. click on enter button, the result will come in cell as it is shown bellow:

     
    3.3.3 Multiplication operator (*)
     The product of numeric values is performed by using a multiplication operator 
    in formulas. Let’s use the example of purchasing different products, where the 
    total price as product will be obtained by multiplying quantity with price per unit
     Here below, are the steps to be followed:
     
    a.     Click on the first cell of the Product column.
     b. Drag the mouse on the formula bar and type =B2*C2
     c. Click on the bottom-right corner of that block and drag to the last cell of 
         the Product column

     d. Release the mouse Button, to see the result as follows :

    The division operator is used in calculation of quotient of two numeric values.  
    Use the same data of additional operator in order to understand how division 
    operator works.
     For example, let divide total marks for Sentwali by 2. Proceed as follows:
     a. Select F4 cell of the Quotient column.
     b. Drag the mouse on the formula bar and type =E4/2
     c. Press Enter key to find the result

    Application activity 3.3
    1. Study the figure given below that presents   the national examination 

    result of 4 primary students and wok out the related questions 


    a) Calculate the total marks for all given students. Total marks will 
    appear in G column 
    b) Calculate the difference between the marks of UMUKUNZI and MUTONI
     c) The marks of mentioned students are on 100 for each subject. 
    You are requested to put their total marks on 100. The result will 
    appear in H column. 
    d) For each student, add 2marks on her/his percentage of marks
     e) For student named NIYONDANGAMIYE, add 3marks to each subject
     
    3.4. The use of functions 
    Activity 3.4
     After doing a research on internet or any other resource:
     a. Identify different parts of a function
     b. Explain different types of functions available in 

    Excel.

    3.5.1 The parts of a function
     In order to work correctly, a function must be written in a specific way. The 
    basic syntax for a function is the equals sign (=) followed by the function 
    name     (SUM, for example), and one or more arguments. Arguments contain 
    they are numbers or any other data on which the function operations are going 
    to be done. The arguments of a function can be written in two ways:
     • Writing every single argument in a function. This option is used when 
    the arguments to be added are not many.
     • Writing the range starting from the first argument to the last argument. 
    This is possible only if the cells (arguments) are in the same row or in 

    the same column. 

     Arguments can refer to both individual cells and cell ranges and must 
    be enclosed within parentheses. You can include one argument or multiple 
    arguments. 
     
    3.5.2 Excel Aggregate functions

     A  SUM function

    The sum SUM function is used to add numbers. It can add two or more arguments 
    which are all enclosed in parenthesis or just a range of arguments starting from 
    the first cell and ending by the last cell. In the first case, cells (arguments) are 
    separated by comma (,) while for the second case the first and last cell are 

    separated by a colon (smile.

     For example the function =SUM(A2,B2,C2,D2,E2) will add the values of in the 
    cells A2,B2,C2,D2 which are in the same row. This same function can 

    be written as =SUM(A2:E2).

     To use the SUM function and get addition results like in the screenshot above, 
    do the following:
     • Put the cursor in the cell where the sum will be calculated and write an 
    Equal sign (=)
     • Write the word SUM egg and put the cursor inside the parentheses
     • If all the cells (arguments) will appear in the parentheses, click on every 
    call and write a comma after every cell. If only the first cell and the last 
    will appear in the parentheses just select all the cells whose content is 
    to be added
     • Click outside the cells for the sum to be calculated

     When the data to be added is not in the same row or the same column, 
    the two ways of writing arguments can be used. For example, the function 
    =SUM(A1:A3,C1:C2,E1) will add the values of all of the cells A1 to A3 then C1 

    to C2 and E1. This same function can be written as =SUM(A1,A2,A3,C1,C2,E1)


    The AutoSum command allows you to automatically use the most common 
    functions including SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, MIN, and MAX. In the example 
    below, the SUM function is accesses by using the AutoSum command. The 
    AutoSum command is available under the Formula tab. It can also be accessed 
    under the Home tab in the Editing group.

    1. Select the     cell that will contain the function. 
    2. In the Editing group on the Home tab, click the arrow next to 
    the AutoSum command. Next, choose the desired function from the 

    drop-down menu. In this example Sum was selected.

    1. Excel will place the function in the cell and automatically select a cell 
    range     for the argument. In this example, cells D2:D7 were selected 
    automatically; their values will be added to calculate the total cost. If 
    Excel selects the wrong cell range, you can manually enter the desired 
    cells into the argument.
     
    2. Press Enter on your keyboard. The function will be calculated, and 

    the result will appear in the cell. 

    B. AVERAGE function

    The average function determines the average of the values included in the 
    argument. It calculates the sum of the cells and then divides that value by the 
    number of cells in the argument. 
    Its syntax if all the arguments will appear in the parentheses is:

     =AVERAGE(number1, number2,…) 

     A syntax containing only the first and last cell between the parenteses can also 

    be use.

    For example, the function =AVERAGE(F1,F2,F3,F4) would calculate 
    the average of the values in the cells F1, F2, F3 and F4. This same function 

    can also be written as =AVERAGE(F1:F4) 


     To calculate the average using the AVERAGE function as it was done in the 
    screenshot above, do the following:

    3. Select the     cell that will contain the function result. 
    4. Type the equals sign (=), and write the function name which is 
    AVERAGE. You can also select the desired function from the list 
    of suggested functions that appears below the cell as you type.
     5. Enter the cell range for the argument inside parentheses. In this 
    example type (F1:F4) or type (F1,F2,F3,F4) or just select those cells.

     Press     Enter on the keyboard or click in any other cell. 
    C MIN function
     
    The Excel MIN function returns the smallest numeric value in the data provided. 
    The MIN function ignores empty cells, the logical values TRUE and FALSE, and 
    text values. 

    The syntax of the MIN function is:

    =MIN(number,number2, …)

    This syntax can also be written in such a way that only the first argument (cell) 
    and the last appear in the parentheses. In this case, the two cells are separated 

    by colon (smile

    Example: =MIN(A1,A2,A3,A4) OR =MIN(A1:A4)
     To use the MIN function proceed in this way:
     • Go in the cell where the min will be calculated 
    • Write the Equal sign followed by MINegg
     • In the parenteses write the arguments or select them. In this case the 
    argments are C1, C2, C3 and C4.

     • Hit the Enter key or click in any other cell for the result to be calculated

    D MAX function

     The MAX function returns the largest numeric value in the data provided. For 
    example, MAX function can return the highest marks for a student for all subjects 

    or the highest mark for a student for a given subject.

    The syntax of the MAX function is:

    =MAX(number1,number2,…)
     The arguments in the parentheses can be only the starting cell (argument) and 
    the last cell separated by a colon.

     To use the MAX formula in Spreadsheet follow these steps:

    6. In a cell where the maximum value will appear, type =MAXegg
    7. Inside the parentheses write the cells for which the maximum number is 
    to be calculated or select those cells

     8. Press the Enter key or click in any other cell.

    E. COUNT function

     The COUNT function counts the number of cells with numerical data in the 
    argument. This function is useful for quickly counting items in a cell range. For 
    example, you can enter the following formula to count the numbers in the range 
    A1:A20
     
    The syntax of the COUNT function is:
     =COUNT(value1,value2,…)
     However there is no need to put in the parentheses all the arguments if the cells 
    whose values are to be counted are in the same row or column. 
    Use the COUNT function in the following way:
     • Click in the the cell where the count value will appear and type 
    =COUNTegg
     • Inside the parentheses write the cells that will be counted
     • Press the Enter key or click in any other cell.
     Note that the COUNT function does not consider cells with content other that 

    numbers. It does not consider text or empty cells.


    Note that in the second screenshot the result of the COUNT function is 4 instead 

    of being 5. This is because this function does not count cells containing text.

    Application activity 3.5

    Types the following and then calculate the total price, general total, average, 

    minimum and maximum using spreadsheet functions


    3.5. Tables and borders design

     Activity 3.5

     a) What do you understand by table borders?
     b) With internet search ,
     c) 1) Explain the importance's of using tables borders 

    d) Discuss different steps of applying borders

     In Excel, borders refer to a line drawn across any or all of four sides of a cell in 
    a worksheet. When adding a border to one or more cells, choose specific sides 
    to include or exclude. Moreover, borders for custom or desired sides of cells 
    can be drawn manually. 

    • Applying borders from ribbon
     Excel Ribbon is the primary area for accessing most existing commands or tools. 
    While creating a border in Excel, we can take advantage of the Excel ribbon and 
    apply a border to the desired cell using the following steps:
     • Select the Excel cells on which to apply borders. Hold down the 
    mouse›s left button and drag the selected shading from one cell to the 
    others. When selecting non-adjacent cells in Excel, click on individual 
    cells while holding down the Ctrl key.
     • Go to the Home tab on the ribbon and click on the drop-down icon 
    next to Border
     • Click on the desired border style to apply it. Here All Borders was 

    selected.

     Although there are many existing border options, sometimes, borders can be 
    drawn using the Draw Border option from the drop-down list. This option is 
    accesses after clicking on Home then on the Border tool found in the Font 
    group. One can also use the Draw Border Grid which create a table over the 

    cells moves on.

     A border can be applied using the Format Cells dialog box. Go through the 
    following steps to access the Format Cells dialog box and insert a border in 
    the desired Excel cell:
     • Select the cells in the worksheet.
     • Launch the Format Cells dialogue box by doing a Right click then 
    choose Format Cells

     • In the Format Cells dialog box that appears click on Borders 

     • Click on the different border styles to apply then click OK

     • Removing borders in Excel
     To remove borders in the Excel worksheet, one of the following methods can 
    be used:
     
    • Select the cells from which the borders are going to be . Click on     Home 

    tab then on Border then on No Border.

    • To delete borders using the Erase border tool. For this, go to Home 
    then click on the Border tool then click on Erase Border. This 
    will convert the mouse cursor into an eraser icon, using it erase or 
    delete the desired border in the worksheet.

     • Another method is: Select the cells and go to Home then Clear then 
    Clear All. Although this method helps remove borders, it also removes 

    other formattings like font color, background color, etc. 


    Application activity 3.5

     1. Outline differents steps to delete borders
     2. Create the following table and apply the different types borders as 

    indicated below:


    3.6. Creation of charts
     Activity 3.6
     a. Identify different types of charts you know
     b. Give the importance of using chart for data presentation

     

    Charts allow you to illustrate workbook data graphically, which makes it 
    easy to visualize comparisons and trends. The data represented through 
    charts is more understandable than the data stored in an Excel table. This 
    makes the process of analyzing data fast. 

    A chart is often called a graph. It bring more understanding to the data 
    than just looking at the numbers. Excel offers many charts to represent the 
    data in different manners, such as Column Chart, Line Chart, Bar Chart, Area 
    chart, Pie Chart
     
    To illustrate the different types of charts, the data used are those on a company 
    owning a small business of making different types of soap. The quantites of 

    soaps in Tons made per year is shown in the table below:

    The different charts are inserted by following this procedure:

     • Select the data then click on Insert
    • In the Chart group choose one type of chart to be generated. If 
    among the visible templates the one needed is not available, click on 

    the See All Charts tool to view more chart types

    A.Column Charts
     A column chart is basically a vertical chart that is used to represent the data 
    in vertical bars. It works efficiently with different types of data, but it is usually 

    used for comparing the information.

    For example, the company wants to see whose data was shown above wants 
    to visualize its production progress from 2015 to 2022 using a column chart. To 
    make that column chart the following steps will be used:.
     
    Step1:     Select the data for which the chart is to be made
     Step 2: On the Insert tab, in the Charts group, choose the type of chart 
    to use. In this case the type chosen is the Column chart. Click the 

    Column chart symbol

     Step 4: Customize different settings of the created chart by changing the 
    default chart title (Chart Title) and other settings which are done using the tools 
    labelled 1, 2 and 3. The tool 1 is used to add and edit charts elements, the tool 
    2 is used to choose any other variant of the chosen chart and the tool 3 is used 

    to remove the charts elements that are not needed.

    • Adding chart elements
     The chart for can be customized by adding new charts elements. Charts elements 
    can be added by clicking on the tool which is labelled as 1 in the above chart. 
    The chart below has been customized in order to add the Axis Titles, Data 
    labels. The different chart elements are added by ticking the corresponding 

    checkboxes.

     • Changing the chart style 
    There are different types of chart which can be used depending on the 
    data to display. Switching from one chart type to another is done in this way:
     Step 1: Select the chart for which the type is to be changed
     Step 2: Click on the Chart Styles tool
     Step 3: Click on the new chart type. In this case the chart labelled with an arrow 

    was selected.

     Apart from these operations, one can add new elements or remove them using 

    the Chart Filters option allow to add or remove chart elements like Chart series.

     A. Line Chart
     Line charts are most useful for showing trends. Using this chart, you can easily 
    analyze the ups and downs in data over time. In this chart, data points are 

    connected with lines.

    With the company’s data, a line chart showing the status of the quantities of 
    soap produced can be created like by following this procedure:
     • Select the data for which the chart is to be created
     • Click on the Insert tab 
    • In the Charts group click on one type of chart here click on the Line Chart

    Next to the line chart above there are three tools which are used to 
    edit it namely has s tools next to it which are used the Chart Element 
    tool (1), the Chart Styles tool and the Chart filters tool.
     
    A.Bar chart
     Bar charts are horizontal bars that work like column charts. Unlike column charts, 
    Bar charts are horizontally plotted. Or you can say that bar charts and column 
    charts are just opposite to each other.
     
    The data used in creating line chart and column chard can generate the bar 

    chart below:

    The chart above was obtained by using the same procedure as for other charts. 
    This procedure involves clicking the INSERT tab then click on the type of chart 
    which is now the bar chart and finally selecting the variant of the chart to be 
    applied. This chart can be edited using the tools on its left which are Charts 

    Elements, Chart Styles, Chart Filters.

    A. Area chart
     Area charts are just like line charts. Unlike the line charts, gaps are filled with 
    color in area charts. They are easy to analyze the growth in business as its 
    shows ups and downs through line. Information in an area chart is plotted on 
    the x and y axis; data values are plotted using data points that are connected 

    using line segments.

    The data that was used to create the different charts generate the chart below:

    The chart above was created by first selecting the data then clicking on the 
    Insert tab then click on on the Area Chart and then choosing one type of chart 

    to use. In the screenshot below, the area chart use is in a red rectangle.

     A. Pie chart

    A pie chart is a rounded shape graph that is divided into slices of pie. Using this 
    chart, you can easily analyze data that is divided into slices. It makes the data 

    easy to compare the proportion.

    Like other charts, a pie chart is inserted by selecting the data then clicking on 
    the Insert tab and choosing the type of chart which is the Pie chart. This process 

    is shown below:

    The generated chart lacks some details to be easily understood. That is why 
    details can be used by using the Charts Elements, Chart Styles and Chart 
    Filters     tools. To add those details just click on the tool and check the detail to 

    appear on the chart.

    The different chart tools shown above can be used to change other charts of 

    the same category like the ones shown below:

    Application activity 3.6
    1. Use the following table to create :
     • Line chart
     • Column chart

     3.7. Data organization
    Activity 3.7
    By doing a research using the internet or any other resource
     a. Discuss the types of sorting.
     b. Outline different steps of sorting list in ascending order
     c. What do you understand by filtering data?
    After data has been entered into an Excel worksheet and even after it has been 
    organized into a table, it can still be manipulated and reorganized. One of the 
    easiest options is to sort data in a particular order for example, sorting data 
    in alphabetical order. On the other hand, Filtering data allows to analyze data 
    easily. When data is filtered, only rows that meet the filter criteria is going to 
     be displayed and other rows will be hidden. Filters narrow down the data in a 
    worksheet, allowing to view only needed information.
    3.7.1. Filtering data 
    After entering data in Excel, it is also possible to filter, or hide some parts of the 
    data, based on user-indicated criteria. When using the Filter option, no data is 
    lost; it is just hidden from view. 
    In order for filtering to work correctly, the worksheet should include a header 
    row which is used to identify the name of each column and is used for filtering. 
    Follow these steps for filtering data in an excel table:
    Step 1: Select the Data tab, and then click the Filter command. Immediately 
    a drop-down arrow will appear in the header cell for each column. The filter 
    command can also be accessed  by clicking the Home tab and finding it at the far
    right side of the menu in the Editing Group.

    Step 2: Click the drop-down arrow for the column you want to filter. In this 
    activity, filter column B (Region) is filtered to view only certain region.

     Step 3: In the Filter menu that will appear uncheck the box next to Select All to 
    quickly deselect all data. When the Select All checkbox is unchecked, all the 
    other checkboxes will also be unchecked.
    Step 4: Check the boxes next to the data you want to filter, and then click OK.

     In this example, Northern is checked to view only those types of equipment 
    matching the criteris. The data will be filtered, temporarily hiding any content 
    that doesn’t match the criteria.

     3.7.2. Clear a filter
     After applying a filter, you may want to remove or clear it from your worksheet so 
    you’ll be able to filter content in different ways.
     Step 1: Click the drop-down arrow for the filter you want to clear the Filter 
    menu will appear.
     Step 2: Choose Clear Filter from [COLUMN NAME] from the Filter menu. In 
    this case the option Clear Filter from «Region» is selected


    Step 3:     The filter will be cleared from the column. The previously hidden data 
    will be displayed like the data was before applying the filter.
     
    3.7.3. Sorting 
    Sorting refers to ordering data in an increasing or decreasing fashion according 
    to some linear relationship among the data items. Sorting can be done on 

    names, numbers and records.

    Below are steps to sort data:

    Step 1: Select the entire table you want to sort
     Note: In most cases, you can select just one cell and Excel will pick the rest 
    of the data automatically, but this is an error-prone approach, especially when 

    there are some gaps (blank cells) within the data.

     Note: If the first dropdown is showing column letters instead of headings, tick 
    off the “My data has headers” box.
     
    Step 4: Click the Add Level button to add the next level and select the options 

    for another column.

     Note: If you are sorting by multiple columns with the same criteria, click Copy 
    Level instead of Add Level. In this case, you will only have to choose a different 
    column in the first box.

     Step 5: Add more sort levels if needed, and click OK.

    By sorting data by Region and then by Salesperson the data will be sorted first 

    by the Region column then the second condition will be by Salesperson.

     Excel sort data in the specified order. As shown in the screenshot above, 
    data is arranged alphabetically exactly as it should: first by Region, and then 

    by Salesperson

     3.8. Financial functions 

    Application activity 3.8

    1.Study the following table and answer the related questions:


     ii) Display the list of Items by ascending order
     iii) Print the Total price by descending order

     iv) Filter the items whose quantity is 12

    Financial functions refer to the functions used to calculate financial information, 
    such as net present value, future value and payments. For example, you can 

    calculate the monthly payments required to buy a car at a certain loan rate.

    3.8.1 The Net Present Value (NPV) Function
     Net present value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of cash 
    inflows and the present value of cash outflows over a period of time. NPV is 
    used in capital budgeting and investment planning to analyze the profitability of 

    a projected investment or project.

     The NPV Function as an Excel Financial function will calculate the Net Present 
    Value     (NPV) for a series of cash flows and a given discount rate. It is important 
    to understand the Time Value of Money, which is a foundational building block 

    of various Financial Valuation methods.

    The calculation of the NPV requires the identification of the number of periods. 
    For example if there is a monthly cash flow for 5 years, there are 60 cash flows 

    and 60 periods. It also requires to identify the discount rate .

    The syntax of NPV Function is:
     =NPV(rate,value,[value2],…)
     The NPV function uses the following arguments:
     1. Rate (required argument) : This is the rate of discount over the length of 
    the period.
     2. Value1, Value2 : Value1 is a required option. They are numeric values 
    that represent a series of payments and income where:
     • Negative payments represent outgoing payments.
     • Positive payments represent incoming payments.

     For the example below the required rate of return is 10%. To calculate the NPV, 

    use the formula and press enter key to get a result

    The NPV formula is based on future cash flows. If the first cash flow occurs at 
    the start of the first period, the first value must be added to the NPV result, not 

    included in the values arguments.

    3.8.2 The Future Value (FV) Function
     Value of the money doesn’t remain the same; it decreases or increases because 
    of the interest rates and the state of inflation, deflation which makes the value of 
    the money less valuable or more valuable in future. But for financial planning of 
    what we expect the money for our future goals, we calculate the future value of 

    the money by using an appropriate rate in a future formula.

     The Future Value formula gives the future value of money for the principle or 

    cash flow at given period.

     FV is the Future Value of the sum, PV is the Present Value of the sum, r is the 

    rate taken for calculation by factoring everything in it, n is the number of years

    Example of Future Value Formula

     In order to have a better understanding of the concept, calculate the future 
    value by using the above-mentioned formula.

         Calculate the future value of 15,000,000 Rwf loaned at the rate of 12 
    percent per annum for 10 years.

     To calculate the future value,

    PV =15,000,000, R = 12 %, N= 10

     FV = PV (1+R)n, FV = 15000000 (1 + 0.12)10, FV = 46587720

    Here the Present Value used is 15000,000, a rate of the period which is in years 

    as 0.12, the number of periods which is year 10 years.

     Here 1.12 rate is raised to power 10, which is in years multiplied by the principle 

    15000,000.

     It is very much used in each and every aspect of finance, whether it’s investments, 
    corporate finance, personal finance, accounting etc.
     
    The future Value of an investment depends on purchasing power it will be having 
    and the return of investments on the capital.
     
    Now, this cumulative of inflation and investment return is factorized in one term 

    as the rate of return for the period.

    Therefore,

     FUTURE VALUE = PRESENT VALUE + INCURRED RETURN ON 

    INVESTMENT

    Now to calculate this future value, we need to understand the value calculated 
    will be used with a compounded rate of return over the years on the present 

    value of the capital.

    This can be explained by the example below:
     10 percent interest and capital is 1000, so the Future Value will be 1100 
    equivalent to 1000+ 100. To calculate for 2 years, we can calculate by using 
    1100 + 110 = 1210 which can also be written as 1000 (1.1) ^2 which will 
    make the calculation to 1.21 * 1000 = 1210
     
    This way, calculate the future values of any amount when an interest rate is 
    given by the formula PV x (1 + r)n

     The calculation of Future Value in Excel is very easy and can take many variables, 

    which can be very difficult to calculate otherwise without a spreadsheet.

    The syntax of FV function:

     =FV(rate, nper, pmt,[ PV])

     Example: What will the amount after the principle of 10000 is invested 
    for 10 years and 1000 is invested every year at the rate of 17 percent 

    per annum.


    Now, as soon as you put in the FV function and start a bracket, the excel asks you 
    to open the bracket and give rate (rate), a number of periods (nper), payment 
    per term (pmt), Present Value (PV) close brackets.

         Now following the problem above: Rate = B5 = 17%, Nper = B6 = 10, PMT 
    = B7 = 1000, PV = B8 = 10000

     Future Value = FV (B5, B6, B7, B8)

    3.8.3. DB Function

    The DB function is an Excel Financial function which helps in calculating the 
    depreciation of an asset. The method used for calculating depreciation is 

    the Fixed Declining Balance Method for each period of the asset’s lifetime.

     The syntax of DB Function:

    =DB(cost, salvage, life, period, [month])
     • Cost (required argument): This is the initial cost of the asset.
     • Salvage (required argument): The value of the asset at the end of the 
    depreciation.
     • Life (required argument): This is the useful life of the asset or the 
    number of periods for which we will be depreciating the asset.
     • Period (required argument): The period for which we wish to calculate 
    the depreciation for.
     • Month (optional argument): Specifies how many months 
    of the year are used in the calculation of the first period of 

    depreciation. If omitted, the function will take the default value of 

    Activity 3.9

    Open Excel and enter data in the table below. Save the File as “Burera Ltd Sales data”


    Do the followings:
     3. Using Burera Ltd Sales data, show salespersons who 
    are meeting their monthly sales goals. The sales goal is 

    50,000 items per month

    4.Highlight all salesperson whose sales are below the average.
    5.Highlight with blue color all salesperson whose sales are above 

    6.80,000

     DB Function in Excel
     Example 1:
     Assume we wish to calculate the depreciation for an asset with an initial cost 
    of 100,000 Rwf. The asset’s salvage value after 5 years is 10,000 Rwf. The 
    screedshot below shows how to calculate it. The results are got after hitting the 

    Enter key:

    Application activity 3.8

     1.Explain all necessary arguments used by DB function
     2. What will the amount be (Future Value) after the principle of 
    2500000 Rwf is invested for 8 years and 15000 is invested every 

    year thereafter at the rate of 14 percent?

     3.9. Conditional formatting 

    Conditional formatting is an especial feature (formatting feature) of Excel used to 
    find unique and duplicates values by formatting the cells. Conditional formatting 
    allows the users to format the cells and their data based on some conditions 
    specified by the user. Using conditional formatting, you can highlight a cell with 

    a certain color and its content with different font.

    Conditional formatting enables spreadsheet users to do a number of things. 
    First and foremost, it calls attention to important data points such as deadlines, 
    at-risk tasks. It can also make large data sets more digestible by breaking up 
    the wall of numbers with a visual organizational component. Among the options 
    provided by conditional formatting are: highlight cell rules, top bottom 

    rules, customized rules, etc

    3.9.1. Highlight cell rule
    Conditional formatting can be used to enhance the reports and dashboards 
    in Excel. The conditional formatting statement under the Highlight Cells Rules 
    category allow to highlight the cells whose values meet a specific condition.
     
    The benefit of a conditional formatting rule is that Excel automatically reevaluates 
    the rule each time a cell is changed provided that cell has a conditional formatting 
    rule applied to it. Those rules include: greater than, less than, equal to, between, 
    text that contain, A Date occurring, duplicate values, …
     
    Here are the steps to apply the highlight cell rule:
     Step 1: Select the desired cells on which to apply the conditional formatting rule
     Step 2: From the Home tab, click the Conditional Formatting command. 

    A drop-down menu will appear.


    Step 3: Hover the mouse over the desired conditional formatting type, and then 
    select the desired rule from the menu that appears. In the Activity 4.1, we want 
    to highlight cells that are greater than 50, 000.
     Step 4: A dialog box will appear. Enter the desired value(s) into the blank field. 
    In the case of the activity 4.1.the taken value is 50, 000.
     Step 5: Select a formatting style from the drop-down menu. In the Activity 4.1, 

    the color to choose is Green Fill with Dark Green Text, then click OK.

    Step 6: The conditional formatting will be applied to the selected cells. In our 
    case, it’s easy to see which salesperson reached the 50, 000 sales goals for 

    each month.

     Note: You can apply multiple conditional formatting rules to a cell range or 
    worksheet, allowing you to visualize different trends and patterns in your data.
     
    3.9.2. Clear rule
     Rules that have been used to highlight cells that meet certain conditions can be 
    removed and have text with no highlight when the rules are no longer needed or 

    when there is a need to set new rules. To clear rules do the following:

    Step 1: Select the desired cells for clearing the conditional formatting rule
     Step 2: On the Home tab, in the Styles group, click Conditional Formatting 
    (refer to Figure 4.1.)
     Step 3: Click Clear Rules then click Clear Rules from Selected Cells

    

     After clearing rules for selected cells, cells are no longer colored, there is no 

    more formatting in cells.

     3.9.3. Create Top/Bottom Rules
     Top/Bottom rules are another useful Conditional Formatting in Excel. These 
    rules allow users to call attention to the top or bottom range of cells, which can 
    be specified by number, percentage, or average.
     Step 1: Select the desired cells for the conditional formatting rule
     Step 2: From the Home tab, Select Conditional Formatting then Top/

     Bottom Rules then click Above Average…

     Step 3: A dialog box will appear. Choose color format to use like “Light Red Fill 

    with Dark Red text”. After choosing cells format, Press “OK”

     Step 4: Your sheet will now highlight the values above the average 

     3.9.4. Create new rule 
    Excel allows to create a formula-based conditional formatting rule. The available 
    options are:
     • Formatting cells based on their values, 
    • Formatting cells that contain certain values, 
    • Formatting only top or bottom ranked values, 
    • Formatting only values that are below or above average, 
    • Formatting only unique or duplicate values and using a formula to 
    determine which values to format. 

    All those options are presented in the window below:

    Step 1: Select the cells you want to format. In the Home tab click on Conditional 

    Formatting command and click New rule


     Step 2: Create a conditional formatting rule, and select the Formula option then 
    click OK. In the window below the option “Use a formula to determine which 
    cells to format” has been chosen
    g) Format all cells based on their values
    Step 1: New formatting rule window will be opened.
     Step 2: Select Format all cells based on their values option, however this is by 

    default selected.

     In this case only 2 options are going to be used: 2-color scale and 3-color scale
     h) 2-color scale 
    Step 1: Choose minimum and maximum values

     Step 2: Click Ok button to apply this conditional formatting 

    Step 3: Data set with this condition formatting will look like below
     Note: we have chosen minimum number to 50,000 and the maximum to 80,000, 

    then selected a colors to separate both values.

     i) 3-color scale
     Step 1: New formatting rule window will be opened.
     Step 2: Select Format all cells based on their values option, however this is by de

    fault selected.

    Below are steps to apply 3 -color formatting style
     Step 3: select 3 color scale option in format style 
    Step 4: choose the type; here we are taking as Minimum, Midpoint and Maximum
     Step 5: Put values for number for Minimum, Midpoint and Maximum

     Then, results are displayed as follow: 

     2. Use a formula to determine which cells to format
     New rules can be created by customizing own formulas. By using custom made 
    formula, a custom condition that triggers a rule is created and can be applied as 
    the user needs it to be applied. In the data that is going to be used the formula 
    =B3>80000 has been applied for formatting.
     
    To specify the formatting formula click on Conditional Formatting tab then New 
    Rule and choose Use Formula to determine which cells to format as in the 

    window below:

     Step 3: Enter a formula that returns TRUE or FALSE then set formatting options, 

    save the rule and press OK

     After clicking OK cells that meet the formatting rule are highlighted as specified 
    in the new rule. In the window below cells meeting the criteria are blue colored 

    as it has been specified.

     Note: Always write the formula for the upper-left cell in the selected range. 
    Excel automatically copies the formula to the other cells. Thus, cell B3 contains 
    the formula =B3>80,000, cell C3 contains the formula = B3>80,000 and etc.
     
    Below are some formulas that apply conditional formatting and return TRUE or 
    FALSE, or numeric equivalents.

     =ISODD (A1): The ISODD function is used to check if a numeric value is an 
    odd number. ISODD returns TRUE when a numeric value is odd and FALSE 
    when a numeric value is even. If value is not numeric, ISODD will return the 
    #VALUE error.
     
    SODD (A1) returns TRUE if A1 contains the number 3 and FALSE if A1 contains 
    the number 4.Usually, value is supplied as a cell address.

    ISODD is part of a group of functions called the IS functions that all return the 

    logical values TRUE or FALSE.

    1) =ISNUMBER (A1): The ISNUMBER function is used to check if a value 
    is a number. ISNUMBER will return TRUE when value is numeric and 
    FALSE when not.
     
    2) ISNUMBER (A1) returns TRUE if A1 contains a number or a formula 
    that returns a numeric value. If A1 contains text, ISNUMBER will return 
    FALSE.

     3) AND (A1>100, B1<500): The AND function is used to apply more 
    than one condition at the same time, up to 255 conditions. Each logical 
    condition (logical1, logical2, etc.) must return TRUE Examples
     
    4) AND (A1>100, B1<500) test if the value in A1 is greater than100 and 

    B1 less than 500

    Application activity 3.9

     • Given the following data tables :


    1. Using conditional formatting highlight with red color the total 
    prices which costed between 150,000 and 500,000
     2. Apply conditional formatting on Total price using data bars
     3. Apply conditional formatting on Unit price using Color scales

     4. Apply conditional formatting on Quantity using Icon sets

    3.10. Data Validation

     Activity 3.10

      1.What do you understand by data validation ?
     2. What is the importance of applying data validation

    Data Validation is one of the essential features in MS Excel. When creating an 
    Excel sheet for users or customers, you may often need to restrict the inputs 
    based on different criteria to ensure that all the entries or inputs are correct and 
    consistent. Data Validation is the solution that helps to control user inputs into 

    specific cells or a range according to the specified rules.

    Some of the essential tasks (restrictions/ validations) that can be set using the 
    Data Validation are as follows:

     • Allow users to put     numeric or text entries only
     • Allow entering numbers less than, more than and between a 
    specified range
     • Allow data inputs of a specific length
     • Restrict entries to predefined values in a drop-down list
     • Restrict date and time entries outside or within a specific range
     • Validate a specific entry based on another cell
     • Display an input message informing users what the corresponding 
    cell accepts when the user selects a cell
     • Display a warning or error message when the user enters wrong data
     • Locate incorrect or wrong entries in the validated cells

     Applying Data Validation on any cell or range of cells in an Excel sheet restricts 
    the users from entering any undesired entries in corresponding cells based on 
    the validation rules. For instance, if we set validation to accept only numbers 
    or numeric values, other users will not be able to enter any values other than 
    numbers. The Excel data validation window is displayed after clicking on the 
    Data tab then click on Data Validation. After the Data Validation window is 
    available, choose among the different optins which are available by clicking on 

    the Setting tab, Input Message tab, Error Alert tab.

     Data Validation can be configured to show an input message to users when the 

    respective cell is selected, informing them what is allowed in it, as shown below:

     As soon as we try to enter any other type of data in restricted cells, Excel 
    instantly displays an error message and even can display which type of data 
    the respective cells can accept. The error message can be of different styles 
    and customized or created manually while setting up the validation rules on the 

    Excel sheet.

     • Data Validation Controls

     The Data Validation feature or its controls can be found on the ribbon under the 
    Data tab. By default, it is placed under the category ‘Data Tools’.

     As soon as Data Validation icon is clicked from the ribbon, it immediately 
    launched a Data Validation dialog box. In addition to the Data Validation 
    shortcut on the ribbon, the keyboard shortcut ‘Alt + D + L’ can be used without 
    quotes. It will launch the Data Validation dialog box instantly.

     Using Data Validation Dialog Box to Define Validation Rules
     
    The Data Validation dialogue box contains three essential options/ tabs:     Settings, 
    Input     Message, and Error Alert.

    • Settings Tab
     The settings tab provides us options to set validation criteria. The tab helps us 
    choose the desired validation rules from the built-in options we want to allow 
    in selected cells. Moreover, we can also set custom rules with the customized 
    formula to validate user inputs. The settings tab contains all the data validation 

    options present in Excel.

     • Input Message Tab
     The input message tab has a text box to enter a message displayed as soon 
    as the respective cell is selected. The input message is an optional feature of 
    Data Validation. If we do not define any message as an input message, excel 
    does not show any message when the user selects the respective cell with data 
    validation. It does not affect the working of the data validation and has no effect 
    or control over what the user enters into a cell. However, it can be helpful to 

    inform users about the allowed or expected data values.

     • Error Alert Tab
     The error alert tab provides options to control the way how the validation is 
    enforced. We can set criteria and then use any desired error style to accept or 
    reject the user inputs accordingly. Additionally, we can also display a message 
    to the user informing what the error is or what values must be entered in 

    corresponding cells.

     • Adding Data Validation in Excel
     Step 1: Launch the Data Validation dialogue Box
     To add a data validation in an Excel sheet, we must perform the following steps:

     First, select all the cells or a range to which to apply the validation. Next, ckick 
    the Data tab. In the Data Tools group and select Data Validation tool to 

    launch the data validation dialogue box.

     Step 2: Set the Data Validation Rule
     After the data validation dialogue box is displayed, go to the Settings tab to 
    define validation criteria. Provide the desired values, cell references, or formulas 

    in the validation criteria.

     After all the validation settings have been set, click the OK button to close the 
    validation dialog box or move to the next tab to insert an input message and/or 

    error alerts. 

    Step 3: Create an Input Message to Display (Optional)
    To display a message to the user saying which type of data is supported
    or allowed in the selected cell, use the input message tab. Using the input 
    message, the useris informed about the allowed data type format when the user 
    selects corresponding cells.
     
    Once the input message is entered, click the OK button or move to the Error 
    Alert tab further.
     
    Step 4: Add an Error alert (Optional)
     In addition to an input message, set an error alert to display when the user enters 
    invalid data into the respective cells. Moreover, add a custom error message.

    Application activity 3.6
     a.Apply the following data validations in the table below :
     1. If the age is not belonging the range of 60 and 75, error message
     2. If the Date of birth exceed 1960, provide an error message
     3. If the entered country is not RWANDA in UPPER CASE, prompt an 

    error message

    3.11. Pivot tables in Excel
     Activity 3.11
     By doing a research using the  internet or any other resource 
    answer the following questions
     1. What do you understand by a pivot table?
     2. Discuss the uses of a pivot table 
    3. Outline different steps of creating a pivot table

    A pivot table is a statistics tool that calculates, summarizes, analyzes and 
    reorganizes selected columns and rows of data in a spreadsheet or database 
    table to obtain a desired report. Pivot tables are especially useful with large 
    amounts of data that would be time-consuming to calculate by hand.
     
    • Uses of a pivot table
     • A pivot table helps users answer business questions with minimal effort. 
    Common pivot table uses include:
     • To calculate sums or averages in business situations. For example, 
    counting sales by department or region.
     • To show totals as a percentage of a whole. For example, comparing 
    sales for a specific product to total sales.
     • To generate a list of unique values. For example, showing which states 
    or countries have ordered a product.
     • To create a 2x2 table summary of a complex report.
     • To identify the maximum and minimum values of a dataset.
     • Creating a pivot table in Excel
     • Select the cells you want to create a PivotTable from. 

    • Click Insert tab and then PivotTable.

    • Choose where you want the pivot table report to be placed. Select New 
    Worksheet     to place the pivot table in a new worksheet or Existing 
    Worksheet     and select where the new PivotTable will appear.
     • Click OK.
     • Choose the fields to add to a report on right pane of the window
     • Drag fields between areas below:
     • Performing the steps of creating a pivot table 

    Go through these steps to create a pivot table:
     Step1: Select the cells on which to create a PivotTable and click Insert tab 

    and then select PivotTable.

     Step2: This will create a PivotTable based on an existing table or range. By 

    clicking Pivot table tool  the Create PivotTable dialog box appears

    Step 3: Choose where the PivotTable report will be placed. Select New 
    Worksheet to place the PivotTable in a new worksheet or Existing Worksheet and 
    select where the new PivotTable will appear.
     Step 4: Click OK.
     Step 5: Choose the fields to add to a report on right pane of the window

     Step 6: To obtain a report result, drag product and date filds to values area 

    After dragging the fields needed, a pivot table is created automatically as follows:

    Application activity 3.11

     1. You have a list of all students of your class. The list contains the 
    gender of each student and the district where he/she came from. 
    You are requested to do the following:
     • Separate the list in different sheets, sheet 1 contains the male students 
    and sheet 2 contains the female students.

     • Show the number of students by the district where they come from.

    3.12. Excel data entry forms
     Activity 3.12
     1 What do you understand by data entry form?
     2.  Using internet search, discuss the process of creating Excel 

    data entry forms?

     Excel offers the ability to make data entry easier by using a form, which is a 
    dialog box with the fields for one record. The form allows data entry, a search 
    function for existing entries, and the ability to edit or delete the data.

     The example below has two fields per record. The form allows up to 32 fields 

    per record.

     Here below are steps to be performed while creating an Excel data entry form:
     Step 1: On the chosen sheet, highlight the number of columns needed.
     Step 2: Click insert tab and then click table icon
     Step 3: In create table dialog box, select My table has headers checkbox and 

    click Ok

    Step 4: Change the default column headers, and adjust the width of columns if 

    necessary.

     Step 5: Click Form Icon of Customize Quick Access Toolbar
     Step 6: The form will appear. The number of columns in the table will match the 
    number of fields on the form. The column titles in the table will be the field titles 

    on the form. You are now ready to enter data records into the form.

    Note that Form Icon is accessed by performing the following steps:
     Step1: On Customize Quick Access Toolbar , click More Commands option
     Step2: Select Commands Not in the Ribbon and then select Form icon
     Step3: Select Add Button

     Step 4: Click Ok Button

    Application activity 3.12

    Study the following Excel data entry form and create it:


    Skills lab 2
     The school organizes an event to welcome new students. All expenses of the 
    event will be covered by the school. You are requested to prepare a budget of 
    an event in your class S4. The budget must be done in Ms Excel spreadsheet 
    with the following:
     • How many students will attend the event ?
     • Categories of expenses and items in event preparation
     • Estimated amount to spend on each item of expense and each category 
    of expenses
     Use Excel formulas and functions to do different calculations, also use different 

    table styles to make the budget more understandable.

    End of unit assessment 3

    Q1. Explain the following terms:
     a. Loan amortization
     b. Data Validation
     Q2. Discuss any two financial functions and write their general formats 
    (syntaxes).
     Q3. Discuss any four uses of a pivot table
     Q4. Outline different steps of applying conditional formatting using data bars
     Q5. On 2nd January, Kamali invested 1,000,000 Rwf in a saving account of 
    his BPR account at 8% annual interest rate. Calculate the amount of his 
    savings at the end of year?
     Q6. On 10th July 2019, Mukamana took a loan of 3,000,000 Rwf from 
    Umurenge SACCO.
     You are requested to calculate and show the whole process of 
    reimbursement of Mukamana’s loan from August 2019 to August 2022 at 

    the interest rate of 18% 

  • UNIT 4: POWER POINT PRESENTATION

     Introductory activity
     1) Normally, at the beginning of the academic year, 
    when there is student meeting, the head teacher 
    used to present the different topics to the new and 
    old students using different tools. The topic of the 
    meeting includes the school description, school 

    history and how the school perform in National Exam. 

     According to the above information, answer the following 
    questions:
     a) Which program the head teacher uses to make 
         his/her presentation?
     b) List different tools the head teacher uses during 
         the presentation
     c) The presentation contains which kind of content?
     d) Which are the main things that you can follow to 
         make a good and attractive presentation?

     e) Explain the term audience and presenter 

    1.1Creating a PowerPoint presentation
    Activity 4.1
     The teacher makes a presentation about the use of social media in youth life 
    and ask students to do the following tasks:
     1. By using Ms Word, write a composition of 80-100 words about the 
    use of social media in Rwanda. 
    2. Present the findings from above question to the rest of the class
    3. Open PowerPoint and paste the presentation from word to the PowerPoint 
    document
    4. Compare the presentation in Word with the one you have created in 

    PowerPoint

     A. Key Terms
     PowerPoint is a presentation software that allows you to create dynamic 
    slide presentations. Slideshows can include animation, narration, images, videos, and much more.
     
    A presentation    : A presentation is an organized report or message prepared 
    as talk to an audience, with the help of a computer program such as Microsoft 
    PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics, etc. a presentation software is used to create 
    slide shows for that presentation on screen to an audience. 

    A slide     is a single page of information in a presentation created with a program 
    such as PowerPoint. A presentation is composed of several slides.

         A slide show is a collection of pages arranged in sequence that contain 
    text and images for presenting to an audience. It often refers to a Microsoft 
    PowerPoint presentation
     
    A PowerPoint presentation can be used for the following purpose:
    – Conveying information about an important issue such as disease 
       control measures. 
    – Introducing a new idea for a business
    – Reporting progress using charts or graphs.

    – Training by demonstrating how it is done.

    A. Launching Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation
     STEPS:
     1. Click Start button and click all apps.
     2. Scroll down and select PowerPoint 2019 or other related versions (or 
    click Microsoft office and the select Microsoft PowerPoint).

     3. Select the Blank Presentation as shown in the figure below 

    A. Components of PowerPoint environment  
    There are different tools in the Microsoft PowerPoint environment which help 
    the user perform different actions. Those are shown in the screenshot below:

     
    The tools labelled with numbers are the following:
     1. Maximize button which makes a window fill the whole screen
     2. Close button used to close a presentation
     3. The save button
     4. The quick access toolbar

     A. Slide layouts
     When a new slide is inserted, it will usually have placeholders to show where the 
    content will be placed. Slides have different layouts for placeholders, depending 
    on the type of information to be included. 

    A. Inserting a New Slide 
    Whenever a new presentation is started, it will contain one slide with the Title 
    Slide layout, but there is an option of inserting many slides from a variety of 
    layouts. A new slide is created in the following way:
     1. From the Home tab, click the bottom half of the New Slide command.
     2. Choose the desired slide layout from the menu that appears.
     3. The new slide will appear. Click any placeholder and begin typing to 
    add text. There is a way to click an icon to add other types of content, 

    such as a picture or a chart.


    Application activity 4.1
    1. lowing slides in that presentation 
    Slide 1: Title as “Causes of Environmental Problems in Rwanda”. The 
    text in this slide should be in bullet style and should contain at least the 
    following main points:
     • Population growth and pressure on land
     • Declining resources · Over exploitation of natural resources 
    • Land scarcity
     
    Slide 2: Title as “Rwanda Environmental Management Authority (REMA)”.  
    It will contain this text:
     • REMA is Government organ responsible for execution of 
    environment related policies and laws in Rwanda.
     • REMA designs policies and procedures used to conserve natural 
    resources, preserving the state of current environment and where 
    possible reversing its degradation. 
    • Add more text to give the vision and mission of REMA and its 
    achievements
     
    Slide 3    : Title as “How to protect environment in Rwanda” and should 
    contain the text about the following points: 
    • Harvest rain water and conserve all waters for proper use 
    • Use biodegradable items and practice re-using packaging 
    products. And others
     
    Slide 4: Title as “Rwanda Environmental Features” should contain the text on:
     Natural environment e.g., relief, climate, vegetation 
    • Natural resources and biodiversity
     Note: You can write more text in the slides apart from the points indicated 
    for each slide

    1.1 Organizing slides
    Activity 4.2
    1. In the presentation created the application activity 4.1. one student 
    wants to change the arrangements of slides so that the last slide 
    becomes the first. Explain how he/she will do it.
     2. Use the procedure you gave in question 1 and see if it gives the expected 
    result
    3.  This same students wants to present that presentation to the class but 
    does not want to show the third slide. Explain how he/she can do it.

    PowerPoint presentations can contain one or more slides. The Slide Navigation 
    pane on the left side of the screen makes it easy to organize slides. From 
    there, you can manipulate your presentation. The following are the different 
    options that can be done using the slide navigation pane:

    – Duplicate slides: To duplicate a slides, select the slide to be duplicated 
    in the Slide Navigation pane, do a right-click and choose Duplicate 
    Slide     from the menu that appears. There is also an option to duplicate 
    multiple slides at once by selecting them first.

    – Moving a slide:     It is to change the order of slides in a presentation. 
    Select the slide to be moved (a border will appear around the selected 
    slide), and drag it to where to reposition it and drop it there. The slide 
    number sequence will automatically update itself.

    – Deleting a slide    : To delete a slide select it and press the Delete key 
    on the keyboard OR right click on the selected slide and select Delete 
    Slide     from the menu.

    – Copying a slide    : Select the slide to be copied, right click on the 
    selected slide and select Copy from the menu. The shortcut key Ctlr + 
    C can also be used to copy a selected slide.

    – Pasting a slide    : Position the cursor where to paste the slide in the 
    Slide Navigation Pane and click on Paste or on the paste tool icon. It 
    is also possible to use the shortcut key Ctrl + V .

    – Hiding a slide: When a slide is not currently needed it can be hidden 
    by selecting it then doing a Right click and clicking on Hide Slide. 
    The hidden slide will continue to appear in the slide pane and can be 
    opened by double clicking it but it won’t appear if the presentation is 
    opened in the Slide Show mode. To unhide the hidden slide go through 
    the same process.

    – Dividing slides into sections:     Sections are subdivisions in a 
    PowerPoint presentation slide used preferably for bigger presentations 
    that can be logically grouped. Slides in the same group should be 
    logically related so as to facilitate their understanding during presentation 
    or while reading them.  Putting slides into sections can also be done 
    when slides are to be presented by different people thus each person 
    presents his/her section.  

    To create a section in a PowerPoint presentation, do the following: 
    1. Select in between the slides where to insert the section or the slide 
    behind which to insert the section 
    2. Do a right click and click on Add Section in the provided options. 
    3. Rename the section by selecting its default name, do a right click and 
    click on Rename. The default name of a section is Untitled Section. 
    4. Write the new name and click on the Rename button
     
    A created section can be removed by selecting it, doing a right click and 
    choosing Remove Section. It can be moved by choosing the Move Section Up 

    or Move Section Down option.

     Slide Sorter View is good to use when organizing your slides.  It allows to 
    view all slides in a grid arrangement and therefore makes it easy to find a slide to 
    move (or do any other operation) and easily identify where to place it. To access 

    this view:

    – Click on the View tab then 

    – Click on Slide Sorter too.

     Application activity 1.1

    1. Create a PowerPoint presentation on “Computer software” with 3 dis
    tinct slides in the presentation where each slide is about the following: 
    a. Word processing software
     b. Spreadsheets software 
    c. Presentation software
     2.    Move second slide to the third position
     3.    Add 2 more slides to your presentation, 1 slide is about the differ
    ence between Word Processing and Spreadsheet, the last slide is 
    about the importance of Presentation software.
     5. Hide the fourth slide of your presentation

     6. Save the presentation as My first presentation

    1.3 Apply Design themes and format background

    Activity 4.3

     Open My first presentation created while doing the 
    application activity 4.2. Make it more attractive by 
    applying design. Save changes and run the slide show

    1.1.1Apply design theme in a presentation
     A Theme gives the slides a consistent appearance throughout the presentation. 
    Themes contain color schemes with custom formatting, styled fonts, and layouts. 
    When applying a design template to the presentation, the slide master and 
    color scheme of the template replaces the original blank slide.
     
    1. Select the     Design tab on the Ribbon, then click the More drop-down 
    arrow to see all of the available themes.
     2. Select the desired theme.
     3. The theme will be applied to the entire presentation.

     
    Once a theme is applied to the slides in presentation, another option is there to 
    select a variant for that theme from the Variants group. Variants use different 
    theme colors while preserving a theme’s overall look.


    The following figure is a sample of a slide on which a design theme has been applied 

    To format the slide background
     To format a slide is to change the appearance of the slide and or its contents. 
    Backgrounds can have a solid, gradient, pattern, or picture fill. Use the 
    steps given below and apply any color you want.
     
    Step1: Select the Design tab, then click the Format Background command.
     Step2: The Format Background pane will appear on the right. Select the 
    desired fill options. 
    Step3: The background style of the selected slide will update.
     Note: Apply to All means to apply the same background style to all slides in 
    a presentation.

     1.1.1.Adding notes and comments, Inserting header and footer
     i) Adding comment
     In PowerPoint presentation, a comment is an explanation that is attached to a 
    text or an object on a slide, or to an entire slide. To add a comment in a slide, go 
    through the following steps:
     
    Step 2. Write the comments in the provided space as visible in the zone No 3 
    of the above image 
    Note: Comments can be added to a PowerPoint presentation by using a simple 
    method of clicking at the Comment option located at the bottom middle of an 
    opened PowerPoint window.

    i) Adding notes 
    In a PowerPoint presentation Notes are words added to a presentation as 
    reference and only visible to the one presenting the slides. They serve as 
    additional information for the presenter that can be read for guidance as the 
    presentation goes on
     
    To add     notes to a presentation, do the following: 
    1. On the View menu, Click Normal 
    2. Select the thumbnail of the slide to add notes to 
    3.  The notes pane will appear under the slide. Click where it says Click to 

    add notes and type whatever notes depending on your choice.

     i) Insert header and footer

     Header and footer in a presentation is the top and bottom parts of the slides. 
    These include the slide number, text footer and date. To add a header or footer 
    follow these steps: 
    1. Click Insert then go to Header & Footer 
    2. In the box below Footer, type the text to use as footer such as the 
    presentation title 
    3. Check Date and time to add that to the slides 
    4. Check Slide number to add to the created slides 

    5. Click on Apply or Apply to all if all slides are to have the same header or footer


     Application activity 4.3

    Create a PowerPoint presentation “Understanding Gender Equality” contai
    ning at least 5 slides and do the following: 
    1. Change the theme of the presentation to “Organic”. 
    2. Give this presentation a picture background 
    3. Change the background of the presentation to “Pattern Fill”.
     4. Create a new section that you name “Gender equality in the develop
    ment of Rwanda” with 5 slides. This section should have “Main event” as 
    the theme of the presentation. 
    5.  Apply new theme with color and font to the working presentation
     6. Add notes and comments to the created slides that will help you while 
    presenting
     7. Add header as “Understanding Gender Equality”

    1.1.Inserting objects in a presentation
    Activity 4.4
     1. What are types of objects that can be inserted in a presentation?
    2. Give the benefits of adding objects in a presentation 
    3. Differentiate a presentation with objects to a presentation without objects

    1.1.1Inserting a picture
    An image is the actual picture or mental picture of something. Adding pictures
     can make a presentation more interesting and attractive. A picture can be inserted
    directly from a computer or from the internet.
     i) Inserting pictures from the computer
     To insert pictures in a slide do the following:

    Step 2: Browse in the computer folders where the image is located and select
     one image and click Insert.

     Note: It is also possible to insert image in a slide by using a Picture placeholder 
    which is found in every slide.


    i) Inserting online pictures
     In case a desired picture is not available on a computer, a suitable picture can 
    be found online and then inserted in a presentation. Online pictures are used 
    instead of ClipArt that exist in earlier versions of the program.

     1. Under the Insert tab, click on the Online Pictures button


     1. In the Search box, type the word Classroom, and then press the 
    Search icon. A variety of online images associated with the search term 
    classroom»» will appear.
     2. Scroll through the Pictures window to find the desired image
     3. To insert the image, place the mouse pointer on the image and then click 

    on the left mouse button twice.

    1.1.1.Inserting a Table

     A table is made of rows and columns. Data or information can be arranged 
    using these rows and columns. Two methods can be used:
    – Create and format a table within a presentation.
    – Import a table from Word or from Excel
     Step 1: Select the slide in which the table will be added. 

    Step2: On the Insert tab, select Table.

    Step 3: Select the rows and column to insert and click, in this case the table is created. 

    Or click on the     Insert Table command that appear below the many cells as 
    shown in the image above then in the dialog box write the number of rows and 

    columns then click OK.


     1.1.1.SmartArt
     SmartArt is a picture used to communicate information in many different ways. 
    It is an option that allows the user to create diagrams easily.

    Use the steps given below to insert a SmartArt graphic to the presentation.
     Step 1: Open a file presentation and insert a new slide where a SmartArt is needed.

     Step 2: On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group, click SmartArt.


     Step 3: In the Smart Graphic dialog box that displays, click the type and desired 

    layout. In this case, let create a hierarchy of officers for any school.

     Step 4: Enter the text by either: Clicking in the text pane (left) and then type 
    the text or clicking directly in the Smart Graphic and type the desired text. 

    Afterwards save it.

     1.1.1.Shapes
     A shape is an outline form of an object. In office applications such as Microsoft 
    PowerPoint, shapes such as boxes and circles can be added to slide show 
    presentation. Use the steps given below and insert any desired type of shape.
     Step 1: Click on Insert tab.

     Step 2: Click Shapes from the Illustrations group.

    Step 3:  Select a shape such as a rectangle and then click and drag to draw the 
    shape in the desired place. After drawing a shape, text, bullets and numbering 
    can be added to it.

     The change of fill, outline and other effects can be applied on the Format tab

    1.1.1.A chart
     This is a pictorial representation of numerical data. There are many charts that 
    can be created in a slide, but common charts frequently used are: column charts, 
    line charts and pie charts.
     
    Step 1: Insert a new slide (Title and content layout)
     
    Step 2: Click the Chart icon in the content holder to generate a column chart. 

    Alternatively click on the Insert tab then click Chart tool in the Illustrations group.

     Step 3: The column chart appears together with a data sheet that can be edited 

    to suit the desired chart.


     Step 4: Edit data sheet by replacing default data with desired data.

     1.1.1.Media clips
     Media clip is a small segment of an electronic media either an audio clip or a 
    video clip
     i) Audio clip
     To insert audio clip, follow the steps given below:
     1. Select the slide where to insert an audio clip.
     2. On the Insert tab, in the Media group, click arrow under Audio, and 

    then click Audio on My PC.


     1.  In the Insert Audio dialog box, select a folder with the desired audio then select the file.

    2. Click on Insert button to insert the audio.

     The slide where audio has been inserted will appear as shown below. Play using 
    the media buttons displayed.

     i) Video clip
     There are two ways to insert video which are by linking and by embedding a 
    video directly from the PC into the presentation. Use the following steps below 
    to insert a video clip in a presentation.

     

    1. Select the slide where to insert a video clip. 
    2. On the Insert tab, in the Media group, click arrow under Video, and 

    then click Video on My PC.

    1. In the Insert Video dialog box, click the desired video from a specific folder. Click Insert.

    1. In the Insert Video box, click the desired video from a specific folder. 
    Click Insert.

     A slide with an embedded video will appear as shown below:

    Application activity 1.1
    Create a presentation of your school description. Animate the presentation 
    as follow:
     a) The title to “Fade”, 
    b) The text to “Appear”
     c) The image to “Pulse”
     
    1. Insert an audio from your computer into the next one slide of your 
    presentation
     
    2. Add new slide and insert a SmartArt graphic that will present the 
    hierarchy of staff in. your school.

    3. Basing on the information given by the school secretary, insert in 
    the last slide of your presentation, the table showing separately the 

    number of boys and girls in O’ level

    1.1.Applying animation in a presentation
    Activity 1.1
     1. Explain the terms animations and transitions in a presentation 
    1) Open an existing presentation from your computer and apply 
    animations to all text and pictures by clicking on the ANIMATIONS 
    tab then clicking on one transition. Examples of transitions are shown 

    in the images below:


     Animations are presentation features that give motion or life to text or object in 
    the slide show. Animation effect can be added to text or graphics objects and if 
    well applied, brings excitement and increase the audience ability to understand 
    a message.
     
    A. To apply animations to text or objects in PowerPoint presentation
     1. Select a text or object to animate.
     2. On the Animations tab, in the Animation Group, select one desired 
    animation e.g. fade, Fly in, etc. Apply Timing to animation, that is, in 

    Timing group, increase or reduce the duration or delay of the animation.

     A. Applying slide Transitions in a presentation 
    Slide transitions are the effects that occur when slides are moving from one 
    slide to the next during a presentation. The presentation creator can control the 
    speed, add sound, and customize the properties of the transition effects.
     Types of transitions: In PowerPoint 2019 the main slide transitions are subtle, 
    exciting and dynamic content. 
    a) In Subtle transition: Simple transitions are used to move from one 
    slide to another 
    b) Exciting: Additional visual effects are used to catch the eye of the 
    audience
     c) Dynamic content will move only the placeholders, not the slides 

    themselves.

    Follow the steps given below for applying slide transitions:
     1. Select the desired slide from the Slide Navigation pane. 
    2. Click the Transitions tab, then locate the Transition to This Slide group. 

    By default, None is applied to each slide.

    1. Click a transition to apply it to the selected slide. This will automatically 
    preview the transition.
    Note: The Apply To All command in the Timing group is to apply the same 
    transition to all slides in the presentation. Keep in mind that this will modify any 
    other transitions that had been applied before.


    Preview a transition    : To preview the transition for a selected slide at any 
    time use either one of these two methods:
     1. Click the Preview command on the Transitions tab.
     2. Click the Play Animations command in the Slide Navigation pane.
     
    A.  Modifying transitions
     i) To modify the transition effect, follow these steps:
     1. Select the slide with the transition to modify.
     2. Click the Effect Options command and choose the desired option. 

    These options will vary depending on the selected transition.

    1. The transition will be modified, and a preview of the transition will appear.
     i) To modify the transition duration, follow these steps:
     1. Select the slide with the transition to modify.
     2. In the Duration field in the Timing group, enter the desired time for the 
    transition. In this example, the time will be decreased to half a second or 

    00.50 to make the transition faster.

    A. To add sound, follow these steps
     1. Select the slide with the transition to modify.
     2. Click the Sound drop-down menu in the Timing group.
     3. Click a sound to apply to the selected slide, then preview the transition 
    to hear the sound.

         Sounds are best used in moderation. Applying a sound between every slide 
    could become overwhelming or even annoying to an audience when presenting 
    the slide show.
     A. To remove a transition, follow these steps
     1. Select the slide on which the transition is to be removed.
     2. Choose None from the Transition to This Slide group. The transition 
    will be removed.
     To remove transitions from all slides, apply the None transition to a slide, then 

    click the Apply to All command.

    Application activity 4.5
     Create a presentation on «Taxation system in Rwanda» which 
    contain 5 slides and do the followings: 
    1. Make the Font type =”Candara” ; Font Size =”24” and Paragraph 
    groups available in PowerPoint
     2. Make the slide titles and each bullet in every slide have the Fly in 

    animation.

    3. If the title of the slide changes, change the sound accompanying 

    the projection of the title (not the whole slide) 

    4.End the presentation with a visible and audible clap of the hands  
     5. Change the transition Duration to 2.00. 
    6. Use the Apply to All command to apply your changes to every slide. 
     7. Save your work

    Skills lab 3:
     You are a businessman and wants to engage in a new business. 

    Prepare a business plan for that business and present it to others

    End of unit assessment 4
    Q1. Create a presentation of six slides on the topic of ICT in Accounting in 
    Rwandan context 
    Slide 1: Should have the title of the topic, and Name of presenter 
    Slide 2: should have the definition of ICT and accounting terms 
    Slide 3: Should have the impacts of ICT in Accounting
     Slide 4 and Slide 5: should have the list of ICT tools in accounting
     Slide 6: should have the thanks message 

    Save the presentation as question 1 and run the presentation
     Q2. Create a presentation containing the table below in the first slide. In the 
    second slide and put a graph summarizing the data from the table in the first 

    slide. Save the presentation as Question 2

    Q3. Create a presentation about Deforestation in Rwanda following the 
    procedures below: – 
    •In the first slide: Topic and definition

    – • In the second slide: Importance of Deforestation

  • UNIT 05 : DATABASE MANAGEMENT WITH ACCESS

     Introductory activity
     The management of TERIMBERE Sacco cooperative located in GICUMBI 
    District, would wish to hire a qualified consultant in ICT who will design an 
    efficient Database which will help them to shift from a tradictional paper
    based data recording to a Computerized database management system.
     
    Below are some main services offered and transactions performed by 
    different concerned staff:
     a. Creation of a new customs account using cooperative customer form
     b. Money-deposit by customer using cooperative customer book

    c. withdraw money from customer account using cooperative customer book

    As a student in ICT in Accounting, you are requested to :
     i. Suggest different ways that can be used to keep the above information.
    ii. What is the benefit of keeping that information in a computer 

       database compared to keeping it on a paper?

    iii. Which Office program to use to create that database?

    5.1 Understanding database

    Activity 5.1

    1) What do you understand by the term Database

    b) Give examples of databases you know in the society you live in.

     In our information society, record keeping and data processing using data
    base has become an important aspect of every organization such as Hospital, 
    School, Universities and Governments. Databases are used all the time, often 
    without knowing it. For example, withdrawing money from the Bank’s ATM 
    requires the existence of a database where information about clients and their 

    balance is kept.

    5.1.1. Database concepts

    A. Definitions

    a) Database

    A database is an organized collection of related data so that its contents can 
    easily be accessed, managed, and updated. It is considered to be organized 

    because the data is stored in categories that are accessible in a logical manner.

     b) Data

    Data are unprocessed raw facts that include text, number, images, audio, and 
    video. The data are useless for decision-makers until they have been processed 

    or refined in some manner.

    c) Information

    Information is data that has been processed, refined and given in the format that 
    is suitable for decision making or other organizational activities. 

    For example:     Report about student fee paid is useful information for finance 

    section.

    d) Database management
     Database management refers to a set of activities performed on the database. 

    Some of these activities are :

    Insertion of new records in tables are,
    Deletion of unnecessary records,
    Updating records if the information is changed,
    Searching for records according to the given criteria whenever needed.

    e) Database Management System (DBMS)

    The Database Management System (DBMS) is an application software that 
    enables users to define, create, and maintain the database and which provides 
    controlled access to this database.

    The DBMS receives requests (queries) encoded in SQL and translates those 
    queries into actions on the database.
     
    A     database system comprises of five major components :
     1. Data: The database contains both the operational data and the meta
    data (the data about data).

    2. Hardware:     this consists of the secondary storage (hard disk) on which 
    the database resides together with the associated devices.

    3. Software    : Software refers to the collection of programs used within 
    the database system. It includes the DBMS software the application 
    programs, together with the operating system, including network software 
    if the DBMS is being used over a network. The application programs that 
    allow users to store information in an ordered manner for timely and quick 
    retrieval is called Database Management System (DBMS).

    4. Procedures:     These are the instructions and rules that govern the design 
    and use of the database. This may include instructions on how to log on 
    the DBMS, make backup copies of the database, and how to handle 
    hardware or software failures.
     
    5. People (users): This includes the database designers, database 
    administrators (DBAs), application programmers and end users.

    Databases are useful. For example many computing applications deal with large 
    amounts of information; they have become an essential component of everyday 
    life in this modern society. Database systems give a set of tools for storing, 

    searching and managing this information.

    A. Importance of database
    – A database enables to put data on the disposition of users for consulting 
    or updating
    – The database should manage the privileges granted to its users.
    – A database can be local in one machine just used by one user or 
    distributed in many machines accessible by many users through a 
    network (sharing of data).
    – The main advantage of using database is its possibility to be used 
    simultaneously by many users as per the image below :
    g
     5.1.2. Database Approaches 
    A. Paper based database
     This is a kind of database where information is kept on papers. Keeping a 
    database on papers makes its management difficult and the size of papers 

    cumbersome.

     Paper based database presents the following disadvantages:
     
    Papers can be lost, damaged over time or due to calamities like fire and flood
     
    If there is change in the stored information the hard copies are hard to update 
    or may even rewriting the information on a new copy having the new updates.
     
    Compared to information kept in a computer, paper-based databases are 

    difficult to copy and search.

    A.  Computerized database
     When a database is stored electronically on a computer and can be manipulated 
    using a computer, it is called a computerized database. Computerized databases 

    can be of different types:

     a) Traditional File Processing Systems (TFPS) approach
     This is an approach which was used before the invention of modern Database 
    Management Systems (DBMS) but this approach was difficult to use as

     It required advanced knowledge and to use it one had to have advanced 
    programming knowledge which was not easy for a common user. Users had 
    to write application programs to store data in form of files on the computer 
    permanent storage device (Hard Disk) and each application program written by 
    a user had to define and manage its own data.
     
    Compared to manual management of information, the Traditional File Processing 
    presents the following advantages:
     • Simplicity: the design of file processing is more simple than designing 
    a database
     • Efficiency: file processing cost less and can be more speedy than 
    database
     • Customization: you can customize file processing more easily and 
    efficiently than database because files are related with the application 
    and it has all the data needed for that application.

     In File-based processing, for each database there is a separate application 
    program as shown by the following figure:
    g
    Traditional File Processing System presents the following disadvantages :
     • Separation and isolation of data : as data is isolated in many files, 
    it is not easy to have access to data.

     • Duplication of Data     : because of the decentralized management, 
    data may be scattered on different computers and this has as 
    consequences a misuse of storage space as data is repeatedly stored 
    in different locations (This is known as Data Redundancy) and a loss 
    of data integrity as data is stored in different locations and the different 
    copies may be slightly different.
     
    • Wastage of storage space: Duplication of data leads to wastage 
    of storage space. If the storage space is wasted it will have a direct 
    impact on cost. The cost will increase.

    • Loss of data integrity :     Data integrity means data consistency. 
    Duplication of data can also lead to loss of data integrity; the data are 
    no longer consistent.
     
    • Data dependence:     in traditional file processing, the structure of data 
    files is embedded in the application programs, so any changes to the 
    structure of a file may require changing all programs that access this file. 
    Therefore, data dependence means the application program depends 
    on the data. This means that if some modifications have to be made on 
    data, then the application program has to be rewritten.

         • Incompatible file formats: the structure of files is embedded in the 
    application programs and therefore structures are dependent on the 
    application programming language.
     
    The many difficulties attached to using Traditional File Processing Systems 
    prompted researchers to invent another way to use in order to make data 
    management more effective. This came up with another approach which is 
    DATABASE and Database Management System (DBMS)
     
    ii) Database Management System (DBMS) approach
     DBMS is a software that provides a set of primitives for defining, accessing, 
    and manipulating data. In DBMS approach, the same data are being shared by 
    different application programs. As a result, data redundancy is minimized. The 

    DBMS approach structure is shown in the following figure.


    Advantages of DBMS
     There are many advantages of database management system.
     • Centralized Data Management : In DBMS all files are integrated into 
    one system thus reducing redundancies and making data management 
    more efficient. One user can know data in another department without 
    moving from one department to another. This is called data integration.
     
    • Data Independence :     Data independence means that programs are 
    isolated from changes in the way the data are structured and stored.

     • Data consistency :     In DBMS, data inconsistency is avoided. Data 
    inconsistency means different copies of the same data will have 
    different values.

     For example : Consider a person working in a branch of an organization. The 
    details of the person will be stored both in the branch office as well as in the 
    main office. If that particular person changes his address, then the “change of 
    address” has to be maintained in the main office as well as the branch office. In 
    case the “change of address” is maintained in the branch office but not in the 
    main office, then the data about that person is inconsistent. DBMS is designed 
    to have data consistency which makes DBMS have the quality of increased data 

    integrity.

     • Data sharing : Due to the fact that data is centralized, many different 
    users from different locations can share data.
     
    • Data recovery after a crash : After a break down, DBMS allows to 
    recover data after a crash. The crash may be caused by power failure 
    or hardware failure.

     • Concurrent transaction control :     A transaction means a collection 
    of operations that perform a single action in a database. Example : 

    Transferring money from one account to another.

    Concurrent transactions mean that many transactions are being done 
    simultaneously or concurrently.

    Concurrent transaction problem occurs when multiple users want to access 
    data in the database at the same time like for example when someone wants 
    to withdraw money from his/her account while at that time there is someone 
    else who is using ATM card to withdraw money from the same account. DBMS 
    ensures that many users are accessing data and these problems are controlled.
     
    Increased Data security and safety    : DBMS allows data to be highly 

    protected against unauthorized access.

    Application activity 5.1
     1. Differentiate paper-based database from a computerized database 
    and give examples
     2. Outline advantages of DBMS
     3. List any thre3 examples of DBMS

    5.2. Key terms used in Database
    Activity 5.2
    By doing a research explain the term database and identify the key 

    terms that are used in the database field and explain them

    5.2.1 Relational Database
     There are different types of database but the most common type is the one that 
    use tables commonly known as Relational Database.

     A relational database is the one having one or many Relations which are the 
    mathematical concept representing physically a table
     
    In this kind of database, the table also known as an Entity may have two or many 
    columns also known as Attributes or Fields and details on items are stored in 
    rows also known as Tuples or records. A certain column has some values that 
    is allowed to accept and those are called Domain.

    Cardinality refers to the number of rows in a table. In the above table cardinality 
    is 6
     Degree of a relation (table) equals to the number of its attributes (columns/ 
    properties/fields). For example, in the above table, degree is 5.
     
    Properties of Relations in a relational database
     • A table (relation) in a relational database has properties which have to be met 
    • The relation has a name that is distinct from all other relation names in 
    the database
     • Each cell of the relation contains exactly one atomic (single) value
     • Each attribute has a distinct name
     • The values of an attribute are all from the same domain. The domain is 
    the type of data acceptable in a column. For example, Name column 
    should not accept only numbers data
     • Each tuple is distinct; there are no duplicate tuples  The order of 
    attributes and tuples has no significance

    A. Primary Key
     In a database table, a primary key is a column or combination of columns that 
    uniquely identifies table records. This column does not accept null values and all 
    its values are unique. The primary key column can be created by the database 
    manager or can be generated by the database according to the defined sequence.
     
    A table can have only one primary key, which may consist of single or multiple 
    fields. When multiple fields are combined and used as a primary key, they are 
    called a composite key. If the primary key is already defined, it is not possible 
    to have two records having the same value in that field.

    The figure below shows an Access table in which an AccNo column plays 
    the role of a primary key. The values in that column are unique, no value is like 
    another and no cell is empty (no null values).

     A. Foreign Key
     A foreign key is a field or collection of fields in one table that refers to the 
    primary key in another table. The table containing the foreign key is called the 
    child table, and the table containing the candidate key is called the referenced 
    table, parent table or master table.
     
    The image below shows a table with a unique value column whose values are 
    those from the master table, the AccNo is the primary key of the CUSTOMER 
    table while in the LOANS table the AccNo is the foreign key. All values in the 
    Master table don’t need to be in the child table.


     D. Candidates keys
     All attributes that can uniquely identify an entity are called candidates keys. They 
    are never NULL and cannot allow duplication of values. When multiple possible 

    identifiers exist, each of them is a candidate key. 

    5.2.2 Relational Database Management System (RDBMS),
     RDBMS serves as an interface between the database and end users or 
    application programs to make sure that data is well organized and remains 

    easily accessible.

     DBMS helps provide concurrency, security, data integrity and uniform data 
    administration procedures. Advanced query languages such as SQL are used 
    along with the DBMS package to interact with a database.
     Some DBMS examples include MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, dBASE, FoxPro, 

    Access, etc

     A. Table

    Tables are database objects that contain all the data in a database. In tables, 
    data is logically organized in a row-and-column format similar to a spreadsheet. 
    Each row represents a unique record, and each column represents a field in the 
    record.
     
    B. Record 
    A record is simply a set of data stored in a table, for example, a customer 
    record. A record in a database is an object that can contain one or more values. 
    Groups of records are then saved in a table; the table defines the data that each 
    record may contain. 

    Below is the CUSTOMER table:

    A. Field
     Field is the component that provides structure for a table. A table without fields 
    does not exist. For instance, a database creator can create an empty table that 

    has fields defined but no rows (records).

    A. Data type
     A data type is a description of the kind of data in a table column. Each database 
    system recognises its own set of datatypes, although some are common to many.

    Table 5.1 Data type descriptions

     Below are different data types of table CUSTOMER in design view:

     A. Relationship
     Database relationships are associations between tables that are created 

    using join statements to retrieve data.

     • Types of relationship
     There are three types of relationships between the data that are likely to encounter 
    at this stage in the design : one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. To be 
    able to identify these relationships, it is needed to examine the data and have an 

    understanding of what business rules apply to the data and tables.

     a) One-to-one (1-1)
     A one-to-one relationship is a link between the information in two tables, 
    where each record in each table only appears once. 


     Another example, there might be a one-to-one relationship between employees 
    and the cars they drive, because only one driver can drive a car.
     a) One-to-many (1-M)
     In a relational database, a one-to-many relationship exists when one row in 
    table A may be linked with many rows in table B, but one row in table 
    B is linked to only one row in table A. It is important to note that a one
    to-many relationship is not a property of the data, but rather of the relationship 

    itself.


    Note : One customer can make many orders
     a) Many-to-many (M-M)
     A many-to-many relationship refers to a relationship between tables in a 
    database when a parent row in one table contains several child rows in the 

    second table, and vice versa.

     5.2.3 Structured Query Language (SQL)
     SQL is a programming language used for managing data in a relational database 
    SQL can be used to create a database and tables inside that database, insert 
    and delete data in tables, query the database and whatever other task to be 

    done on a database.

     SQL statements look like ordinary English though the words may appear straight 
    or are in a shortened form. Below is a statement in Access that displays all 

    information from the table CUSTOMER.

    When the SQL statement above is run, it displays all the records in the table 

    CUSTOMER.

    Application activity 5.2
     1. What do you understand by the relational Database
     2. Explain the following terms:
     a) Field
     b) Table
     3. Differentiate candidate key from foreign key
     4.By using examples, distinguish the types' of data relationship
     5.Enumerate the properties of relation in relational database

    6. Given the table below; identify the primary key, foreign key and records


    5.3. Database design process
    Activity 5.3
    1. Having hired as a database designer at your school, 
    explain different steps you will go through to design 
    a database that will manage your school library.

    2. Discuss the benefits for your school when students, 
    teachers and librarian will start using the new 

    computerized database of the library.

     The most important thing to do to start designing a database is to plan ahead. 
    When a case that needs a database creation is presented, before switching on 
    a computer and starting creating the database it is better to think about the type 
    of information to work with and the types of questions that the database should 
    answer, what information needs to be stored and what specifically are the links 
    between them. The next phases are to verify all requirements specifications, to 

    represent the data with diagram, and to plan the database.

    When data is more complex, there are more needs to plan. Even the simplest 
    database should be thought thoroughly on paper before being created using 

    Database Management System such as Microsoft Access, SQL, MySQL, etc.

     A well-designed database performs well and adapts to future needs by giving 
    users access to essential information. Poor planning often results in a database 
    that fails to meet the current needs or the needs that may arise in the future 
    cannot easily be integrated in the existing database

     In planning the database, regardless of its size and complexity, the following 
    basic steps are used :
     • Gathering information (investigation)
     • Identify the objects (Important Entities and their Attributes).
     • Model the objects.
     • Identify the types of information for each object.
     • Identify the relationships between objects.
     • Database optimization through normalization.
     • Data entry and manipulation

         5.3.1. Gathering information
     Before creating a database, there is a need to understand the problem that 
    the database is expected to solve. If the database is to replace the traditional 
    method, file based approach method, then the existing system will give most of 
    the information needed.
     
    In this step there is a need to work with everyone involved in the existing system 
    which can be a paper based database, an old database or no database at 
    all. Gathering techniques include collecting copies of customer information, 
    management reports, and any other documents that are part of the existing 
    system or interviewing staff who are familiar of the work done in that institution, 
    the staff who are expected to use the new database or who use the old one. 
    This step is useful in designing the database and the interfaces.
     
    The output of this step is information on how the business of an institution is 
    carried out and this can be analyzed to derive the different tables (entities) that 
    will be needed.
     
    5.3.2. Identifying the important entities and their attributes
     During the process of gathering information, the key objects or entities that will 
    be managed by the database must be identified. The object can be a tangible 
    thing such as a person (for example student, employee, and patient), a product, 
    or it can be a more intangible item, such as a department in an institution, a 
    Combination in a school. Each distinct item in the database should have a 

    corresponding table for which column titles are attributes of the entity.

    5.3.3. Identifying the Relationship between entities
     It is good to relate or associate information about various items in a database. 
    Identifying the relationship between entities in the design process requires 
    looking at the entities and determining how they are logically related and adding 
    relational columns (foreign key) that establish a link from one table to another. 
    After identifying the relationship between entities an Entity Relationship (E-R) 

    Diagram is created using appropriate symbols.

     5.3.4. Modeling the objects
     As the objects in the system and their attributes are identified, they are recorded 
    in a way that represents the system visually. They are recorded using Relational 

    model and Entity Relational model.

     5.3.5. Identifying the types of information for each object
     After identifying the primary objects/entities in the database as candidates for 
    tables, the next step is to identify the types of information that must be stored 

    for each object.

     These are the columns in the table of the object. Fields/columns should be kept 
    simple, the more atomic are the fields the more flexible will be the database.
     For example, in a database of names and addresses, it is better to keep each 

    part of the person’s name as a separate field.

     5.3.6. Database optimization through normalization
     One of the most important step to consider when designing a database 
    is database definition. If tables are not set up properly, it can cause a lot of 
    headaches at the time of extracting/retrieving required data.
     Normalizing a database eliminates redundancy, and other anomalies that may 
    arise as the database is being used. Redundancy means that the same data is 

    saved more than once in a database.

     Those anomalies are: insertion anomalies, deletion anomalies and updation 
    anomalies. Normalization will be developed in details in the subsequent sections.

         Update anomalies: If data items are scattered and are not linked to each 
    other properly, then it could lead to strange situations where one row is updated 
    but others are left with old values leading to inconsistency in database.

    Deletion anomalies    : As data may be scattered somewhere else, in a database 
    that is not normalized when one record is deleted, other related records may 

    remain in the database.

    Insert anomalies: In a very long table which is not normalized, one may need 
    to insert some values but may not have values to insert for some columns which 
    may lead to tables in which some cells are filled while others are empty.
     
    Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring the database 
    to a consistent state.
     
    A Properly normalized design allows to use storage space efficiently, eliminate 
    redundant data, reduce or eliminate inconsistent data and ease the database 

    maintenance

     5.3.7. Data entry and manipulation
     When the database is completely designed the last step is using it by putting 
    in it the data. Data can be manually entered from hard copy forms or it can be 
    imported from other files like excel or other files supported by the current one.
     
    While entering data or importing it from other files make sure the data is valid 
    because if the database has strong validation rules, which is an ideal, it will not 

    accept those data.

    Application activity 5.3

    1. Explain clearly the role of gathering information before desing a 
    database

    2.What do you understand by database normalization?

    3.With an example, differentiate update and deletion anomalies in Database optimization.

    5.4. Creating, Saving, Closing and Opening a database

    Activity 5.4
     Create a database to manage the stock of your school kitchen:
     1. Create the following three tables:
     a. Foods
     b. StockIn
     c. StockOut
     
    2. Identify for each table the name of the column that will have unique 
    values (values that don’t resemble and no duplicate values in the 

    whole column and that cannot contain null values)

    Activity 5.4

    Create a database to manage the stock of your school kitchen:
     1. Create the following three tables:
     a) Foods
     b) StockIn
     c) StockOut
     
    2.     Identify for each table the name of the column that will have unique 
    values (values that don’t resemble and no duplicate values in the 

    whole column and that cannot contain null values)

     5.4.1 Database creation
     A database is a collection of information. In Access, every database is stored in 
    a single file and has to have a name and different objects.
     
    Different objects in an Access database are tables, queries, forms, reports, 
    macros, and modules.
     • Tables : They store information. A database can have as many tables 
         as are needed.
     • Queries : They let database users perform actions on tables which can 

        be data definition queries or data manipulation queries.

    • Forms : Those are attractive windows created by the database user 
      and provide a way to view or change information in a table
     • Reports : They are summary of the information contained in different 
        tables which have a common characteristic.

    To create an Access database first start Microsoft Office Access by clicking on 
    the start button then on Access 2019, in the window that will appear write the 

    database name and click on Create.

    The new database is now created but has no table. 

    Tables can be created using one of the available options : Datasheet view, Design View

     i) Creating a table in Datasheet view
    When the database is created, the default option to create tables is using the 
    Datasheet view. The Datasheet view is the option which allows to view many 
    rows in a table at the same time. This option also allows to filter and sort data 
    using the built in sorting and filtering options. This view is also useful for quickly 
    viewing the details of many records, adding new records and deleting records 
    from a table.
     
    To create a table in Datasheet view, do the following :
     
    Click on Create menu then on the table icon. New table with two columns and 

    one row appears.


     • To add new columns to the existing table in the image above click on 
    the drop down arrow next to Click to Add. In the list of data types that 
    will appear choose one suitable to the information to be kept in the column.
     • Write the name of the new column. Repeat the same steps of choosing 
    the data type and renaming the column up to when you have all the 
    needed columns.
     • Save the table by clicking on the save icon write the table name and 

    click on OK.

     ii) Creating a table in Design view
     A table can also be created in Design view and this provides additional options 
    compared to the Datasheet view like adding/changing the primary key and 
    changing the column data type. In Design view, the table structure is created 

    but entering data requires using the Datasheet view

    To create a table in Design view go through these steps :
     • On the Create tab, in the Tables group, click Table Design or in the 
    Views group click on the View tab then choose Design View.
     • In the new window that will appear, specify the field names, Data types 
    and the descriptions of the fields (optional) and set the primary key by 
    selecting the field name then clicking on the Key icon. The primary key 
    column will then have a key icon in front of it
     • Save the new table by clicking on the save icon and specifying the 

         name.


    Figure 5. 15.Window to create a table in Design View
    5.4.2 Opening and closing a database
    A database created can be closed by clicking on the close icon of the Access 
    window in which it is opened. This same database can also be opened by first 
    opening Microsoft Office Access then going to the File tab then choosing the 
    Open option and browsing the database to open.

    Once the database is opened, it will show its different objects (Tables, 

    Queries, Forms, Report), choose the one you want to have access 

    Application activity 5.4

     1. Using Access, create a database named “Payroll“  and save it on 
          the desktop.
     2) a. Create two tables which will keep respectively Staff identification 
         and their Salary.

     b. Indicate the primary key for each table.

    5.5. Creation of tables relationship
    Activity 5.5
     1. What do you understand by relationship in relational database?
     2. With examples, explain different types of tables relationship
     Table relationship is the backbone of database management as it helps in 
    making the many tables seem one. Without this option it would not be possible 
    to retrieve data from different tables at the same time but every table would be 
    taken as a separate entity.
     
    For tables to be logically related they have to have a common column which 
    binds them; this is the foreign key.
     
    A relationship is established between two tables when one table uses a foreign 
    key that references the primary key of another table. This is the basic concept 

    behind the term relational database.

    Here is in brief why table relationships are needed:
     As most of the time a database has more than one table to work while running 
    queries it is necessary that tables be related as the query works by matching 
    the values in the primary key field of the first table with a foreign key field in the 
    second table.
     
    While designing a form or a report, MS Access uses the information it gathers 
    from the table relationships already defined to present you with informed choices 
    and to prepopulate property settings with appropriate default values.
     
    These foreign key-primary key pairings form the basis for table relationships and 

    multi-table queries.

    A. Different relationships
     There are three main relationships in database tables namely one to one, one to 

    many (or many to one) and many to many.

     i) One to one (1:1)
     In a one to one relationship one record in one table can be related to only one 
    other record in the other table. This kind of relationship can be implemented in a 
    single table and therefore does not use a foreign key which is needed only when 

    two tables are to be related.

    This kind of relationship is not so common as the data stored in table B could 
    just have easily been stored in table A. However, there are some valid reasons 
    for using this relationship type like security purposes, the need to diminish the 
    number of columns in a table and slash it into smaller tables, and various other 

    specific reasons.

    These are examples of One to One relationships in real life:
     • In a marriage, each spouse has only one other spouse.
     • A son has only one mother
     • A car can be driven by one driver at a time

     • A President and a country

     ii) One to many /many to one (1:M / M:1)

    A one-to-many relationship allows a single record in table A to be related to 
    multiple records in table B but a record in table B can have only one matching 
    record in table A. This is the most common type of relationship and it is used to 

    relate one record from the ‘primary’ table with many records in the ‘related’ table.

    Examples :

    Consider a business with a database that has Customers and Orders tables. A 
    single customer can purchase multiple orders, but a single order could not be 

    linked to multiple customers.

     • A mother can have many children
     • A businessman can have many cars

     • One federate country can have more than one state

     iii) Many to many (M:M)
    Two tables have a many-to-many relationship when a single record in the first 
    table can be related to one or more records in the second table and a single 
    record in the second table can be related to one or more records in the first table.

     Briefly two tables A and B are said to have a many-to-many relationship when A 
    record in Table A can have many matching records in Table B, and a record in 

    Table B can have many matching records in Table A.

    Examples :

    The relationship between TEACHER entity and STUDENT entity is an example 
    of many-to-many relationship. One teacher teaches many students and one 
    student is taught by many teachers.
     • Many students are taught by many teachers 

    • Many customers may buy many products

    CUSTOMER table
     The CUSTOMER table will have 6 columns namely IDcustomer, Lname, Lname, 
    PhoneNo, Address and Gender. The data types for all the columns is Short Text. 

    The Sex column will allow only two values: male and female.

     The IDcustomer field does not need to be too long, that is why we specify its 
    length as Long Integer. The length of a field is specified in the Field Properties 

    shown in the image below which is the part of the window for fields definition.

     Using this same Field Properties window, one can specify different properties 
    of the table fields like a customized error message when wrong data type is 

    entered in a table and validation rules.

    ACCOUNT_NO table
     This table will contain information about Customers account number. 

    The values of Idcustomer column will be those that exist in the CUSTOMER 
    table Idcustomer column while those in the AccNo column are those that exist 

    in the ACCOUNT_NO table AccNo column.

    The DEPOSIT table

    The DEPOSIT table has 4 rows namely IDDeposit which uniquely identify every 

    Customer deposit (primary key), the AccoNo, Amount and DateDeposit. 


    WITHDRAW table

    The WITHDRAW table has 4 columns namely IDwithdraw which uniquely identify 

    every Customer withdraw (primary key), the AccoNo, Amount and Datewithd. 


     LOANS table
     The LOANS table has 4 columns namely LoanID which uniquely identify every 

    given loan to a customer (primary key), the AccoNo, LoanAmount and LoanDate. 

     BALANCE table
     The BALANCE table has 4 columns namely IDBalance which uniquely identify 
    customer balance (primary key) whenever he/ or she deposits or withdraws 

    money, the IDdeposit, IDwithdraw and Balance. 

     B. Creating relationships
     As it has been seen tables which are not normalized present many anomalies 
    which make such a database very bad. When database is normalized, its tables 
    are broken down into smaller tables which help eliminate redundancy but there 
    must be a mechanism to link those tables so that they can be queried as one. 

    The mechanism used is to relate different tables by using foreign keys.

     A relationship between tables is built like this :
     • Under the Database Tools tab click on Relationships tool , drag and 
    drop the tables between which to create a relationship from the left 

    pane to the relationships area. Tables are dragged.

     • Arrange the tables properly so as to make an easy to read diagram 
    once the relationship is created.
     • Click and hold down the column name from which the relationship is 
    to be established and move the cursor (from left to right) to the other 
    related column in the other table. The window below that will appear 

    will help in editing the relationship.

     • Continue the process in the above bullets until all the tables to be linked are linked.
     Note that the columns to link have to be of the same data type and of the same 
    length if not so the attempt to create a relationship will result in an error.
     After linking all the tables, the relationships between the library database tables 

    will look like in the image below:

    Application activity 5.5

     1. Create a database with the following tables then create a relationship:
     a. ITEMS (Iditem, itemname)
     b. ORDER (Idorder, Iditem, quantity,dateorder)
     c. STOCKIN (Idstockin, Idorder, quantity, datestockin)

     d. STOCKOUT (Idstockout, quantity,datestickout)

     5.6. Adding Data to a database
    Activity 5.6
    1. Using your own words, explain what is data entry in database
    2. Differentiate back-end from front-end
    3. Discuss different ways that can be used to add data to an Access database

    Adding Data to a database (Data Entry)

     Data entry is a direct input of data in the appropriate data fields of a database 
    through the use of a human data-input device such as a keyboard, mouse, or 
    touch screen, or through speech recognition software.
     
    Before doing a data entry be aware of  fields to enter and the validation rules 
    associated with those fields. This will help in avoiding to enter a wrong data type 
    in a field and knowing that the database will not accept that data type, it will take 
    time to figure out the right data to enter. Know which fields get data from other 
    fields (lookup), fields that have specific values (like yes/no). In short, study the 
    table/form before entering data.
     
    Adding data to an Access database can be done in 3 main ways :
     • Data entry through a front end interface
     • Entering data in a Datasheet view table

     • Entering data using an Access form

    5.6.1  Data entry through a front end interface
     In programming and development, a front-end is a term that describes a user 
    interface that is used to interact with the database instead of working directly 
    with the database.                               

    For example, a website front-end developer 
    handles the visual aspects of how the web page looks and responds to the 
    visitor. The front end interacts with the back end (database) which may be on 
    the local computer or remotely placed on a server.
     The front end provides forms which are developed using different languages 
    like HTML (HyperText Markup Language), HTML5 and programming languages 
    to link the webpages to the database like PHP.

    The forms provided by the front end has different fields which correspond to 
    the fields in the database and alert the data entry clerk whenever form validation 
    rules are not followed. They also provide a “submit” button on which to click for 
    sending data in the database.

    5.6.2 Entering data in a Datasheet view table
    Datasheet view is one of the table viewing in Access which allows a user to 

    enter directly data in a table. 

    To add records to a table in datasheet view in Access, click into this row and enter 
    the new record. The asterisk will then change to a picture of a “pencil” as data is 
    being entered. The pencil will let know which record that is being edited. Another 
    new “New Record” row also appears once it is done with the current row.
     
    While entering data in an Access table, it is necessary to follow the validation 
    rules of the table because when they are not respected, the data will not be 
    accepted.

    5.6.3. Entering data using an Access form
     Microsoft Access 2019 provides different objects the common ones being 
    tables, queries, forms and reports.
     
    Access forms are accessed by clicking on the Create tab then select one of the 
    form options provided in the Forms group.
     
    The Form tool is used to view table data in a form format and is accessed just 
    by opening the table and clicking on the Form tool

    To navigate in the form’s data or to enter new data use the tools available on 
    Record tools group. By using the tools in this group one will be able to move to 
    the next row, move to the last row, empty the form so as to enter new data and 
    searching for a row containing specific text.


     A. Designing a form from scratch
     A form can also be designed from scratch and not created from an existing 
    table. The created form will then create a table to which it will be linked.
     
    To create a form from scratch go through these steps :
     • Under the Create tab click on the Form Design tool
     • In the form area drag and drop the form design tool to use but before 
    this name your form by using the Title tool found in the header/footer 
    group. If needed also set the form’s logo.

     From left to right the different tools to choose from are: Select tool, Text Box, 
    Label, Button, Tab Control, Hyperlink, Web Browse Control, Navigation Control, 
    Option Group, Insert Page Break, Combo Box, Chart, Line, Toggle Button, List 
    Box, rectangle, Check Box, Unbound Object Frame, Attachment, Option Button, 
    Subform/Subreport, Bound Object Frame and Image.
     
    B. School library form
     Here is a form created from scratch which accepts data and submits it to the 
    database table. It has been created by taking the different tools available for 
    building a form. The different tools dragged from the Form Layout tool are: Logo, 

    Title, Text Boxes, Option Group and Button.

    h

    The above Form viewed in the Form view looks like this :


    Application activity 5.6
    1. Design the form below that can be used to enter student registration 

    information in the database.

     a) Add your school logo.

     b) Make sure the table/form is validated to accept only valid data.

    5.7. Querying a Database in design view
    Activity 5.7
     a) Create the following ACCOUNTSNO table as below:

     b) Display all accounts numbers which have been created in 2021.

     c) Display all customers accounts.

    A query is a request for data results, and for action on data. A query can be used 
    to answer a simple question, to perform calculations, to combine data from 
    different tables, or even to add, change, or delete table data.
     
    A query is a request to the database tables for data results or for action on 
    data. This query can help answer a question, combine data from multiple tables, 
    perform calculations, change or delete table data.

     In Access, querying a database can be done in two ways: by writing a 
    query in a language that is understandable to the database that is known as 
    SQL query or by designing or by using the Design View approach. This section 
    is going to talk about querying an Access database in Design view.
     
    5.7.1 Benefits of using queries
     The benefits of using queries are so multiple :
     • As the table increases in size and may have thousands of records, it is 
    so difficult to spot one record by scrolling through the database. The 
    query approach solves this problem by spotting the needed records 
    and performing needed actions on them
     • A query can help in applying a filter on table’s data and get only what 
    is needed
     • When one same action is to be performed on many records, it would 
    be a loss of time to repeat every action on every record. Doing it 

    automatically in a query quickens the process

     5.7.2 Types of queries in Access
    There are mainly two types of queries in Access:
    • Select queries which are used to display data from tables or to perform 
    calculations 
    • Action queries which are used to add, change or delete data

    A. Select queries
    A select query is the one which displays records from one or more tables of a 
    database The SQL SELECT statement returns a result set of records from one 
    or more tables. A SELECT statement retrieves zero or more rows from one or 
    more database tables or database views basing on the selection criteria if there 
    is one.

     A select query on one table

     To design a select query, do the following:
     • Under the Create tab click on Query Design
     • In the “Show Table” window that will appear choose the table on which 
    the query is to be run and click on Add. In this case the table BOOKS was chosen

    
     • After selecting the table click on Close to close the window
     • In the table, select the columns to appear in the result. In this case only 

    these columns were selected: Fname, Lname, Address, and PhoneNo.


     • If there is a criterion for selection specify it and if there is not one leave 
    the criteria field empty. In this case only books in the science category 
    are going to be displayed
     • Click on Run  to get the results of the query

    Select query on multiple tables
    In a normalized database it is possible to link more than two table in order to get 
    a more revealing display (report). For example, in the table that have been used 
    one may need to know the names of students who borrowed science books and 
    their combinations.
    To answer such a question requires to combine columns from three tables and 
    thanks to the foreign keys in the tables this combination is possible. The tables 
    to combine are: CUSTOMER, ACCOUNT_NO and DEPOSIT
    To make such a query do the following :
     • Under the Create tab click on Query Design
     • Chose the table that are to be used in the new query. Here select all the 
    tables (CUSTOMER, ACCOUNT_NO and DEPOSIT)
     • Select the columns that will appear in the results. Those columns are: 
    Fname,  Lname, AccNo, Amount and DateDeposit.

     • Run the query by clicking on the Run tab which is found under the 
    Query Tools

     Note that this kind of query that combines many tables is possible only if tables 
    are related by the use of foreign key.
    Application activity 5.7
     Using the four tables (CUSTOMER, ACCOUNT_NO, DEPOSIT, and 
    LOANS) create queries in Design View that do the following:
     d) Customers whose gender is Female
     e) Customers whose name start with letter “M”
     f) All loans that have been given to different customers in the year of 2022

    End of unit assessment 5
    Q1. Explain the following terms:
     1. Database
     2. Field
     3. Table
     4. Query
     End of unit assessment 5
     Q2. Give the difference between primary key and foreign key
     Q3. Explain why it is necessary to have a normalized database
     Q4. Outline the advantages of DBMS
     Q5. Using the four tables (STUDENTS, BOOKS, ORDERS, and 
    COMBINATIONS) used through this section create queries in Design 
    View that do the following:
     a) Students whose sex is Male
     b) Students whose name start with letter “U”
     c) Books which are in the Mathematics category
          d)Students who study in MPC option in 2010
     Q6. GIRUBUZIMA is the PHARMACY that orders, stores and sells drugs 
    to patients.  You are requested to create the database throught doing the 
    following different activities:
     a. Propose the name of database and create it
     b. Identify and create the necessary tables(entities) and thier corres
    poning fields, their primary keys and foreign keys.
     c. Create a relationship between the tables
     d. Create forms that will allow GIRUBUZIMA PHARMACY Pharmacist 
    to record all orders, to store and sell different kinds of drugs.
     e. Write SQL query which displays all drugs in the stock that have 

    been manufactured before end of the year 2020

    Skills Lab 5

    You are a business owner. Create a database that will help in the daily 
    management of that business. The database created should include at 
    least the following:
     • Tables with primary keys and foreign keys
     • Forms to provide interface
     • Automatimatically produce reports 

    • Has features like automatically calculating taxes, etc

  • UNIT 6: ONLINE BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

     Introductory activity
     Mr.  Mugenzi is a businessman who buys goods from China. Those goods 
    consist of machineries, clothing items and foodstuff. As his business 
    activities are many, he is sometimes required to spend a lot of time in China 
    while inquiring from different sellers and completing all the formalities 
    necessary for his goods to be shipped to Rwanda. On average, for every 

    year he spends more than 100 days in China. 

    1) Analyse this situation and explain how it hinders Mr. Mugenzi’s 
         business
     2) If Mugenzi flies to China at least 50 times, estimate the price of 

        airfare he spends 

    Explain what Mugenzi would do to reduce the number of days spent in 

    China but get all the goods he wants

    6.0. Introduction

    Business correspondence is a process by which parties in a business exchange 
    information in a written format for the purpose of business activities. This 
    information exchange can take place between organizations, between customers 
    or between customers and organizations.

     Business correspondence can be done for the purpose of inquiring from the 
    selling institution for necessary information needed by a customer, receiving 
    information from the selling institution about the goods the customer sought 
    information, ordering goods, sending an invoice, response on the goods 

    received.

    Online business correspondence is the one which is done using online means 
    of communication mainly the internet. The most common online business 
    correspondence is through emails but selling institutions may have their 

    customized channel of communication. 

    6.1. Emails

    Activity 6.1

     1) Explain how sending and receiving mails via post offices operates
     2) Contrary to post offices, mails can be sent and received using computers.
     a) Explain how a person can send and receive an email using a computer
     b) Give at least 2 examples of emails service providers
     3)  You are a sales manager in one important factory in Rwanda, explain 

    how using emails will make your work easy.

     6.1.1. Understanding email
     E-Mail refers to a system of exchanging messages electronically over a computer 
    network between two or more email service users. These users must have e-mail 
    addresses which are hosted by an email service provider like Gmail, Yahoo Mail, 
    etc. An email service provider has a big server on which users who have emails 
    have dedicated space in which their email will be saved. It is like a Post Office 
    where every customer has a box in which all his/her mails are dropped and 

    withdrawn.

     The email client comes in two forms, a web-based version like Gmail, where 
    users must log in through their browser to access their emails, or a client-based 
    version such as Outlook, where users install software to access emails from 
    their local computer. For emails to arrive at the correct destination there are 

    protocols which handle this task.

     • Email format
     The following is a sample format of an e-mail address :

     username@hostcomputer.domainname

    Explanation :
    – username: It identifies the owner of the e-mail address.
    – @ (“at” sign): Separates the username from the rest of the address parts.
    – hostcomputer: The name of the remote server on which the e-mail 
    account is hosted. For example gmail, yahoo, and hotmail among others.
    – .(dot): Separates the domain name from the other part of the e-mail address.
    – Domain name : It identifies the type of institution offering the services.  

    For example, nkeza@gmail.com, nkeza is the username, gmail is the host 

    computer and .com is the domain name for a commercial organization.

     6.1.2. Creation of emails 
    In general to create an email the user will have to first write the email service 
    provider address in the browser’s address bar then fills the provided forms in 
    which personal information are filled. When one form is well filled, the user is 

    allowed to move to the next step until the email is created.

     a. Creating a Gmail account email
     Gmail is an email service provider belonging to google. To create an email 
    account on gmail follow these steps :
     i) Open the gmail application software using a web browser by writing gmail.
     com in the browser’s address bar

     ii) In the windows that appears click on Create account


     i) In the next window that appears, fill details including your names, the email 
    account to create and the password to be used for the new email account. 
    Once done with all those details click on Next

     ii) Continue to the next windows in which details namely your phone number, 
    recovery email address, date of birth and gender will be filled. After filling 
    those details click on Next. 

    As the creation of an email is near completion, you may be required to confirm 

    your email by entering a google code sent to the provided phone number. 


     a) Rules to follow while choosing a password
    – Passwords are case sensitive.
    – Always use a combination of characters that are easily to remember.
    – Avoid using characters that can be guessed.
    – Passwords are always encrypted for security purposes.
    – Use a combination of capital and small letters, numbers and special 
    characters to create a strong password
    – Advantages of emails

     i) It allows sending of one mail to many recipients at the same time.
     ii) It is cheaper compared to traditional mails which are handled by post 
    offices
     iii)  It is fast and efficient as it allows instant sending and receiving of mails from 
    iv) Anywhere in the world.
     v)  E-mails can be saved for future retrieval in another computer.
     vi) It is easier to reply and forward mails.
     vii) Allows sending and receiving of any form of information.
     viii) Disadvantages of emails
     ix) Use of email requires computer literacy.
     x)  E-mails are not accessible to everyone due to internet connectivity 
    problems.
     xi) (iii) There are security concerns. Hackers are able to gain authorised 
    access to users’ 
    xii) Accounts and, for example, solicit for money.

    xiii) Allows spread of viruses such as hoax.

    Application activity 6 .1

     1) Create email accounts. The email account you create should 
    contain your name or part of your name
     2) Search the Internet for information on the effects of the emails on 
    global economy
     3) Explain the meaning of the parts in this email address: 

    murwanashyaka@gmail.com

     1.2.Sending and receiving email 

    Activity 6.2

    Observe the images below and answer the questions


     1) What are the methods being used in images A and B to send or 
    receive a mail?
     2) Among the two methods which one is more efficient? Explain.

     3) Describe how withdrawing a mail as shown in image B is done?

     Email accounts allow the sending and receiving of emails. These emails are sent 
    and received using a computer using a computer. For a user to receive or send an 

    email he/she has first to login in order to have access to the email functionalities.

    1.1.1.Gmail environment

     Once the email account holder logs in, the window below will be displayed :

    The gmail window environment has different tabs including Compose, Inbox, 
    Sent, Drafts, Spam and Trash. In order to have access to the options provided 

    by those tabs click on them. The use of each tab is summarized below :

     Sending emails and attaching files
     To send an email first click on Compose found in the Gmail window then follow 
    the following steps :
     1. In the window that appeared, go in the “To” text area and write the 
    recipient email,
     2. If there are other people who will receive copies, click in “Cc” text area 
    and write the email which will receive a copy
     3. If there is an email to receive a blind copy Click in “Bcc” text area and 
    write that email. When the Blind copy option is used, the list of all the 
    recipients is hidden from the other recipients of the mail.
    4. Write the subject of the email to be sent by clicking in the “Subject” text area
     5. Write the text for the email
     6. If there is a file or folder to be attached and sent with the text, click on the 
    Attachment icon and browse the file to be attached 
    7. Click on the Send button 

    The steps above described are shown in the window below :

     1.1.1. Receiving emails and downloading attachment
     Upon signing in, the user’s inbox is automatically opened. The messages are 
    displayed in three columns showing the name of the sender, the subject and the 

    Date/Time when the email was sent.

     To read a message, click on the Subject. Once the message is read the user can 
    decide download the available attachment by just double clicking on it. In the 
    email received, the user can also select one of the following options available on 

    the message window : Reply, Reply to All, Forward and Delete among others.

    – Reply : This option is selected if the user desires to respond to the 
    read mail.
    – Reply to All     : This option is selected if the user desires to respond to 
    all the addresses listed in the Cc, Bcc and To box. Both Cc and Bcc 
    forward a copy of the message to everyone listed as a recipient. The 
    difference between Cc or Carbon Copy and Bcc (Blind Carbon Copy) 
    is that, with the latter, the recipients do not get to know each other. 
    Note that the Reply to All option is not available when an email is 
    received by just one person (email)

    – Forward : This option is selected if the user desires to send the same 

    message to other e-mail addresses. 
    – Delete : This option is selected if the user desires to erase the mail. 
    Note that deleting the message only sends it to the Trash folder. The user 
    can retrieve the message from this folder if so desired. To permanently 

    delete the message, empty the trash folder.

     1.1.2. Advantages of online communication using emails
    From what can be done using emails, it is obvious that online communication 
    using emails has many advantages. Those advantages are outlined below :
     • Flexible access to participate whenever and wherever 

    convenient

     Communication using emails can allow participants to communicate wherever 
    and whenever they are and the price of this communication is not dependent on 
    the distance and time. A person can send an email during the night, can send 
    an email when he/she is in a foreign country while this may not be possible for 
    some old communication means.

         • Real time and quick response
     If two parties are using the required devices, communication can be done in the 
    real time and the response can be immediate. This is not possible for example in 
    the Post Office system where a mail envelope has to pass through many carriers 
    until it is dropped in the recipient box.
     
    •     Cost Effective
     When communication is done through emails, no cost is required for travelling 
    from one city to another or one country to another. All to be done is just sign up 

    and create your account. It saves both money and time.

    Application activity 6.2
     1) Exchange emails with your colleagues asking them about your lessons
     2) While writing an email what is the use of the tools Cc and Bcc
     3) State at least 2 disadvantages that come with the use of emails.

     4) What are 3 advantages of email over traditional mail?

     1.1.Search engines

    Activity 6.3

    Observe the screenshot below got as a result for the search conducted 
    by a Senior 4 student in Accounting who searched from the internet for 

    information about Balance Sheet.


     Answer the questions below:
     1) What is the topic entered by the student in the search box?
     2) Did the student find the information about Balance Sheet that he/she 
    wanted? If No explain why it was not found.
     3) Write in the google search box the keywords Balance Sheet.in 
    finance. Describe the accuracy of the information you get.
     4) Now write the keywords Balance Sheet in finance inside quotation marks.
     5) Compare the results found in question 3 and 4 by filling the table below:

     Search Engines are programs that help the user look for and identify items 
    that corresponds to keywords or phrases specified from the World Wide 
    Web. Examples include Yahoo, Google, Bing and Ask among others which are 
    accessed respectively using the URLs yahoo.com, google.com, bing.com and 
    ask.com. As an accountant search engine are important when searching from 

    the internet information related to goods and services to buy, new clients, etc.

     1.1.1.Strategies to find specific information using search engine
     When conducting a search using a search engine one can get millions of search 
    results and find that none of those results is related to what should be expected. 
    What is need is therefore the ability to refine the search to get exactly what is 
    needed. Some search engines also help find less results compared to others 
    so change a search engine in order to get more accurate results. Below the 

    strategies for better search results are developed.

    a) Simplify the Search Terms 
    Some engines include Stop words in their searches. These are frequently used 
    words such as prepositions (in, of, on), conjunctions (and, but) and articles (a, 
    the), which means that the search results have more pages of search results than 
    needed. It is always good to eliminate stop words from the internet searches. 
    However, if the search is aimed at searching for a specific title or name that 

    includes them, they should then be included in the search term. 

    a) Use Quotation Marks 
    Enclosing a search term within quotation marks prompts the search engine to 
    search for that specific word or phrase. If the term is a single word, using quotation 
    marks will unnecessary variations which increase the number of search results. 
    For example, if searching for the word director, the researcher likely receives a 
    lot of results for direct, direction, directions, and so on. Typing “director” with 
    quotation marks, ensure that only results for that word are displayed.  

    If the search term is a phrase, the search will be for that specific phrase, rather 
    than for all the component words as individual items. For example, if searching 
    for the phrase director of
     
    human resources,     without quotation marks, the search returns results based 
    on all of the words in the phrase. Thus, surrounding the term with quotation 

    marks, will generate results that feature this specific phrase. 

     a) Remove unhelpful words 
    The use of a hyphen, small dash or minus sign immediately before a word 
    excludes it from a search. For example, typing in marketing -digital will exclude 
    digital from the search engine, making it easier to find the information searched 
    for. Typing marketing -digital -social would allow researcher to get rid of both 

    marketing and social terms.

    b) Refine the search using operators 
    Other characters, known as operators allow to narrow down the internet 
    search in more precise ways. A few of those are explored here below: 

    • Wildcard searches:     Use wild card character to represent any other 
    word to search for. In this case use the * symbol to represent any other 
    word. For example, searching for *man in the world returns results for 
    the richest man in the world, the tallest man in the world, the oldest man 
    in the world, and so on. Wildcard searches are also useful for example 

    when researcher do not know the full text to search for. 

    • Combination searches: This is a technic by which the searcher 
    combines search terms using boolean operators AND, OR, NOT, 
    NEAR.     These operators enable user to search for two or more terms 
    simultaneously and is most useful when those terms are very similar. 
    For example, typing selling OR retailing, will return pages where either 
    of the terms is used, without both needing
     to be present. The AND operator ensures that the searcher receives only search 
    results that include two or more terms. Apart from these operators one can also 

    use NEAR

     • Search in a specific Site: Typing the URL of the website that the 
    searcher wishes to search and a search term limit the search to a 
    single website. For example, typing in the search box: reb.rw” Director 
    General” will return all the pages from reb.rw that contain the term 
    “Director General” 
    • Advanced search techniques using tilde sign (~) 

    When the tilde operator is placed in front of a keyword, it also searches for 
    words that are synonyms of that keyword. The searcher can use the tilde 
    operator (~) to get Google or other search engines to expand the search with 
    related keywords. This is helpful when one does not know the entire search 

    query to use.

    Application activity 6.3
     Using the different search technics you have learned, search for the 
    following by making sure that you get more accurate results:
     1)  How taxes are collected in East Africa

     2)  Causes of economic crises

    6.4. Online sales and purchase process

    Activity 6.4

     Mushoramari wants to start a new business in which he will be selling car 
    spare parts to clients around the country. He wants to use emails in most 
    communications to replace physically meeting his clients so as to reduce 
    some costs to clients. 

    Explain how the sale and purchase process will be conducted in regard to 

    these concepts: inquiry, quotation.

    Online sale is the use of internet and other electronic means to sell goods and 
    services to clients who are not physically present at the selling agent. For these sales 
    to be possible sellers use web sites, search engines, social media, e-mail and other 
    electronic means to request or provide information from sellers.
    Online sale goes     together with online purchase. Online purchase  allows consumers to directly buy 

    goods or services from a seller using the same channel as in online sale.

    Online sales and purchase goes in a certain process in order to ensure that 
    when the seller and buyer conclude their deal both are satisfied. An online sale 
    and purchace using email can be conducted by following the process outlines 
    below:

     

    A) Inquiry
    Exercice 1: Role play
     Inquiry is a process by which a person asks and gets information from someone 
    having more knowledge therefore resolving doubt. While doing an online 
    purchase inquiry can be conducted from the seller in order to know the kind of 
    products sold. In this phase, the buyer who may have a big idea of the product 
    to buy will ask for additional information like the product specification, price, 
    possibilities of a discount, packaging options, delivery methods and duration, 
    etc. After the buyer and the seller have agreed on the product, the seller sends 

    quotation to the buyer.

     You are an investor specialized in hospitality specifically hotels and you want to 
    buy plates for one of your hotels in Rwanda. Write to an industrialist involved 
    in manufacturing asking him/her about plates you want to buy. Use your Gmail 

    account to do this. 

    A) Quotation
     A quotation is a document that a seller provides to a buyer to offer goods or 
    services at a stated price, under specified conditions. Quotations are used to let 
    a potential buyer know how much goods or services will cost before they decide 
    to buy. A quotation should include among other the price, an expiration date, 

    your company details and your customer’s details.

     A quotation also represents the brand identity and professionalism. If it looks 
    not attractive and not well-structured, the potential buyers will assume that the 
    business is not well run while if this quotation is well presented this can be a 

    sign of attention to details and the value of service provided.

     Qualities of a good quotation
     
    For a quotation to be an incentive for buying, it should meet the following :
    – Visual content : Images convey easily a message than words. It is 
    therefore good to make the service more visual by including reference 
    images, videos and graphs that best reflect the process and the results. 
    Visuals will help to paint a clearer picture of what will be working on 
    and enable to demonstrate all unique features of product/service in a 
    clear fashion.
    – Design and format :     It is good to have quotations which are in an 
    attractive design. To be attractive, these quotations should also have 

    appropriate and attractive colors.

     Exercise 2: Role play
     1. You are the hotelier in Exercise 1 and you have got satisfying information 
    from the industrialist manufacturer. Now write to him/her requesting for a 

    quotation for the plates you want to buy. 

    2. You are the industrialist manufacturer. Send to the hotelier the requested 

    quotation using your Gmail account.

     3. You are an investor specialized in hospitality specifically hotels and 
    you want to buy plates for one of your hotels in Rwanda. Write to an 
    industrialist involved in manufacturing asking him/her about plates you 

    want to buy. Use your Gmail account to do this. 

    A) Order
     Writing an order for goods and service is done when the customer has been 
    satisfied with the information provided in the quotation. An order should among 

    others include a list of items required with the quantities.

    Exercise 3: Role play
     a) You are the hotelier (in Exercise 1 and 2). Write an order of the plates 
    you want to buy.
     b) You are the Industrialist, respond to the customer from which you have 
    received the order.
     a) Invoice
     An invoice is a commercial document issued by the seller to the client about a 
    sell transaction. This document shows the products, quantities and the price 
    that were agreed on between the seller and the buyer.
     
    Exercise 4: Role play
     1) You are the industrialist manufacturer who received an order (in Exercise 
    3). Write an invoice to your customer.

         A) Goods delivery note
     A goods delivery note accompanies the goods sent to the buyer. It shows a list 
    of the products and the quantity of the goods included in the delivery.

         Exercise 5: Role play
     You are the industrialist who sent the goods that were ordered by the hotelier. 
    Now send the goods delivery note to the customer.
     
    Application activity 6.4
     Divide in two groups and play the role of buyer and seller then:
     1) Imagine you are an owner of a company that sell planes
     2) As customer and buyer interact so as to show all the process 
    involving inquiry, quotation, order, invoice, Goods delivery note
     You may use internet to get information to help you do this role play.
     
    6.5. E-commerce
     Activity 1.1
     Kamikazi wants to buy a Management Accounting book. She visited many 
    libraries in the country but she could not find the title she wanted. She 
    decided to search for the book using google.com but she could not also 
    find it. Finally, she realized that the book is available online on amazon.com 
    and the price is at 15$. She therefore decided to buy it from amazon.com 

    which is located in US. 

    1) What is the common name for that selling and buying business done online?
     
    2) Discuss the process Kamikazi will go through in order to buy that 
    book and have it delivered to her
     
    3) Brainstorm the other local and global e-commerce platforms that can be 

    used to buy goods and services online

     6.5.1. Introduction to E-commerce
     E-Commerce or Electronic Commerce also known as e-Business, is the buying 
    and selling of goods, products, or services over the internet using electronic 

    means of payment like credit cards. 

    The history of e-commerce dates back to the invention of the very old notion 
    of “sell and buy”, electricity, cables, computers, modems, and the Internet. 
    E-commerce became possible in 1991 when the Internet was opened for 

    commercial use.

     At first, the term e-commerce meant the process of execution of commercial 
    transactions electronically which gives an opportunity for users to exchange 
    business information and do electronic transactions. The ability to use these 
    technologies appeared in the late 1970s and allowed business companies and 

    organizations to send commercial documentation electronically.

     6.5.2. E-commerce models
     Electronic commerce can be classified into four main categories. The basis for 
    this simple classification is the parties that are involved in the transactions. The 

    four basic electronic commerce models are:

     a) Business to Business
     In a business to business model companies are doing business with each other. 
    The final consumer is not involved. So, the Online transactions only involve the 

    manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers, etc.

     b) Business to Consumer
     Here the company will sell their goods and/or services directly to the consumer. 
    The consumer can browse their websites and look at products, pictures, read 
    reviews. Then, they place their order and the company ships the goods directly to them.
     
    c) Consumer to Consumer
     Consumers are in direct contact with each other. No company is involved. It 
    helps people sell their personal goods and assets directly to an interested person.
     
    d) Consumer to Business

    The consumer provides goods or services to the company.

     6.5.3. Online shopping malls
     Around the world and in Rwanda there are different companies which sell goods 
    online. Some of them are Alibaba, Amazon, Kikuuu, Vuba Vuba. For every online 
    shopping mall buying goods is done in this way:
    – The client creates an account on the online shopping mall. This account 
    will allow the client to be uniquely identified in the mall’s online system. 
    In order to create an account, open a web browser and enter the 
    address of the mall in the address bar of that browser and follow the 
    directives found on that platform,
    – The client with an account uses his/her account credentials to login in 
    the system. The credentials most of the time consist of user name and 
    password,
    – Now that the client has logged in the system, she/he chooses the 
    goods to buy. In the mall’s system, goods are shown with their names, 
    images and prices. The price to pay add up as the client selects more 
    goods to buy.
    – The client chooses the payment methods like MTN Mobile Money, Tigo 
    Cash. There are also other payment methods which can be used like 
    credit/debit cards, bank transfers, etc
     
    a) Local online shopping malls
     Kikuu is one of the e-commerce platforms available in Rwanda with which one 
    can buy available goods and have them delivered to his/her preferred location 
    in Kigali. When a client wants to buy from Kikuu he/she visit the platform kikuu.

     com or rw.kikuu.com whose screen is displayed below:

    Vuba vuba is an online shopping mall which is specialized in the selling of food, 
    supermarket goods and party groceries delivery service with Vuba vuba. This 
    platform is accessed through the link vubavuba.rw. However this platform is 
    used on telephone and their corresponding apps are downloadable through 

    Google Play or App Store.

    a) Other online shopping malls
    Application activity 6.5

    1) What is e-commerce
     2) With an example explain business to consumer e-commerce model
     3) State e-payment methods that are used when buying goods and 
    services online.
     4) Discuss the major benefits of E-commerce over traditional commerce?

    6.6. E-procurement, E-tax and E-payment
    Activity 6.6
    Do a research and explain how procurement, tax collection and fee payment 
    were done in Rwanda in the years 1980.
     1) What were the disadvantages of that system?
     2) Briefly explain how procurement, collection of taxes and fee payment 

    is done nowadays.

     6.6.1. E-procurement
     • Definition
     E-procurement is the buying and selling of goods and services using internet 
    through dedicated web applications. E procurement is designed to centralize 
    and automate interactions between organizations, customers and other parties 
    in the procurement so as to increase the speed and efficiency of this process 
    (procurement).
     • The benefits of e procurement include :
    – Automation of tasks which otherwise would be laborious. Those tasks 
    are like document management for purchase orders, evaluating and 
    selecting suppliers, storing supplier contracts, etc
    – The procuring process becomes less centralized meaning that both the 
    client and the procuring entity can view the status of the procurement 
    anywhere and anytime
    – Reduces the risk of corruption and document loss as every action done 
    in the procurement system is recorded. It is not possible for example to 
    remove a submitted file and pretend that it was not submitted but this 
    can be done in a paperbased procurement.
    • Procurement web application in Rwanda
     As many sectors are being computerized, procurement was not left behind. That 
    is why there is in place a system umucyo.gov.rw which is used in procurement 
    in order to make it quick and easy. The features of this system can be accessed 
    when the user is not logged but personified features are accessed when the 
    user is logged. When not logged one can have access to the list of procurement 

    plan both in the current financial year and the old financial years.

    6.6.2. E-tax
     In Rwanda, taxes are collected by Rwanda Revenue Authority while there are 
    also taxes collected at the local level. These taxes are collected using the RRA 
    website which is linked to an application to allow tax declaration. There is also a 
    Rwanda Trade Portal (rwandatrade.rw/) which is used to calculate import duties 
    and taxes. This application is connected to the Rwanda custom database which 

    makes it calculate accurately the taxes to be paid.

    6.6.3. E- payment--
     E-payment is a way of carrying out transactions or paying for goods and 
    services using an electronic medium without using the traditional way of 
    payment involving cash or check. This payment can be between people, 
    between people and institutions, between institutions.
     Inside the country the e-payment between people can be done using 
    MTN Mobile Money, Airtel Money or Tigo Cash. The e-payment from 
    institutions to people can be done using different application which 
    allows a depositing of money from the institution account to the people’s 
    accounts. For example the payment of salaries to public servants is done 

    using MINECOFIN system. 

    • Exercise: 
    Do a research on how public institutions pay their staff using e-payment means. 
    Your findings should include: the name of the system, the process of payment 

    and how to prevent fraud in the payments.

    • Characteristics of an e-payment system
     As E-payments systems are used for managing the payment of money, no error 
    is allowed. The main characteristics of an epayment system in order to prevent 
    errors to the maximum are the following :
    – Security:     Because e-payment systems involve actual money, it is more 
    likely that criminals will attack these systems. Therefore these system 
    must be protected against any cyber attack.
    – Reliability    : As more services adopt e-payment, all the life in a 
    country will depend on the e-payment systems. Therefore any problem 
    encountered by that system will greatly impact the whole country. This 
    explains why e-payment systems should be always available and should 
    not fail.
    – Scalability: The internet is growing rapidly and people migrating from 
    the old way of payment to e-payment increase rapidly. An e-payment 

    system must be able to accommodate an increase in number of people 

    using it and must not crash, be unavailable or lose its performance 
    because the number of transactions has increased. Therefore an 
    e-payment system must support the addition of infrastructure without 

    stopping the service.

    – Anonymity : There are transactions for which the identity of the parties 
    to the transaction should be protected. An e-payment system should 

    therefore allow this anonymity when it is needed.

     Application activity 6.6
     Visit the web applications that are used for procurement, tax calculation, 
    e-payment.
     3) What is the feature found in the e-procurement application?
     4) Describe what you can do when using the e-tax application. What are 
    its advantages compared to when there was not a web application to do it?
     5) Do a research and enumerate services in Rwanda which are paid 
    using e-payment systems. For each service show the system used.
     
    End of unit assessment 6
     1. Give examples of services that can be paid electronically in Rwanda
     2. Differentiate credit card and debit card?
     3. Discuss techniques you would use to get accurate search results 
    when searching using a search engine
     4. Discuss the advantages of using emails in carrying out communication
     Differentiate Cc and BCc as two options which are provided while 
    writing emails. 

    6. Explain the different e-commerce models

  • UNIT 7: INTRODUCTION TO WEB DESIGNING

    Introductory activity

     1. Analyses the following statement and decide which is true by 
     “T” and not true by “F”
     a) Today’s world, it is the rare person who has not had some 
        exposure to the Internet and the World-Wide Web.
    b) If you are buying a computer, make sure that it can be 
       connected to a wireless network.
    c) you will need to pay to get a connection in your house 
       which will allow you to access the internet.
    d) once you have an internet connection then you’ll need to 
       have an internet browser on your computer. This browser 
    allows you to browse websites.
     1. Do you know a web site?  the answer is yes, continue on next 
    questions if is no skep the next questions about website 
    2. State three names of websites you know
    3. Can you change or delete an information from a website? 
       Explain your answer. 
    4.Discuss on advantages and disadvantages of a website

    5. What is a home page on web site? 

    Activity 7.1

    What do you understand by the terms below?
     i) Internet 
    ii) Network
     iii) WWW
     iv) Web application
     v) Browser 
    vi) Web server 

    vii) Static web page and Dynamic web page

     1.1.1.Understanding web design

     Today’s world, it is the rare person who has not had some exposure to the 
    Internet and the World-Wide Web. Many people have not only used the Internet 
    but have also created web content in some form or other. Individual is using 
    websites to communicate company information and manage their projects. 

    People are now reconnecting with their friends and family members on social 
    media such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube etc.

    The purpose of this Unit, is to provide you with a brief introduction to web and 
    how to access and use it via a web browser and other basic concepts relating 
    to web designing such as website, web page, web application, static web page 

    and dynamic web page. 

     7.1.2.Key terms

    Web design is a process of designing and developing websites. Unlike web 
    development, which is mainly about functionality, web design includes aesthetics 
    and is concerned about the look-and-feel of the site as much as the functionality.
     
    The creative aspect of web design covers areas like web graphic design, user 
    experience design, interface design. Web designers work with tools like Sketch, 
    Figma, and Photoshop. The technical aspect covers front-end and back-end 

    development with tools and languages like HTML, CSS,etc.

    The Internet is a collection of computers around the world connected 
    to each other via a high-speed series of networks. The computers that 
    store the files are called servers because they can serve requests from 
    many users at the same time. Users access these HTML files and do

    cuments via applications called browsers

     A Web browser is a program that displays Web pages and other do
    cuments on the Web. Unfortunately, different browsers may interpret 
    the HTML of Web. There are a variety of browsers available but the 

    most popular are:

     • Internet Explorer (from Microsoft) 
    • Firefox (from Mozilla) 
    • Safari (from Apple) 
    • Chrome (from Google

     • Microsoft Edge (From Microsoft)

     Web page: Each single resource on the web is called a web page. A 
    web page is a document commonly written in HTML (Hypertext Markup 
    Language), is also called hypertext document containing more specific 
    information such as text, images, sound, video and so on; that is accessible
    through the internet or other networks using an internet browser    . 

    A     website is a collection of several web pages with information on a 
    subject that are connected together. Websites can be easily searched 
    using search engines like Google. The World Wide Web is made 

    of many websites and each is made of many webpages.

     A web application is a computer program that utilizes web browsers 
    and web technology to perform tasks over the Internet is stored on a 

    remote server/web server.

    The main difference between a web application and a website is given below:

    Web server: Is a computer that hosts a website on the Internet.

    Search engine: Is A web service that helps you find other web pages, 

    such as Google, Bing, Yahoo, or DuckDuckGo.

    World Wide Web: The term World Wide Web (WWW), usually 
    shortened to the “web” is a system of interlinked hypertext documents 

    accessed through the Internet. 

    Really the Internet is the system that facilitates the transfer of data and the web 
    is the data itself. The web is just one of the ways that data can be circulated 
    over the Internet.
     
    A dynamic web page website     is one whose displays different types 
    of content every time a user views it. This display changes depending 
    on a number of factors like viewer demographics, time of day, location, 

    language settings, and so on.

    A static webpage is one whose contents do not change, or at least do not 
    change quickly. A static page is one that is usually written in plain HTML 
    and what is in the code of the page is what is displayed to the user. These 
    are webpages that contain information that does not need to be updated. 
    They are always the same unless the content is changed physically on the 
    server’s hard disk. That is the reason these web pages are known as static 

    web pages.

    Application activity 7.1

     1. Discuss different characteristics of a website and a web application? 
    2. Define a web application and give two examples of web applications? 
    3. Among web application and web site, what is the advantageous? 
    Explain your answer. 
    4. With a comparison table, differentiate static web page to dynamic web page 
    5. Discuss reason why it is easier to update a dynamic web site 
    compared to a static website. 
    6. Is it very cheap to host static website in comparison with dynamic 

    website? Explain.

     1.1. Introduction to HTML

    Activity 7.2
    Using internet or other available resources, find the answers to the following 
    questions:
     1. Write in full the abbreviated terms bellows:
     2. WWW, HTML
     3.Explain what is www
     5.Discuss the importance of HTML
    6. Discuss and write an essay on how Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) 

    had evolved from 1991 to the current trends seen today.

     1.1.1.Definition of HTML
     HTML is the Standard Markup Language. It is the authoring language that 
    describes how a Web page should be displayed by a Web browser. It is used 
    for developing Web Pages.  Hypertext means when a visitor clicks a link on a 

    Web page, the visitor is led to another Web page or document.

    «Hypertext» refers to links that connect web pages to one another, either within a 
    single website or between websites. Links are a fundamental aspect of the Web. 

    HTML uses «    markup» to annotate text, images, and other content for display 
    in a Web browser. HTML markup includes special «elements/tags» such as 
    «heading», «paragraph», «table», and so on. This unit discusses various HTML 

    tags that are needed for developing web pages.

    Note: HTML is not a programming language, it is used to describe what 
    should appear in a web document/page. HTML is not run/executed, 
    it is parsed and transformed into Document Object Model (DOM) 
    objects by the client web browser, which the browser can then render. 
    Something like C++ is first put through a compiler then executed on 

    the machine.

     1.1.1.Evolution of HTML 
    The HTML was invented by Tim-Berners Lee, the founder of World Wide Web. 
    Lee’s original HTML version was based on a more complicated document 
    processing language known as Standard Generalized Markup Language 
    (SGML). Soon, Lee released different versions of HTML causing incompatibilities 
    between different developers using different versions. For this reason, the 

    following was done: 

    • A consortium known as World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was 
    established to standardize HTML. 
    • The first standard version of HTML that was developed and maintained 
    by W3C was HTML 2.0 released in 1995. It specifies a set of tags that 
    must be supported by all browsers.
     • In 1996, release of HTML 3.2 standard then later HTML 4.0 in 1997. 
    • Most web browsers today support variation of HTML known as 
    Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) that support mobile 
    web application too. Today, there is HTML5 which many browsers and 

    developers are using to develop web applications. 

    1.1.2.Some of the key advantages of learning HTML
    Create Web site: Someone can create a website or customize an 
    existing web template if he/she knows HTML well.
     Become a web designer: If someone wants to start a carrier as a 
    professional web designer, HTML and CSS designing is a must skill.
     Understand web: If someone wants to optimize the website, to boost 
    its speed and performance, it is good to know HTML to yield best results.

    Learn other languages:     Once the basic of HTML is understood then 
    other related technologies like JavaScript, php, or angular become easier to understand.
     
    Application activity 7.2
     1) HTML is not a programming language but can be thought of as a 
    presentation language. Explain.
     2) What is the difference between Hypertext and Hyperlink? 
    3) What are the particularities of XHTML over HTML 4.01?

     4) Discuss the advantages of HTML 5 comparing to the previous versions.

     1.2.HTML Syntax and HTML Page Structure
     Activity 7.3
     1. What is a HTML tag?
     2. Give the syntax of HTML tag
     3. What is the role of an attribute of a HTML tag?
     
    Before adding content to the document, there’s a need of basic structure to set 
    up in a file. This structure isn’t only required for document to be compliant but 
    will also allow to provide useful information about the document.

                                         HTML Syntax 

    Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents use the .html or .htm 
    extensions    . This extension allows a web browser or device such as a computer 
    or a smartphone to understand that HTML content is on the page, and the 
    content of the page is then rendered by the browser or device according to the 

    rules of HTML.

     HTML tags are element names surrounded by angle brackets or Less Than 
    and Greater Than symbol    s (< >). 
    Syntax: <tag_name>content goes here...</tag_name>
     Example: <title> My First page<title> 
    HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p> and </p>. The first tag in a pair is 
    the start tag, the second tag is the end tag. The end tag is written like the start 

    tag, but with a forward slash inserted before the tag name. 

    Note: The start tag is also called an opening tag and the end tag a closing 
    tag. For example, to instruct a browser to present text as a paragraph, use the 
    <p> opening and </p> closing tags as follows: <p> This is a new paragraph 

    separated from others by a blank line</p>

     1.1.1.HTML Page Structure
     An element called HTML surrounds the whole document. This element contains 
    two sub-elements which are Head and Body. These elements are required to 
    form any HTML document
     
    The Head contains the information about the HTML document like Title of the 
    page, version of HTML, Meta Data, etc while the Body contains everything to be 

    displayed on the Web Page.

    The basic structure of a HTML for every web page is shown below:

    Explanation of each of the tag used in the above piece of HTML code:
     <!DOCTYPE html>: This tag is used to tells the HTML 
    version. This currently tells that the version is HTML 5. 
    <html>: This is called HTML root element and used to wrap all the code. 
    <head>: Head tag contains metadata, title, page CSS etc. All the HTML 
    elements that can be used inside the <head> elements are: <style>, <title>, 
    <base>, <no script>, <script>, <meta> that contain meta information about 

    the document. 

    1.1.1.Elements and Attributes Tags
     Tags are comprised of elements and attributes. An element is an object on a 
    page such as a heading, paragraph, or image while attributes are qualities that 

    describe that element such as width and height.

    Example of element tags:


     An attribute is used to define the characteristics of an HTML element and is 
    placed inside the element’s opening tag. All attributes are made up of two parts 
    a name and a value. The name is the property to set while the value is what you 

    want the value of the property to be set and always put within quotations. 

    The example below shows three possible values of align attribute: left, 

    center and right.

    <p align = «left»>This is left aligned</p>
    <p align = «center»>This is center aligned</p>

    <p align = «right»>This is right aligned</p>

    Note: A few tags are called non-container tags, because they don’t contain 
    any content – they stand alone. Examples are images and line breaks. XHTML 
    is stricter than HTML, and requires that all open tags must be closed, even if 
    they’re not container tags. Therefore, non- container tags end in />. For example, 
    the tag for a line break is <br/>. HTML does not have this same requirement, 
    but it’s a good habit to get into in case you ever need to code in XHTML. Tags in 
    HTML are not case sensitive, but in XHTML all tags must be in lower case. Even 

    when coding in HTML, you should get in the habit of writing tags in lower case.

    Application activity 7.3

     1. Discuss the syntax of an HTML tag
     2. Define an attribute
     3. You are given the HTML statement below:
     <font color=»green»> Hello Rwanda </font>
     What is the function of:
     a) Color

     b) Green

    1.1.Tags that identify and name documents
    Activity 7.4

    1. Using Notepad text editor, write the following HTML code and save 

    the file as mypage.html then run the file in a browser.
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head> 
    <title>Identifying elements</title> 
    </head> 
    <body>
     <strong>Rwanda is known as a country of thousand hills! </strong> 
    <br>
     <mark>The development of Rwanda is based on its people</
     mark><br>
     <del>strong and mark are HTML tags that organize web page contents</
     del><br>
     </body> 
    </html>
     
    2.     Study carefully the output of above HTML code and answer the following 
    questions:
     1. What is the function of?
          <strong> tag?
          <mark> tag?
         <del>tag?

     Give any other 2 HTML tags that identify and name a document.

    TML language specification defines the markup that can be used to create 
    a webpage, the webpage author decides which elements they will use to 

    markup content. 

    Basic HTML Headings
     Heading tags are used in the body section to define section headings that stand out 
    from the rest of the text. HTML provided six levels of section headings i.e. (Size of 

    H6<H5<H4<H3<H2<H1)

    The figure above shows how the headings appear when displayed on a browser 
    such as chrome or Mozilla Firefox.

     1.1.1.Basic HTML Paragraphs and style
     A paragraph always starts on a new line, and browsers automatically add some 
    white space (a margin) before and after a paragraph.
    <p>This is a paragraph. </p>
     <p>This is another paragraph. </p>
     The HTML style attribute is used to add styles to an element, such as color, 
    font, size, and more.
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <body>
     <p>I am normal</p>

     <p style=»color:red;»>I am red</p>

    <p style=»color:blue;»>I am blue</p>
     <p style=»font-size:50px;»>I am big</p>
     </body>
     </html>

    The figure below shows how the Paragraph and style appear when displayed on 

    a browser such as chrome or Mozilla Firefox

     1.1.1.The appearance: Formatting Elements
     A document heading may be created by making text larger, bold and with a 
    different color. Presentational markup for such a heading may look like this: 
    <p> 
    < font size=”36” color=” red” > <b>ICT is a key of development </b> 
    </font> </p> 

    Formatting elements were designed to display special     types of text: 

    The table below shows html text formatting elements:

     UP TO HERE
     Example: The HTML document below shows how to use formatting HTML 
    elements
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head> 
    <title>Formatting elements</title> 
    </head> 
    <body>
     <mark><b>Rwanda has 4 provinces and Kigali City</b></mark> <br>
     <strong>Kigali City has 3 districts</strong><sup> which ones? </sup><br>
     <del>Kigali Convention Center is in Nyarugenge district</del><br>
     <ins>Thank you! </ins>
     </body> 

    </html>

     1.1.1.HTML images
     One of the most compelling features of latest HTML standard is the ability to 
    embed images that make a website more attractive. The three types of images 
    supported by HTML4 are GIF (Graphics Interchange Format), JPEG (Joint 
    Photographic Experts Group) and PNG (Portable Network Graphics). To insert 
    an image onto a web page, use the <img> tag; img is an abbreviation of the 
    word image. The <img> is an empty tag does not require a corresponding 
    closing tag. The general syntax for inserting a graphical object or image is: 
    <img src=”Image URL” ... attributes-list/> 

    The     src in the img tag is an important attribute that specifies the location 

    (source) or URL of the image to insert onto the page. 

    For example, the following HTML code displays an image called Volcano:
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head>
     <title> Visit Rwanda </title>
     </head>
     <body> 
    <p><Strong><font color=»red» size=48>
     Visit Volcanoes National Park</font></strong></p>
     <center><img src=»volcano.png»alt=»Gorilla in Rwanda» />
     </center>
     </body>
     </html>

    The HTML document above produces the following output:

     NB: use of the alt attribute is a good practice to specify alternate text for an 
    image, if the browser cannot display or locate the image. 

    1.1.1.Setting Image size 
    It is possible to specify the size using width and height attributes. The two 
    attributes set width and height of the image in terms of pixels or percentage of 
    its actual size. For example, to set the size of the volcano.png to occupy quarter 
    of the screen, use: 

    <img src=”volcano.png” width = “ 80%” height=”90%”alt=”Gorilla in Rwanda” 
    /> 
    1.1.1.Image Alignment 
    The <img> tag uses the align attribute to align an image on top, bottom, left or 
    right of the browser window. For example, to align the volcano.png on top of the 
    page, use align attribute as follows: 
    <img src=”volcano.png” align=” top”alt=”Gorilla in Rwanda” /> 
    Notice: with HTML it is possible to set page background color; bgcolor 
    attribute is used within body element.
     
    For example, the following html code explains how bgcolor attribute is used 
    while setting yellow color as the page background.
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
    <head>
     <title>MY First page</title> 
    </head>
     <body bgcolor=»Orange»>
     <h1><font color=»red» size=»72»>Background Color of this page is 
    Orange!!</h1> 
    </body>
     </html>

     The above html document displays the following web page in a browser:

    Application activity 7.4

    1. Using heading, paragraph, font and image elements create a page 
    that briefly describes a topic that you would like to cover in your 

    small website. The website should contain information such as: 

    a) Institution Descriptions, 
    b) Mission 
    c) Vision
    d) Institution Logo. 
    2. Discuss the function of the following attributes in <font> tag: 
    a) Color attribute 
    b) Size attribute 

    3. Explain the role of src, alt, and align attributes within <img>tag

    1.1Organize web page contents using HTML tag and hyperlinks

    Activity 7.5

    1. Type and execute the HTML code below, observe the output and 
    explain the way page content is organized. 
       <! DOCTYPE html>
     <html> 
    <head>
     <title>list</title> 
    </head> 
    <body bgcolor=»yellow»>
     <p><Strong> The most common colour names are </strong></p>
     <ol > 
     <li>Red. </li>
     <li>Orange. </li>
     <li>Yellow. </li>
     <li>Green. </li>
     <li>Cyan. </li>
     <li>Blue. </li>
     <li>Magenta. </li>
     <li>Purple. </li>
     </ol>
     </body>
     </html>

     Observe the following list of items and give its type

    Activity 7.5


     1. How do you call a list which is written inside another list?

     2. Using HTML code, write the above list

    This section discuss, some HTML elements that describe the structure and 
    organize web contents. The information can be displayed in numbered or 
    bulleted list. HTML supports three types of lists namely ordered list, unordered 

    list, and definition list.

    Ordered <ol> list is a container for enumerated items ordered using numbers such as
    1, 2, 3.
    Unordered list <ul> is a collection of related items that have no special 

    order or sequence. 

    Definition list <dl> is used for definitions such as glossaries that pair 

    each label with some kind of description.

    1.1.1.Creating ordered list 
     To create an ordered list, use the <ol>...</ol> tags within which to include one 

    or more <li>...</li> (list item) tags. 

    Example: 
    <!DOCTYPE html> 
    <html>
    <head> 
    <title>Numbered List</title> 
    </head> 

    <body bgcolor=cyan>

    <p><Strong><font color=”blue” size=6 face=»Cooper»> 
    Easter African Community (EAC) has 6 Partner States:</font></strong></
     p> 
    <ol> 
    <li>Rwanda</li> 
    <li>Uganda</li> 
    <li>Burundi </li> 
    <li>Kenya</li> 
    <li>Tanzania</li> 
    <li>South Sudan</li> 
    </ol> 
    </body> 
    </html>
     The figure below shows the ordered list of 6 <li> Countries after displaying the 

    page on a browser:

     It is possible to customize the numbering style of an ordered list using the type 
    attributes as follows: 
    <ol type = “counter-type”>....</ol> 
    <ol type = “a”> ...</ol> 
    <ol type = “i”> ...</ol>  
    Examples: using above html document change only “<ol> “replaced by <ol type 
    =”I”>

     The page on a browser automatic changed as below:

     1.1.2Creating unordered list 
    Unordered list is similar to ordered list only that the items are listed using bullets. 
    To create unordered list, use <ul>...</ul> instead of <ol>..</ol> element 
    Example: 
    <!DOCTYPE html> 
    <html> 
    <head> 
    <title>bulleted List</title> 
    </head> 
    <body bgcolor=pink> 
    <p><Strong><font color=»red» size=6 face=»Cooper»> 
    Easter African Community (EAC) has 6 Partner States:</font></strong></
     p>
    <ul> 
    <li>Rwanda</li> 
    <li>Uganda</li> 
    <li>Burundi </li> 
    <li>Kenya</li>
    <li>Tanzania</li> 
    <li>South Sudan</li> 
    </ul>
    </body> 
    </html> 
    The figure below shows the unordered list of 6 Countries after displaying the 

    page on a browser:

    Unordered list: It is possible to customize unordered lists using type 
    attribute and values that denote bullet types such as disc, square, or 
    circle. For example, to change the bullets displayed in above figure 
    from round to square, use the following syntax: 

    <ul type = “bullet-type”>....</ul> 

    For example, to display unordered list shown in figure above as a square, bullets, 
    use the style attribute for example like <ul type = “square”> ..</ul>  in above 

    html  document; Then Page on browser will be change as follow: 

     1.1.1.Creating definition list
     A definition list is used to present a glossary of terms, or other definition lists like 

    Dictionary and encyclopedia. To create a definition list, use <dl> ...</dl> 
    element in which you place <dt> ... </dt> to mark up the term and <dd> ... </ 

    dd> to mark up the definition part. 

    Therefore, a definition list consists of the following parts: 
    • <dl> - Defines the start of the list 
    • <dt> - A term 
    • <dd> - Term definition 
    • </dl> - Defines the end of the list 
    For example, the following HTML document shows a definition list of four terms:
     <!DOCTYPE 
    <!DOCTYPE html> 
    <html> 
    <head> 
    <title>Definition list </title> 
    </head> 
    <body> 
    <dl> 
    <dt><b>ICT </b></dt> 
    <dd>ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology</dd> 
    <dt><b>HTML</b></dt> 
    <dd> HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language</dd> 
    <dt><b>JPEG</b></dt>
    <dd>JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group</dd> 
    <dt><b>CSS</b></dt> 
    <dt><b>CSS</b></dt> 
    </dl> 
    </body> 

    </html>

     1.1.1.Creating nested lists
     To create a nested list, put the entire list structure inside another list
        Example:
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head>
     <title>sample Nested List </title>
     </head>
     <body>
     <p><Strong><font color=»blue»size=48> 
    HTML-BASED WEB</font></strong></p> 
     <ol>
     <li>World wide web</li>
     <li>Organization</li>
     <li>Introduction to HTML</li>
    <li>
     <ul>
     <li>Definition of HTML</li>
     <li> HTML Syntax</li>

     <li>Doc structure</li>

     <li>Headings</li>
     <li>Paragraphs</li>
     <li>HTML Comments</li>
     </ul>
     </li>
     <li>Hyperlinks</li>
     <li>Advanced HTML</li>
     </ol>
     </body>

     </html>

    Application activity 7.5

    Study the following HTML document and answer related questions: 
    <! DOCTYPE html> 
    <html> 
    <head> 
    <title>list</title> 
    </head> 
    <body bgcolor=”yellow”> 
    <p><Strong> Fruits Menu:</strong></p> 
    <ul > 
    <li>Orange</li>
     <li>Banana</li>
     <li>Guava</li>
     <li>Mango</li>
     </ul> 
    </body> 

    </html> 

    1. Write and execute the above html code then specify the type of a list 
    2. Write the same html code and change it into ordered list using capital letter types.
    3. Give a clear difference between:
     i. Definition and Nested list
     ii. <dt>…</dt> and <dd>…</dd> tags
     4. Study the following web page and write its HTML code which dis

    plays it into browser.

    1.1.HTML Frame and table Tags 

    Activity 7.6

     1. By searching from internet, differentiate Frame and table

     2. Write HTML code that display the below table


    HTML frames are used to divide the the browser window into multiple sections 
    where each section can load a separate HTML document. A collection of frames 
    in the browser window is known as a frameset. The window is divided into 

    frames in a similar way the tables are organized: into rows and columns.

    1.1.2.Creating Frames 
    To use frames on a page we use tag instead of  tag. The tag defines how to 

    divide the window into frames. 

    • The rows attribute of tag defines horizontal frames.
    • the cols attribute defines vertical frames. Each frame is indicated by 

    tag and it defines which HTML document shall open into the frame.

    <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head>
    <title>HTML Frames</title>
    </head>
    <frameset rows=»25%,50%,25%»>
     <frame name=»top» src=»Nested list.html» />
     <frame name=»main» src=»Page color.html» />
     <frame name=»bottom» src=»Ordered list.html» />
     <noframes>
    <body>
     Your browser does not support frames.
     </body>
     </noframes>

     </frameset></html>

    1.1.1.Creating Frames

    Let’s put above example as follows, here rows attribute was replaced by columns 
    and changed their width. This will create all the three frames vertically:
     <!DOCTYPE html>
    <html>
     <head>
     <title>HTML Frames</title>
     </head>
     <frameset cols=»25%,50%,25%»>
     <frame name=»left» src=»Nested list.html» />
     <frame name=»center» src=»Page color.html» />
     <frame name=»right» src=»Ordered list.html» />
     <noframes>
     <body>
    Your browser does not support frames.
     </body>
     </noframes>

     </frameset> </html>

     1.1.1.HTML Table tags

    Tables are used to organize data such as numbers, text, links and images into 
    rows and columns. An intersection of a row and a column forms data cell in 
    which table data is held. The HTML tables are created using the <table> tag in 
    which the <tr> tag is used to create table rows and <td> tag is used to create 
    data cells. The elements under <td> are regular and left aligned by default. 
    Before creating a table, consider the following table-features: 

    Caption:     indicates the type of data presented in the table <caption>…</caption>
     headings: the row that indicate the data displayed in each column 
    <th> ...</th>

     Cells intersection of rows and columns in which we insert data . 

    <!DOCTYPE html> 

    <html>

    <head> 

    <title>Table </title> 

    </head> 

    <body> 

    <table border=”2” cellpadding=»10» cellspacing=»3»> 

    <Caption><b>Hotel Employee’S Information</b></caption> 

    <tr> 

    <th>Employee Name</th> 

    <th>Depertment</th> 

    <th>Salary</th> 

    </tr> 

    <tr> 

    <td>MUTWARASIBO</td> 

    <td>Finance </td> 

    <td>250000</td> 

    </tr> 

    <tr> 

    <td>KIZERE</td> 

    <td>Marketing</td>

     <td>200000</td> 

    </tr> 

    <tr> 

    <td>UWIHANGANYE</td> 

    <td>Information Technology </td> 

    <td>400000</td> 

    </tr> 

    </table> 

    </body> </html>

    The HTML document above produces the following table:

    a) Define or format a HTML table
    The following are basic attributes used to define or format a HTML table: 
    Border Attribute: Numeric values that specify thickness of the border 
    that surrounds all the table cells. If 0 is used, the border is invisible while. 
    Example <table border=”2” > 
    Height and Width attributes 
    To set the size of the table, use width and height attributes. For example, 

    the statement below sets the table size to width of 400 pixels and height of 
    150 pixels. 

    <table border=”2” width=”400” height=”150”> 

    Cellpadding Attribute    : Specifies the space, in pixels, between the 
    cell wall and the cell content. 

    cellspacing attribute:     which specifies the space between cells.
     Syntax:  <table cellpadding=”pixels”>

     a) Table Caption 

    Colspan attribute: Specifies the number of columns a cell should 
    span. It allows the single table cell to span the width of more than one 
    cell or column. It provides the same functionality as “merge cell” in the 
    spreadsheet program like Excel. It can be used with <td> and <th> 
    element while creating a HTML table. 

    Syntax:  <td colspan =”    value”> table content...</td> 

    <th>:     The colspan attribute when used with <th> tag determines the 
    number of header cells it should span. 
    Syntax: <th cospan =”value”> table content...</th> 

    The     value specifies the number of columns that the cell fills. The value 
    must be an integer 

    Rowspan attribute: Specifies the number of rows a cell should 
    span. That is if a row spans two rows, it means it will take up the space 
    of two rows in that table. It allows the single table cell to span the 
    height of more than one cell or row. It provides the same functionality 
    as “merge cell” in the spreadsheet program like Excel.  It can be used 
    with <td> and <th> element in a HTML table. 

    <td>: The rowspan attribute when used with <td> tag determines the 

    number of standard cells it should span. Syntax:

     <td rowspan = «value»> table content...</td>
     The value specifies the number of rows that the cell fills. The value must 
    be an integer.
     <th>: The rowspan attribute when used with <th> tag determines the 
    number of header cells it should span.  Syntax:
     <th rowspan = «value»>table content...</th>
     The value specifies the number of rows that the cell fills. The value must 

    be a integer.

     Example: The following HTML code explains how to use HTML table attribute discussed above:
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head>
     <title>Table attributes </title> 
    </head>
     <body>
     <table border=»4» cellpadding=»3» cellspacing=»3» 
    width=»400»height=»200»> 
      <Caption><b>School Administration report</b></caption>
     <tr>
     <th colspan=6>Number of  school Administrators</th>
     </tr>
     <tr>
     <th colspan=2>Teacher</th>
     <th colspan=2>Officers</th>
     <th colspan=2>Total number</th>
     </tr>
     <tr>
     <th>Male</th>
     <th>Female</th>
     <th>Male</th> 
     <th>Female</th>
     <th rowspan=»2»>40</th>
     </tr> 
    <tr>
     <td>19</td>
     <td>7</td>
     <td>4</td> 
     <td>10</td>
     </tr>
     </table> 
    </body> 

    </html>

     The above HTML code produces the output below:

    Application activity 7.6

     1. Discuss the use of the following tags and attributes:
     a. <Frameset> tag
     b. <Caption> tag
     c. Colspan attribute
     d. <Th> tag
     1. Create an html document which create a web page with three 
    frames named: «Top_Frames «,»Main_Frames «,and»Bottom_ Frame».

    1.1.HTML Forms
    Activity 7.7
     A website is developed with different pages; the page below is created 

    using HTML language. Observe it and answer related questions.

     1. What do you understand a HTML form? 
    2. What is the use of HTML form? 

    3. . Use HTML code to produce the above page

     A person may need to gather information such as student’s details and store 
    such information in the server. The most common method for gathering such 

    information is by using a form. 

    1.1.1.Form Attributes 


    Html Form elements 
    The most common controls include:  text, text area, select, radio buttons, 
    checkboxes, file select, command button and reset buttons.

     

    Let see the use of every form element and basic form attributes

     i) The <input> Element
     An <input> element can be displayed in many ways, depending on the type attributes. 

    Here are some examples:

    Text Input Controls

     There are three types of text input used on forms 
    Single-line text input controls  This control is used for items that 
    require only one line of user input, such as search boxes or names. They 

    are created using HTML <input> tag


     Password input controls  This is also a single-line text input but it masks 
    the character as soon as a user enters it. They are also created using HTMl 

    <input> tag  but type attribute is set to password. Example

     Multi-line text input controls  This is used when the user is required to give 
    details that may be longer than a single sentence. Multi-line input controls are 
    created using HTML <textarea> tag.  The attributes used with textarea tag 

    are: name, rows, and cols.

     Checkbox
     Checkboxes are used when more than one option is required to be selected. They 
    are also created using HTML <input> tag but type attribute is set to checkbox 
    value as shown by the following statements:
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <HTML>
     <HEAD><TITLE>Checkbox</TITLE>
     </HEAD>
     <BODY>
     <P><Strong><font color=»green» size=36>Choose your favorite games</
    font></strong></p> 
    <form> 
    <p><input type=»checkbox» name=»game» checked=»checked»> Football 
    </p> <p><input type=»checkbox» name=»game» > Basketball <p>
     <p><input type=»checkbox» name=»game» > Volley Ball<p>
    <p><input type=»checkbox» name=»game» > Net Ball<p>
     </form> 
    </BODY>

     </HTML>

    Radio button
     Radio buttons let a user select ONLY ONE of a limited number of choices.
     <input type=»radio»> defines a radio button. Example:
     <!DOCTYPE html>
     <HTML>
     <HEAD><TITLE>radio buttons</TITLE>
     </HEAD>
     <BODY>
     <P><Strong><font color=»purple» size=36>Select your subject</
     font></strong></p> 
    <form> 
    <input type=»radio»name=»sex» value=»physics»checke
    d=»checked» > Math </br>
     <input type=»radio»name=»sex» value=»Math»»>Physics </br>
     <input type=»radio»name=»sex» value=»Accounting»»>Accounting 
    </br>
     </form> 
    </BODY>
    </HTML>

     The HTML code above will be displayed in a browser as follows:

    Select Box Control/ (Drop-Down List)
     The select control also known as dropdown box provides the user with various 
    options in form of drop-down list, from which a user can select one or more 
    options. For example, the following select defines a dropdown for selecting only 
    one option:
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <HTML>
     <HEAD><TITLE>Dropdown list</TITLE>
     </HEAD>
     <BODY>
     <P><Strong><font color=»Orange» size=36>
     Select your residence province:</font></strong></p> 
    <form> 
    <select name=»dropdown»>
     <option value=»Kigali» selected>Kigali City</option>
     <option value=»South»>South Province</option>
     <option value=»North»>North Province</option>
     <option value=»Easter»>East Province</option>
     <option value=»West»>West Province</option>
     </select>
     </form> 
    </BODY>
     </HTML>

     The HTML document above produces the following webpage:

    When you click on drop down arrow of a box, it will be as follow


    Submit and Reset Button
     Submit input type used to create a button that automatically submits form 
    data to web server. On the other hand, reset is used to refresh (reset) form 
    controls to their default values. The following statements creates submit and 
    reset buttons with values set to Send and Reset respectively:


    This is how the HTML code above will be displayed in a browser:


     The following is a HTML document that implements input text box, input 
    password box, checkbox, radio buttons, select, text area and action buttons 

    (Submit and Reset)

    <!DOCTYPE html>
     <HTML>
     <HEAD><TITLE>Detailed_form page</TITLE>
     </HEAD>
     <BODY bgcolor=pink>
     <h2><Font color=»green» size=6>Please provide your registration details 
    </font></h2>
     <form action=»register.php»method=»post»>
     <p><b>Your first name:</b><input type=»text» name=»first»size=20></p>
     <p><b>Your second name:</b><input type=»text» name=»second»size=20></
     p>
     <p><b>Your username:</b><input type=»text» name=»mail»size=13></p>
     <p><b>Your password:</b><input type=»password» name=»pass»size=10 
    ></p>
     <p></u><b>choose your interested subjects:</b></u></p>
     <input type=»checkbox» name=»check»checked=»checked»>Accounting
     <br>
     <input type=»checkbox» name=»check»>Biology<br>
     <input type=»checkbox» name=»check»>Physiscs<br>
     <input type=»checkbox» name=»check»>Chemistry<br>
     <input type=»checkbox» name=»check»checked=»checked»> Fundamentals of 
    Nursing
     <p></u><b>Select your sex:</b></u></p>
     <input type=»radio»name=»sex» value=»male»checked=»checked» > Male 
    <input type=»radio»name=»sex» value=»female»»>Female 
    <p></u><b>Select your residence district:</b></u>
     <select name=»dropdown»>
     <option value=»Gasabo» selected>Gasabo District</option>
     <option value=»Nyarugenge»>Nyarugenge District</option>
     <option value=»Kicukiro»>Kicukiro District</option>
     </select></p>
     <p><b>Comments:</b><br>
     <textarea rows=»3»cols=»15»name=»comment»></textarea>
     </p>
     <p><b>If you have provided all required information click 
    <input type=»submit»name=»submit» value=»Send» /></p>
     <p><b>If you want to reset your form click     
    <input type=»reset»name=»reset» value=»Clear» /></p>
     </form>
     </body>

     </html>

    The above HTML document produces the following web page:

    Notice: It is possible to organize the HTML form elements using a table so that 

    they can be well arranged.

    For example, HTML document below explains how you can insert an html 
    form in a table:
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <html>
     <head> 
    <title> Registration</title> 
    </head> 
    <body>
     <center>
     <h1> <font color=»blue»>Please provide the following details</
     font></h1>
     <table><form Action= «register.php» Method= «get» >
     <tr><td>First Name:</td> <td><input type= «text» name= 
    «FName» size=»15»></td></tr>
     <tr><td>Last Name:</td> <td><input type= «text» name= 
    «lname»size=»15»></td></tr>
     <tr><td>Nationality:</td> <td> <input type=»text»name= 
    «country» size=»25»></td></tr> 
    <tr><td>Phone:</td> <td> <input type= «text» name= «phone» 
    size=»15»></td></tr> 
    <tr><td><input type=»checkbox» name=»subjects» checke
    d=»checked»></td> <td> Computer Science</td></tr>
     <tr><td><input type=»checkbox» name=»subjects» ></td> <td> 
    Physics</td></tr> 
    <tr><td><input type=»checkbox» name=»subjects» ></td> <td> 
    Economics</td></tr> 
    <tr><td><select name=»dropdown»> <option value=»maths» se
    lected>Mathematics</option>
     <option value=»computer»>Computer Science</option> </se
    lect> </td></tr>
     <tr><td>Comments:</td> <td> <textarea rows=»3»cols=»10»
    name=»comment»> </textarea></td></tr> 
    <tr><td><input type=»submit» name=»submit» value=»Send»></
     td></tr> </form></table> 
    </center>
     </body>

     </html>

    The HTML code above displays the following page in a browser:

    Application activity 7.7
     1. Explain the following HTML tag and attributes:
     a. Action attribute
     b. Method attribute
     c. Text area tag
     2. Write the syntax of select HTML tag

     3. Write the HTML code that displays the form below:

    1.1.Creation of links

    Activity 7.8

     1. A website is a collection of several web pages with 
    information on a subject that are connected (linked) 
    together. What do you understand by a link?
     2. What is difference between internal and external link?

    A hyperlink is a text, phrase or image that is clicked on in order to go to another 
    web page or a section within the current page or to another website. In most 
    browsers, hyperlinks are often in blue and underlined. 

    a) HTML Links – Syntax 
    To create a hyperlink, use the anchor element: <a>...</a>. The <a> tag is 
    called an anchor tag because it is used to create anchors for hyperlinks. 
    <a href=”url”>link text</a> 
    Example    : 
    <a href=”http://www.irembo.gov.rw”>Irembo Official Website</a> 
    The href (Hypertext Reference) attribute specifies the destination address 
    (http://www.irembo.gov.rw”). The link text is the visible part (Irembo Official 
    Website)    . Clicking on the link text, will send the page visitor to the specified 
    address. 

    a) Local Links     
    The example above used an absolute URL (A full web address). 
    A local (internal) link (link to the same web site) is specified with a relative URL 
    (without http://www....). 

    The following code shows how to add text-based hyperlink into a HTML page:

    <!DOCTYPE html> 
    <html> 
    <head> 
    <title>Hyperlink page</title> 
    </head> 
    <body bgcolor=black> 
    <p><font color=»orange» size=”20”> For getting more information 
    Click following link: 
    </font></p> 
    <a href=»http://www.igihe.com»>Visit Tutorial Site</a> 
    </body> 

    </html>

     The figure below shows how the link is displayed on the browser

    In most browsers, a hyperlink is an underlined text and blue in color. In our case, 
    once the visitor clicks on the link, he or she is taken to the web page of the 

    tutorial site as long as it is a valid URL.

     Example 2:
    Example 2:
     <! DOCTYPE html>
     <html> 
    <head>
     <title>Hyperlink page</title>
     </head>
     <body>
     <p><font color=»black» size=»3» face=»Goudy Stout»> Click following link 
    for more information:
     </font></p> 
    <a href=»Occupied-form.html»>click here</a>
     </body>

     </html>

    Output of above html code:


    The click here hyperlink fall on the following frame.html page:


    Application activity 7.8

     1. Define the following terms:
     a. Hyperlink
     b. Hypertext
     c. Href attribute
    2. What do you understand by a local link?
     3. Explain this statement: <a href=»photo.html»> image link</a>
     4. Create two static web pages and hyperlink called “next” which 

    links them

    1.1.Back-end vs Front end

    Activity 7.9

    With research on internet, discuss the difference between Front end and 

    Back end in the web site design and development process.

    Database systems are comprised of a Front End and Back End. The Back End 
    has the tables that stores data, including the relationships between the tables, 
    data queries and other behind the scenes technology that accepts information 
    from and displays information to the user via the Front End.

         For example, when someone is  requesting for a birth certificate through Irembo 
    there is a number of information provided through different forms and that 

    information is kept in the Irembo database tables.

     The front end is the part of the website, users can see and interact with. Back 
    end, on the contrary, is the part of the website users cannot see and interact 
    with.
     
    Front end development is programming which focuses on the coding and 
    creation of the visual elements of a website or app that a user will interact with 
    (the client side). In contrast to front end development, back-end development 

    focuses on the side of the website users can’t see.

    The back end can also be referred to as the “server side” of a website. As an 
    example, let’s say that someone is running a social media website. he/ she 
    needs an accessible place to store all of users’ information. This storage center 
    is called a database and a few widely used examples include Oracle, SQL 
    Server, and MySQL. 

    Databases are run from a server, which is essentially a remote computer. A 
    back-end developer will help manage this database and the site contents stored 
    on it. This ensures that front end elements on social media website can continue 
    to function properly as users browse uploaded content and other user profiles.  

    Note:     
    • The front end can be created using Visual Basic, HTML, programming languages
     The user at the front end of a system does not need to know how data is stored 
    and how it is modified or retrieved.
     • The Back ends can be built using different Relational Database 
    Management Systems such as Microsoft Access, SQL Server, Oracle etc.
     • Front end developers build elements like: 
    Buttons
     Layouts
     Navigation
     Images 
    Graphics
     Animations
     Content organization 
    • Back-end web developers work on tasks like: 
    Building code
    Troubleshooting and debugging web applications
    Database management 
     Framework utilization

    Application activity 7.9
     1. What is difference between Front end and back-end development
     2. Discuss different types of software used in:
     o Front end development
     o Back-end development
     3. Describe tasks done in Front end and Back-end development

    End of unit assessment 7
    1. Define the terms below:
     a. Web site
     b. Web application
     c. Web server
     2. Differentiate between internet and web.
     3. A program, such as Mozilla Firefox that lets a user display HT
    ML-developed web pages is referred to as …………….
     4. Discuss three key factors that a web developer should consider 
    before developing a website
     5. Explain four types of image formats that can be inserted into a web page
     6. Write sample HTML statements to demonstrate how to insert the 
    following:
     a. An image of a car
     b. Page with four horizontal frames
     c. Table of 5 rows and 8 columns
     7. Explain statement: <form action =»login.php» method=»post»>
    8. Differentiate between GET and POST methods used to send form 
    content to a web server.
     9 Explain at least four types of controls that are used to create a form object.
     10. Differentiate between Hypertext and hyperlink.
     11. Giving examples, explain three restrictions that were imposed by 

    XHTML that have been relaxed in HTML5.

  • UNIT 8 :ICT TOOLS IN ACCOUNTING

     Introductory activity

     Kamali’s grandfather worked in a bank in 1980. He narrates that at that time 
    when a customer came to the bank, a bank staff had to get his/her booklet, 
    locate his/her information sheet which was kept in a box with other clients’ 
    information sheets and bring it to the teller. When a transaction was done 
    the information about that transaction was kept both in the booklet and the 
    customer information sheet. The teller had to count the money by hand and 
    give it to the customer. The bank’s staff had then to take back the customer 
    information sheet and put it again in its appropriate place.
     Visit the nearest bank of your home or school, and request to branch 

    manager some information about:

     a. How the bank process was done in the years 1980

    b. What are the dangers presented in that banking process stated in question 1?

    c. What are the common ICT tools used at banks in these days?
    d. How the current banking system corrected the problems that 
    were in the old banking system.

    8.1 Counting machines
    Activity 8.1
      Kamanzi is a company owner whose activities are carried out in East Africa 
    and China. At the end of the day the company’s headquarter have to count 
    the received money and deposit it to the company’s accounts.
     1) If at the end of the day this company has hundreds of millions to 
    count, what are the tools that they will use to ease this task?
     
    2) State the process of using the tool given in questions 1)
    3) Give at least the parts of the tool you have given.
     
    A counting machine or more precisely a currency counting machine is a machine 
    that counts money. They are in different types namely bank note only counters, 
    banknote and coin counters, coin sorters, coin counters. All these machines 
    have many advantages including among others saving time and resources, 
    fighting counterfeited notes, increased accuracy in accounting and facilitating 

    the keeping book of accounts.

     8.1.1.Banknotes only counters
     These are devices which can count bank notes only. Most of the counters need 
    to be fed with sorted notes for counting to be properly done meaning that they 
    can count only same value bills at the same time. However more advanced 
    counters can identify different bill and provide a total currency value of mixed 

    banknotes, including those that are upside down. 

    NB: There are devices which can count both coins and banknotes. These are 
    called Banknotes and coins counters.
     
    A    . Parts of a banknote counter
     Apart from the external frame, a banknote counter has different part which are 

    seen from outside of which are not visible as they are encased inside.

     B. Using a counter
     A billing machine is used in the following process :
     • The billing machine has first to be plugged to the power source using 
    its powercable then switched on. If the billing machine has a battery, it 
    can be operated without being plugged to the power source.
     • Select the function that the counter will perform
     • Place the bank notes in the appropriate tray
     • Press the start button for the counting operation to start

    i). Some of a counter’s functions
     A counter has functions which facilitate how it is utilized by a user. Some of the 
    basic functions are:

     Currency Code:     After the machine is turned on, the currency kind is displayed 
    on the screen. To change the current currency press “CURRENCY” key to 
    choose a new currency.
     
    Counting Mode: There are different counting mode which are selected by 
    pressing the MODE button. One example of counting is batch in which the user 
    specifies the number of notes to count say 100 notes.

     ii). Counter basic maintenance 
    A counter may have slight problems that don’t need deep competences in order 
    to sort them out. Those problems can be prevented in this way:
     • Clean regularly the counter for optimal performance. This cleaning 
    includes that of the hopper and stacker which has to be done using a brush
    • Clean the banknote pathway using a soft brush or a dry soft lint free cloth 
    • Occurrence of error during banknotes counting can be solved by doing 
    one of these depending on the kind of error: Removing the banknote, 

    cleaning the counter’s sensors.

    8.1.2.Coin sorters and coin counters
     Coin sorters are devices used to arrange coins into separate groups according 
    to their denominations. These devices are commonly specific for coins of specific 
    countries as the size of coins may vary depending on countries. Some sorters 
    have screens which show the number of the coins that passed through it.
     
    As its name suggest, a coin counter on the other hand is used to count the value 
    of coins. However some of these devices both sort and count coins at the same 
    time or count only presorted coins that are all the same size. Most counters use 
    bowl with flat spinning disks at the bottom of the bowl to distribute the coins 
    around the bowl perimeter. At the bottom of that bowl there is an opening which 
    allows the passing of one coin at a time. These coins then pass through a light 
    beam counter or are pushed through a spring loaded cam that accepts only one 

    coin at a time.

    Application activity 8.1
     1) What is a banknotes counter?
     2) What are the different parts of a banknotes counter?
     3) By doing a research identify the internal parts of a banknote only counter
     4) By doing a research on the internet find at least 5 different banknotes 
    counters and their specifications. The specifications should at least 

    include the counting speed, hopper capacity, stacker capacity, weight.

    8.2.3 Billing machines

    Activity 8.2
     Isimbi, a student in was doing a research about billing machines used in 
    Rwanda. She visited one supermarket to ask questions to the owner, clients 
    and the supermarket staff. Suggest the answers she will get about the 
    following questions:
     1) Which machines are used to make bills in a supermarket?
     2) How does the supermarket staff proceed in order to make a bill for 
    a customer?
     3) Which type of information is found on a bill?
     4) What are the advantages of the billing system in a supermarket in 
    regard to:
     a) Stock management?

     b) Paying taxes?

    These are machines that are used in entering in a system of customer information 

    and purchased goods so as to come up with invoices or bills. 

    For these machines to print bills they use a thermal printing process by which 
    images are produced by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper when 
    it passes over the thermal print head. The coating becomes black in the areas 
    where it is heated, producing an image. Two-color direct thermal printers can 
    print both black and an additional color (often red) by applying heat at two 
    different temperatures. 

    Bill printers print by direct contact between the thermal head which generates 
    heat and thermal paper which is thermally coated to be sensitive to heat. The 
    paper rolls available are sensitive to the heat and thus when the heat is produced 
    it can easily initiate the process of printing. It can print more than just a single 
    color by setting the printer to different temperatures. 

    The world is becoming more digital and this require that stores acquire billing 
    machines as every business is required to issue receipts generated using billing 
    machines. Billing machines reduce the chances of error, once the required 
    information is entered into the system, it automatically updates each new bill 

    without any additional effort.

     8.2.1.Main parts of a billing machine
     Billing machine systems, like most electronic devices, consist of different parts 
    which play different roles grouped into three categories namely inputting data, 
    processing and printing bills    . The first part is the keyboard which is used 
    to feed information like goods names in the billing machine. The second part 
    can be considered to be the processor and all parts working with it like memory 
    and motherboard. The third part is the printer which plays the role of helping 
    get hard copy bills. Also in the same third category is a screen which displays 
    information that a billing machine user can understand. Note that some billing 
    machines may have additional parts which help in payments like a weighing 

    scale.

    8.2..2.Operating a billing machine
     Producing a bill by a billing machine requires the presence the information to 
    appear on the bill. That information can be fed to the billing machine’s printer 
    from different sources namely the database on which the billing machine is 
    connected through internet or a local network, the billing machine’s permanent 
    memory or temporary memory. The temporay memory of this machine keeps 
    information which is immediately fed to it by using its keyboard or any other 

    input device

    Before using a billing machine make sure the following is met :
     • It is properly connected to a power source or that its battery has enough 
       power,
     • It is properly connected to a local network or internet by the use of a 
    cable or wireless network. This is necessary when the machine gets or 
    submits data to a database stored at another location 
    • All the peripherals to a billing machine are properly connected
     • Make sure that as a user, you have the right access credential if the 
    machine is password protected

     When a billing machine is ready follow the following steps to use it:
     • Log in to the machine. Some may need a username and password 
    while some need a swiping card accompanied by a password. 

    • Enter the billing information by using the keyboard. This information 
    is about the client details, purchased goods details and amount to be 
    paid. Most of the time the price of each item purchase is got from 
    the machine’s database and the total price to pay is automatically 
    calculated.
     • Print the bill by pressing the key for printing
     
    Note that:
      Some billing machines may not require login depending on how their 
    setting were configured. There exist typically three types of user on a 
    billing machine namely Clerk who can only generate invoice, the Admi
    nistrator who can generate Invoice and Reports, add or modify items and 
    their price, change print settings and the Supervisor who has access 
    to all that the administrator can do and more to that have access to 
    System settings, Erase Memory/Bills, Create different users and assign 
    password. 
    Billing machines allow users to get different reports. Depending on the 
    available functionalities, these machines can provide daily, weekly or 

    yearly reports. 

    8.2.3.Billing machines in Rwanda
     Rwanda through the Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA) adopted the use of 
    billing machines from 2013. These machines which are known as Electronic 
    Billing Machines (EBM) are devices which receive information from the user like 
    bought items and generate a bill which is then printed. These devices come with 
    software installed by the manufacturer or the vendor and the user can not easily 
    remove or add a new software. 

     In 2017 Rwanda Revenue Authority adopted a new version of EBM which 
    is known as EBM version 2 (EBM ver2.0) which is a software installed on 
    a computer allowing then to have access to the central database. With this 
    software installed, after logging in the user has access to different functionalities 
    including among others item management, customer management, sales 
    management, purchase management. This EBM also allows the printing of an 

    invoice to be given to the customer.

    8.2.4.Types of billing machines 
    There are machines which are dedicated to be billing machines. With these ma
    chines the software which make them operate is installed by the manufacturer or the 
    vendor and these devices cannot play another role other than the one they were made 
    for. On another hand, billing machine functionalities are implemented in a software 
    which can then be installed on electronic devices like computers, ipad, smart phones 
    and therefore acting as billing machines.

     The different types of dedicated billing machines are outlined below :

    A. Portable machines
     Billing machines that can be moved from place to place are referred to as 
    portable machines. The handheld machines or the bus ticketing machines are 

    examples of such machines.

    Among portable machines are card swipe machines which are devices that 
    read the magnetic stripe on a card and takes the information from it. The most 
    common card swipe machine is a credit card reader that is used with a cash 
    register. These machines come with a keypad for the customer to enter the PIN 

    of the card, a display bar and a swipe slot for swiping the card.

     B. Automatic machines
     These are machines come with software and algorithms inbuilt in it to add up the 
    taxes and deduct the rebates automatically. No additional manual instructions 

    are required for such type of machines.

     C. POS machines
     The POS or the Point of Sale is a billing technology used in supermarkets to 
    keep track on the sales of goods. This system uses bar-code technology to 
    perform tasks like review sales or prepare the next fresh lot of products that 
    need to be replaced with the sold-out ones.
     
    Normally a POS system is referred to as a cash register at a store. While this is 
    still true today’s modern POS systems accepts payments even when customers 
    are away from the POs system. What is needed in this case is a POS app and 
    an internet-enabled device, like a tablet or phone.

         Hardware parts of a POS system
     POS system uses POS software. However in the case of an online store the 
    POS system does not need to have the hardware. In this case of an online store 
    all of the sales happen on a website, so the business owner does not need POS 

    hardware to help accept payments.

    Register: this helps calculate and process a client’s transaction.
      Connected device, like an iPad or other tablet: These are devices 
    equipped with a monitor allowing the user to view a list of items and 
    interact with the system

      Credit card reader: A card reader lets a customer pay by credit card 

    while in the store.
      Cash drawer: This is a place where cash can be kept in case the 
    store accepts payments in cash. POS software that’s connected to a 
    cash drawer can minimize fraud by tracking exactly when the drawer is 
    opened.
      Receipt printer: A paper receipt shows customers exactly when and 
    what they purchased and how much they paid.
      Bar code scanner: A bar code scanner reads an item’s product de
    tails so you can ring it up. It can also be a quick way to double-check 

    the price, stock level, and other details.

    Application activity 8.2

    1) What is the technology used by billing machines in printing the bills?
     2) What are the 3 main parts of a billing machine?

     3) What is EBM version 2

    8.3 Note detector

    Activity 8.3

     1) Suppose you are a teller at a new bank which features will you check 
    in a note in order to discover counterfeited notes
     2) Which device will your bank buy in order to detect fake notes easily?
     3) What are the advantages that using the device stated in question 2 has?
     
    A note detector is a device which is designed to sort identify a fake note which 
    does not have all the attributes of a nation’s notes. Fake notes can be identified 
    by using hands and eye, a counterfeit detector pen, or a machine known as a 

    note detector. 

    i) The Counterfeit Detector Pen
     Counterfeiters don’t use expensive special inks to try to closely duplicate paper 
    currency. They instead try to create a bill that looks like the authentic one by using 
    their available means which include wood-based paper. However, their bills would 
    not raise any initial suspicion when used in an everyday purchase. 

    One of the simplest tools used for counterfeit detection is a Counterfeit 
    Detector Pen. This pen contains an iodine solution that reacts with the starch 
    in wood-based paper to create a black, marker-like stain. When the solution 
    found in this pen is applied to the fiber-based paper used in authentic bills there 
    is no change in color and no stain appears. This tool is useful for identifying 
    amateur counterfeit currency. However, when dealing with more sophisticated 

    counterfeit bills, utilizing a more complex detector is be necessary.

    ii)  Fake notes detection by a counter
     Some banknote counters can also detect counterfeit notes by using one of the 
    following methods:
     
    •     Magnetic counterfeit bill detection: This is a method by which the 
    specialized magnetic ink which is found in bills is read by currency 
    counters with magnetic detection capabilities to identify counterfeited 
    bills from genuine ones.

    Magnetic inks are ones with pigments containing magnetic material typically 
    iron oxide similar to what is used in the coatings of audio and video tape. These 
    inks are employed by most countries in the printing of paper currencies.

    There are different methods and devices used in detecting the magnetic 
    properties in currency such as hand-held units and single-bill readers that 
    require the user to rub or slide the bill across a sensor. This device then emits 
    an audible signal to indicate the presence of the magnetic properties in the 
    bill. These devices are easy to use and are effective but they are impractical 
    for banks and big businesses with big amounts of cash to verify. There are 
    also more effective and quick modern money counters equipped with magnetic 
    counterfeit technology which can scan hundred or even thousands of bills per 
    minute. 

    • UV counterfeit detection:     This is a method in which detection 
    devices use ultra-violet light to detect fake notes. With this method the 
    counterfeit detector works by detecting the UV fluorescent phosphors 
    used on authentic bills. This phosphor produces a reaction when 
    placed under the UV light but remains hidden when viewed under 
    normal lighting conditions. The UV ink changes its appearance and can 
    then be easily seen by the human eye under UV light.
    Apart from banknotes detectors which have fake notes detection functionalities, 
    there are note detectors which have the sole functionality of detecting fake 
    money by using the ultraviolet light or the magnetic detection method. To use 
    these devices the user places suspicious notes in the appropriate place and the 

    device detects its authenticity

    Application activity 8.3

    1) Explain the methods used by a note detector to identify fake notes

    2) By doing a research on the internet, identify the parts of a note detector.

    8.4 Automatic Teller Machine

    Activity 8.4

     You have at least once visited banks in Rwanda.
     1) Explain how the process of withdrawing and depositing money at a 
    bank is done
     2) Give the name of a machine that can do the task of a human teller? 
    3) Explain how withdrawing and depositing money using the machine 

    stated in 2) is done.

    An ATM known in full letters as an Automated Teller Machine, is a specialized 
    computer device that is used by bank customers to perform transactions on their 
    bank accounts. With these devices customers can check account balances, 
    withdraw or deposit money, transfer funds from one account to another, print a 

    statement of account activities.

     ATMs can be found in financial institutions like banks. However there are also 
    ATMs that can be displaced and found at other places like airports, shopping 
    malls where there may be many people needing cash. ATMs started being used 

    as a response to labor cost and request to get cash even after working hours.

     8.4.1.Parts of an ATM
     Like other computers and most electronic devices, an Automatic Teller Machine 

    has two parts namely hardware and software.

     A. Hardware
     The hardware parts of an ATM work together in order to make a transaction 
    possible. An ATM has parts that are visible by the client that can be considered 
    as an interface and other parts which are visible by the bank administrators. 
    Although each ATM offers various features other than basic services, all the 
    devices contain the same components. The parts of ATM are detailed below :
     
     Card Reader
     A card reader is a device that can decode the information contained in a credit 
    or debit card’s magnetic strip or microchip. In finance, this term refers to the 
    technologies used to detect the account number, cardholder information, and 
    authorization code contained on a credit card. When a customer inserts a card 
    in the machine, a card reader reads the account details of the clients then verify 

    the provided information and process the transaction.

      Keypad
     A keypad for electronic devices is an input unit which enters data in that device. 
    Keypads have keys which are mostly numeric and letter keys. When the bank 
    card holder has put it in the ATP slot, he/she is prompted to enter a password, 
    choose among different options, etc and this is done using the keys found on 

    the keypad

      Cash Dispenser
     A cash dispenser is the part that contains cash. Cash dispensers are connected 
    with a safe that contains cash. Through cash dispensers, customers receive 

    banknotes in return to the transaction they made. 

    Printer
     An ATM printer has the role of printing a receipt of the performed transaction. 
    The printed receipts include all the details of the transaction for cash withdrawal. 
    It further shows the total balance that a cardholder has in their bank account. 

    Screen
     The display screen in ATM shows the cardholder all the details. It prompts the 
    customer through each step of the transaction process. Nowadays advanced 
    ATM screens may be touchscreens whereby instead of using the physical key 

    there is a virtual keypad laying under the screen. 

    Speaker

     The speaker provides feedback in form of audio when a particular key is pressed.

      Vaults: This is a house to which store the parts of the machinery requiring restricted
    access.

    Note also that, like other computers, ATMs have most hardware parts found 
    inside a computer like processors and motherboards to support the whole 
    circuitry. Moreover they have sensors and indicators and cameras. One of the 
    functions of a sensor is to measure if the thickness of the bill is normal in order to 
    avoid that two bills may pass at the same time which would result in a customer 

    receiving more money than requested.

     A. Software
     Like any other electronic device that performs complex tasks, an ATM has an 
    operating system. Today, the vast majority of ATMs worldwide use Microsoft 
    Windows among which a big number runs on Windows XP (95% in 2014). 
    There are also a small number of ATMs which are still running older versions 
    of Windows such as Windows NT, Windows CE or Windows 2000. Some 
    others use newer operating systems such as Windows 8.1, Windows 10 and 

    Windows 11.

     Windows is not the only operating system for ATMs because in these days 
    Linux is also finding some ground like in Brazil where the Banrisul bank’s ATMs 

    run on Linux.

     8.4.2.Withdrawing and depositing from an ATM
     The process of withdrawing cash from an ATM machine has to go through a 
    number of steps starting by insertion of the bank card and a withdrawal of that 

    same card. Those steps are outlined below:

     Step 1: Insert an ATM Card in the card slot
     Step 2: Select the language from the language options appearing on the display 
    screen 
    Step 3: Enter ATM Pin using the keypad. For most ATMs PIN are in 4 digits. 
    Do not ever share your ATM Pin with anyone even with bank staff. Ensure that 
    nobody is watching you, while you enter the Pin. Make sure you enter a right pin 
    as entering a wrong one may lead to the blockage of the ATM card.
     Step 4: Select the type of transaction which can be withdrawal, deposit or 
    transfer.
     Step 5: Select your type of account: As an individual banker, you should be 
    choosing a savings account, as current accounts are a special type of accounts 
    used by businesses. Some ATMs offer you a choice to add a line of credit to 
    your account. This can help a banker when they need excessive money in an 
    emergency.
     Step 6: Enter the withdrawal amount. The withdrawal amount should not be 
    more than the balance in your account.
     Step 7: Collect the cash from the ATM cash slot
     Step 8: Take the receipt which is produced by the ATM printer. Making the 
    printer produce a receipt is done by prompting the ATM to print it. If you choose 

    not to have a receipt, it will not be produced.

     A. ATM malfunction errors
     The hardware components specifically the ones which move may wear out or 
    get old therefore resulting in a faulty equipment

         • Faulty dispenser
    When the dispenser has problems, customers insert their ATM cards in the slot, 
    enter their password or PIN, select the cash withdraw option and fill the cash 
    amount but when it arrives at the steps of counting and dispensing the cash 
    everything halts yet the customer’s account has already been to the full amount. 
    Another scenario is that ATM may fail to provide the full requested amount. 
    When such errors happen, the customer will have to apply for payment and the 
    bank manager will verify that application.

     • Worn out card reader
     Bank cards have a dark magnetic stripe on the back which contains specific 
    details about the card and its owner. When the bank card is inserted in an ATM, 
    the reader verifies the information on the card before it authorizes the transaction. 
    As a card is used again and again, the ATM card reader wears it out therefore 
    making the reading of information on the card impossible. If this happen, obviously 
    the transaction the customer wanted to carry out will not be done.
     
    • Broken Keypad
     The keypad which is used as an interface between a custom and the ATM may 
    be broken or one key may stick or may be unresponsive. If among the keys that 
    the customer needs have such problems, a transaction will not be possible.

    • Receipt Malfunctions
     The ATM printer may not give a receipt due to different reasons such as when 
    the machine has run out of paper, the printer has run out of paper, there is a 
    paper jam or any other problem with the ATM printing system. Since the receipt 
    contains vital information about the ATM transaction, it’s imperative that any 
    issues with printing receipts is handled quickly.
     
    • Software glitches
     ATM have different software whose technology never ceased to advance. Many 
    ATMs now have touch screen and other technology that relies on computer 
    software to function. Like other machines that run on computer software, ATMs 
    can have software glitches. When such problem happens, a transaction in not 
    possible.
     
    Application activity 8.4
     1) By doing a research on the internet, identify the internal parts of an 
    Automatic Teller Machine
     2) Can an ATM be hacked? If yes explain the likely consequences of this hacking.
     
    Skills Lab 7
     Use different ICT tools in Accounting you have learnt to perform the 
    following activities:
     a) Counting money
     b) Detecting fake money
     c) Withdrawing using ATM cards
     
    End of unit assessment 8
     1) What are the benefits of using ICT tools in Accounting
     2) Describe the ICT tools you have seen in this unit
     3) Using the internet do a research on the software tools used in 

    Accounting

    REFERENCES 
    1. MINEDUC, (2013), Education Sector Strategic Plan, Kigali. 
    2. MINEDUC, (2014), ICT in Education Policy, Kigali: MINEDUC. 
    3. MYICT, (2011), National ICT strategy and plan NICI III-2015, Kigali. 
    4. Herman Oduor, 2014, Senior Secondary Certificate Computer Science 
    for Rwanda student’s book 4, East African Publisher, Kigali 
    5. National Curriculum Development Centre(NCDC), (2010), computer 
    science curriculum for computer science economics and mathematics 
    option & mathematics physics and computer science option, Kigali, 
    Rwanda 
    6. www.sumup.co.uk/invoices/dictionary/quotation/ 27/03/2022
     7. www.umucyo.gov.rw/ 27/03/2022
     8. https://www.reviews.in/best-billing-machine.html
     9. http://mybillmachine.com/ visited on 27/03/2022
     10. https://carnation-inc.com/ visited on 28/03/2022
     11. https://tax-handbook.rra.gov.rw/handbook/explanation-of-ebms/ visited 
    on 30/03/2022
     12. https://squareup.com/us/en/townsquare/what-pos-system visited on 
    31/03/2022
     13. https://en.wikipedia.org/ visited on 01/04/2022
     14. https://www.tutorialspoint.com
     15. https://www.tutorialandexample.com

     16. https://www.tutorialandexample.com

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