Course: S5: Citizenship

Topic outline

General
UNIT 1: GENOCIDE
Key unit Competence:
Be able to analyze the causes and consequences of Genocide with a special
emphasis on the Genocide against the Tutsi and devise ways of reconstructing
Rwandan society as well as preventing Genocide from happening again.

Introductory activity 1
Many books and movies have been produced on different genocides that have
been committed on this planet including the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in
Rwanda and the Holocaust in Europe. Using them, analyze the causes that led
to these genocides, their course and effects. Afterwards, suggest how genocide
can be prevented from happening again.

1.1 Concept of Genocide
Learning Activity 1.1
Using the Internet, search for United Nations High Commission for Human
Rights and read the whole Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the crime of Genocide of 9th, December 1948. This will help you understand
the international legal framework that deals with genocides. Evaluate how this
convention has been applied in Rwanda then after, describe different steps of
genocide development.
The term ‘’genocide’’ derives from two words: A Greek word ‘genos’ meaning origin
or species, and a Latin verb ‘caedere’, meaning to kill. It was first, used by Raphael
Lemkin, a Polish born American lawyer who taught law at the University of Yale in
the 1940s. He used this term ‘genocide’ uniquely to make it different from other
crimes of mass killings. Generally, it is the mass extermination of a whole group
of people, an attempt to wipe them out of existence. Scientifically and legally, the
definition of the term «Genocide» on the international level, adopted by the UN
Convention, has remained substantially the same since it was initially formulated on
9th Dec 1948 in article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide defines “genocide” as any of the following acts committed with
intent to destroy, in whole or in part a national, ethnical, racial or religious group,
these acts were followed by a series of characteristics of the crime of genocide,
representing serious violations of the right to life and the physical or mental integrity
of members of the group such as:
– Killing members of the group;
– Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
– Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about
its physical destruction in whole or in part;
– Imposing measures intended to prevent births with the group;
– Forcibly transferring of the group to another group.
– Involvement of the government that puts in place all necessary mechanisms
to destroy the targeted group;
– Intention of destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group;
– Selection of the group to kill therefore what differs from other mass crimes;
– Innocent people are killed because they belong to the targeted group;
– Cruel forms of killing are employed that involve torturing victims;
– Large-scale killing of the targeted group;
– Attacks and killings resulting from genocide are always intentional, not acc
The UN Convention states that it is not just the acts of genocide themselves
that are punishable, but also “conspiracy to commit genocide,” “direct and public
incitement to commit genocide,” the “attempt to commit genocide” and “complicity
in genocide.” It is the specific intention to destroy an identified group, either “in
whole or in part”, that distinguishes the crime of genocide from a crime against
humanity. The Convention also states that any country or state that endorsed
the convention has the rights and legal authority to request any other state that
ratified the convention to prevent against this crime of genocide. Genocide hastwo
phases: one, destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group; the other,
the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor.

Mass Atrocities or other crimes against humanity: According to international
law and Rwandan organic law no01/2012/OL of 02/05/2012 instituting the penal
code article 120, define crimes against humanity as “any of the following acts when
committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian
population because of its national, political, ethnic or religious affiliation: murder,
extermination, enslavement, deportation…., imprisonment in violation of law, torture,
rapeor any other form of sexual violence, persecution, enforced disappearance of
persons, the crime of apartheid, other inhuman acts of a similar character.”

In contrast with genocide, a crime against humanity do not need to target a specific
group. Instead, the victim of the attack can be any civilian population, regardless of
his/her affiliation or identity. Another important distinction is that in the case of crime
against humanity, it is not necessary to prove that there is an overall specific intent.
It is sufficient to be a simple intent to commit any of the acts aforementioned. Mass
atrocities have been witnessed in China, Cambodia, Tibet, Argentina, El Salvador,
Chile, Guatemala, Colombia, Bosnia and Sudan (Darfur) mass killing began when
the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the justice and Equality (JEM) rebels
took up arms in defense of the non-Arab population in Darfur who were the target
of the Arab-led forces from Sudan however, they are not forms of genocide. The
government responded with a heavy hand and organised ethnic cleansing against
the non-Arab populations in Darfur. Many people lost their lives. The government
got support from a local militia, Janjaweed.

Genocide is the mass extermination of a whole group of people, an attempt to wipe
them out of existence. It is the specific intention to destroy an identified group,
either “in whole or in part”, that distinguishes the crime of genocide from a crime
against humanity. Thus, these acts were perpetrated against the Tutsi in Rwanda in
1994. This is why it is called the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. They were
also perpetrated against the Jews by the Nazi (Holocaust/Shoah) in Germany.

Genocide is an international crime. For the Genocide to happen, it must be supported
by the government. The government deliberates intentionally on eliminating part of
its citizens and ensures that the plan is successfully executed. The government
intending to commit genocide puts in place effective plans and measures to achieve
the crime. The victims are killed not because of the crime they have committed,
but because of belonging to a certain group of people meant to be eliminated or
unwanted.

Application Activities 1.1
1. Carry out a research in a library or use internet and explain the tangible
features of genocide.
2. Discuss acts perpetrated on victims of genocide and other mass atrocities
/crimes.

Learning Activity 1.2
1.2 Stages/Steps of Genocide development
1. Explain the factors that lead to the development of genocide
2. In distinct steps, describe how the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda
occurred

The Genocidal government starts with classifying its peopleand divides them in“us
versus them”, telling the people that there is a certain group of people within the
country that has different origins and is distinguishable by nationality, ethnicity,
race, or religion. It tries to show to the favored group that the targeted ones are
the problem in the society and constitute an obstacle to the social wellbeing and
development of the nation.

This Stage of classification of people is a primary method of dividing society and
creating a power struggle between groups. This targeted group is then given symbols
and dehumanizing names. The targeted group’s humanity is denied; the victim
group is made subhuman. Words such as “vermin”, “snakes” and “cockroaches” are
used to define the “other”, as well as comparisons to diseases, animals, or beasts.
Hate gatherings are organized for torturing and exterminating the members of the
targeted group in secret and in public, as a hatred campaign in different areas of the
country is led by the people and politicians heading the state in different institutions.

The state usually organizes arms and financially supports the groups that conduct
the genocidal massacres. Often militias are organized to carry out the Genocide,
in order to provide deniability to the state. The government and powerful citizens or
hate groups provide the necessary arms, equipment, and instructions to torture and
perpetrate the Genocide. Extremists drive the groups apart. Hate groups broadcast
and print polarizing propaganda. Full extermination is the aim of the killing, because
the perpetrators do not believe the victims to be truly human.

Finally, after the Genocide or extermination of the targeted group, the perpetrators
and their sympathizers, seek methods to cover up the truth and evidences, denying
that they committed any crimes, intimidating and attacking the Genocide survivors
and many other efforts to block investigations that could reveal those who planned
and executed the Genocide.

Genocide denial is an attempt to deny or minimize statements of the scale and
severity of an incidence of genocide for instance the denial of the 1994 genocide
against Tutsi and the holocaust. Genocide denial is usually considered as a form of
illegitimate historical revisionism. However, in circumstances where the generally
accepted facts do not clearly support the occurrence of genocide, the use of the
term may be an argument by those who argue that genocide occurred. They use
some ways such as minimization of genocide in any behavior exhibited publicly
and intentionally in order to reduce the weight or consequences of the genocide,
minimizing how the genocide was committed. Altering the truth about the genocide
in order to hide the truth from the people etc.

The different genocides recognized by the UN and international institutions have
some differences and similarities. The essential difference of the 1994 Genocide
against the Tutsi in Rwanda is that it is the only Genocide, committed by Rwandans
versus Rwandans themselves and at the same time being stopped by Rwandans.
Next to that, during the Genocide against the Tutsi, over one million of innocent
people vanished within the extremely short period of only three months.

People in Rwanda killed their fellow Rwandans, neighbors, relatives, intimate friends
and people who had intermarried, to mention but a few, in different areas all over
Rwanda in 1994. The Genocide against the Tutsi was planned and committed in
front of the eyes of UN peacekeeping and other international troops, who acted as
mere bystanders instead of stopping or preventing the Genocide. Shockingly, they
decided to withdraw their so called UN peacekeeping troops that were stationed in
Rwanda while the Genocide against Tutsi was being committed.

Genocide never takes place suddenly. It is a culmination of a long process that
usually takes place in distinct steps or stages. Various scholars have explained how
genocide develops. Some of them include Gregory H. Stanton and Ervin Stab who
have conceptualized the development of genocide as a progression. They have
each provided a continuum of steps through which genocide develops.

The 10 stages of genocide according to Gregory H. Stanton
• Classification: is a primary method of dividing society and creating a power
struggle between groups. Distinguishing people into‘us’ and ‘them’ by race,
identity, religion or nationality etc. In Rwanda, these identification cards were
later used to distinguish Tutsi from Hutu in the 1994 Genocide perpetrated
against the Tutsi.
• Symbolization: This involves giving names or symbols to classify the victim
group to distinguish them by religion, race, ethnicity or other identifying factors
may become mandated information for use by the government.
• Discrimination: The ruling class, caste, or ethnic group excludes “inferior”
groups from full rights. Laws are passed segregating and separating disfavored

groups in housing, schools, transportation, hotels, and establishments, as
well as laws against intermarriage. Usually takes a legal, cultural, custom, or
political form used by the perpetrator group. They use power and authority to
deny the rights of the victim group.
• Dehumanization: The perpetrator group treats the victim group as second
class citizens. Dehumanization makes the victim group easily vulnerable
to the dominant group. One group denies the humanity of another group,
and makes the victim group seem subhuman. Words such as “vermin” and
“cockroaches” (in German and Rwanda) are used to define the “other”, as
well as comparisons to disease, animals, or beasts.
• Organization: Genocide is a group crime, so it must be organized. The state
usually organizes arms and financially supports the groups that conduct the
genocidal massacres. Often Militias are organized to carry out the genocide
to provide deniability to the State. The government and powerful citizens
or hate groups provide the necessary arms, equipment, and instructions to
perpetrate genocide. Special army units or militias are usually trained and
supplied with arms in readiness to carry out the nefarious activities
• Polarization: Efforts are made by the dominant group to draw a sharp wedge
between them and the victim group. Hate groups spread propaganda to
reinforce prejudice and hatred between the two groups. Extremists drive the
groups apart. Hate groups broadcast and print polarizing propaganda. Laws
are passed that forbid intermarriage or social interaction.
• Preparation: Meetings are held by perpetrators and plans are drafted for
the impending genocide. Military plans and orders are drafted, and weapons
are stockpiled and distributed. Sometimes former territories are annexed or
invaded, and divisive treaties with neighboring States are developed. This is
done to ensure that everything takes place. Adequate preparations that entail
identification of victims and tools for use are made.
• Persecution: Members of victim groups are forced to wear identifying
symbols. Segregation based on ethnic or religious identity, segregation into
ghettoes is imposed; victims are forced into concentration camps. Victims
also deported to famine-struck regions for starvation. This stage begins with
identification and separation of victims due to differences between them and
the perpetrators. Death lists are dressed.
• Extermination: the method of killing because the perpetrators do not believe
the victims to be truly human. Often the genocide results in revenge killings
creating a downward spiral of death. Killing of all the members of the victim
group begins at this stage. With time, the killings take on genocidal proportions.
• Denial:Denial is the surest indicator of further genocidal massacres.
Perpetrators go to great lengths to conceal their acts and deny having
committed any crime. The perpetrators and their sympathizers begin using
the forms of denial to defend their actions. Destruction of evidence, victim
blaming and refusal to relinquish power will ensue the five forms of denial:
deny the evidence, attack the truth tellers, deny genocide intent, blame the
victims and deny that the facts fit the legal definition of genocide.
Violence usually evolves from one stage to another. In most situations, limited
discrimination transforms into progressive discrimination, persecution and violence
against victimized groups. Occurrence of intense violence and discrimination leads
to a higher chance of it progressing to mass killings or genocide.

Lesser acts of discrimination and violence against the victim group, change and
transform the perpetrator group negatively. Actions against the victim group are
based on devaluing them. They are seen as less human hence the need to be
removed from the perpetrators’ ‘world’. All efforts by the perpetrator group are
geared towards committing violence against them.

Consequently, there is a bad change in the behavior of the perpetrator group due to
these efforts. Institutions are also changed or where possible, new ones are created
to help further the goals of the perpetrator group. The attitude of by-standers and
the rest of the population undergoes change too, for the worse. The victim group
is then subjected to high level of intense violence, which culminates in genocide.

Application Activities 1.2
1. After genocide of the targeted group, explain methods used by the
perpetrators to deny it
2. Discuss each of the ten stages in the continuum of violence as developed
by Gregory H. Stanton.

1.3 Holocaust or Shoah (1939-1945)
Learning Activity 1.3
Use internet, textbooks or other available documents in your library and discuss
this assertion:” Is it true that the Jewish Holocaust with the Death Camps and
Modern Mass Murder became a particular case of genocide?”

Genocide has been observed in different parts of the world at various times. Some
of them were the genocide of Jews (Holocaust) in Germany and the genocide
against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Genocide where it happened around the world often
came after or as an advanced form of crimes against humanity which in many
of these cases were crimes organizing, preparing or signaling genocide crime.
The Holocaust between 1940 - 1945, in which 6 million members of the Jewish
community lost their life. During the Holocaust, 2/3 of the Jewish population that
stayed in Europe were murdered, equaling 40% of all Jews living around the world
during World War II. Between 1992 and 1995, there was Genocide against the
Bosniaks (Muslim Bosnians) in Bosnia, committed by the government of Serbia, in
which around 30,000 Bosniaks perished. The Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994,
in which over one million Tutsi perished within only three months, comes as the
third Genocide recognized by the UN in the 20th century.

The Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda happened 45 years after the Holocaust /
Shoah committed by the German Nazis headed by Adolf Hitler. After the Holocaust,
the international community and the UN decided to prevent such crimes and humanmade
catastrophes around the world by creating legal provisions.

1.3.1. What is holocaust?
The term “Holocaust” comes from two Greek words holókaustos: hólos, “whole”
and kaustós, “burnt”, also known as the Shoah (Hebrew: HaShoah, “catastrophe”;
Yiddish: Churben or Hurban, from the Hebrew for “destruction”), hence, Holocaust
was the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II.

The term Holocaust is derived from two Greek words holos (whole) and Kaustos
(burnt). It thus literally means ‘burning of the whole’. This term is used today to
describe the Nazi extermination of the Jews and other anti-Jewish activities. This
was done between 1939 and 1945 during the Nazi regime period in Germany under
Adolf Hitler.

It was a program of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, led by
Adolf Hitler, throughout Nazi occupied territories. The nine million Jews who had
resided in Europe before the Holocaust, approximately two thirds perished. In
particular, over one million Jewish children were killed in the Holocaust, as were
approximately two million Jewish women and three million Jewish men.

1.3.2. Causes of Holocaust
The causes of holocaust can only be understood by referring to the antisemitism.
The hatred against Jews or antisemitism took root in stereotypes and myths that
characterized the History of the European World. Even though the charge that the
Jews were responsible for killing Christ has been refuted by historians, because
crucifixion was a Roman punishment, not a Jewish punishment, the myth that the
Jews were Christ killers (deicides) was impactful, because Christians believed if a
people were capable of killing their god, they were capable of anything.

In the medieval period, the antisemitism went on growing. In the fourteenth Century
in the context of the Black Death, which decimated from 1/3 to 1/2 of the European
population, the Jews were deemed to be poisoning the wells and this was the
source of contagion that led to this mass death.

By the sixteenth century, Jews were now mostly confined to ghettos or Jewish
quarters, areas of cities or villages in which they were forced to live in isolation.
Although Jews were granted the right to live in certain towns in Western Europe in
return for taxes and services, occasionally they were attacked, killed, and expelled
to neighboring countries.
During 18th and 19th centuries, different myths like myths of the Nazi ideology and
the Myth of Aryans developed and contributed to the preparation and explanation
of the Holocaust. This myth of Aryans was believed by a number of theoreticians,
who included Joseph Arthur de Gobineau,who had expressed his ideas in his book
untitled “Essay on the Inequality of Human Races (1853-1855). He stated that the
Aryans or white race was superior to all other races. Other supporters of this myth

were Eduard Drumont and Huston Stewart Chamberlain. Therefore, the Nazis killed
the Jews on the pretext that they wanted to keep the Aryan race pure.

In addition, the Holocaust was used as a means to quietly destroy an undesired
minority. Jews were blamed for every woe of Germany. Nazis blamed the loss of
World War I on the Jews, which made it legitimate to kill that group. In the same
sense, with the World Economic Crisis in 1929, support for the Nazi party in Germany
increased drastically. The party blamed Jews for the crisis, which appealed to the
general public, who were in want of a scapegoat for their condition.

1.3.3. Preparation and execution of Holocaust: Genocide ideology

Adolf Hitler used the Gobineau’s theory of race inequality to sustain that the Germanic
race was superior and therefore had to be protected from any contamination
emanating from mixed marriage. According to de Gobineau, the intermarriage
diminishes the proportion of the Aryan blood that they have. A practice that was
consequently forbidden and this targeted the Jews.

Hitler claimed that since the Jews were declared impure, their aim was to intermarry
with the pure Aryan people thereby corrupting the entire group and spread bad and
harmful ideologies such as Marxism, internationalism, individualism and liberalism.

Another myth was the “Myth on Jews” developed in the 19th century was based
on religious beliefs. The Jews were accused by the first Church members not to
recognize Jesus Christ as the son of God and to have killed the son of God (deicide).
Since then, the Anti-Semitism which was political, social and economic agitation
and activities directed against Jews, was supported by the “Church Fathers”; who
included Saints Ambroise, Augustine etc.

After the First World War, between 1914-1918 (WW I), many Germans blamed
the Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I, some even claiming that German
Jews had betrayed the nation during the war. In addition, at the end of the war a
Communist group attempted to carry out a Bolshevik type revolution in the German
state of Bavaria. Most of the leaders of that failed attempt were Jews.

As a result, some Germans associated Jews with Bolsheviks and regarded both
groups as dangerous enemies of Germany. After the war, a republic known as
the Weimar Republic was set up in Germany. Jewish politicians and intellectuals
played an important role in German life during the Weimar Republic, and many non-
Jews resented their influence.

Based on his anti-Semitic views, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler attacked the impressive
role Jews played in German society during the Weimar Republic, especially in the
intellectual world and in left-wing politics. He referred to them as a plague and a
cancer.

In his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle, translated 1939), which was published
in 1926, Hitler blamed the plight of Germany at the end of World War I on an
international Jewish plan and used terms such as extirpation and extermination in
relation to the Jews. He claimed that the Jews had achieved economic dominance
and the ability to control and manipulate the mass media to their own advantage.
He wrote on the need to eradicate their powerful economic position, if necessary by
means of their physical removal.

On April 7, 1933, the Reichstag enacted the “Law for the Restoration of the
Professional Civil Service”, the first anti-Semitic law passed in the Third Reich;
the Physicians’ Law; and the Farm Law, forbidding Jews from owning farms or
taking part in agriculture. Jewish lawyers were disbarred, and in Dresden, Jewish
lawyers and judges were dragged out of their offices, courtrooms and beaten. Jews
were excluded from schools and universities (the Law to Prevent Overcrowding in
Schools), from belonging to the Journalists’ Association, and from being owners or
editors of newspapers. In the same year, the books written by Jews were publically
burnt.

In July 1933, the “Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” calling
for compulsory sterilization of the “inferior” was passed. This major eugenic policy
led to over 200 Hereditary Health Courts being set up, under whose rulings over
400,000 people was sterilized against their will during the Nazi period.

On September 15, 1935, the Reichstag met in Nurnberg and passed two laws, known
as “The Nurnberg laws”. The first, the “Reich Citizenship Law” declared that only
individuals of “German blood” could be citizens of the German Reich (state), thus
depriving German Jews of their citizenship. The second, the “Law for the Protection
of German Blood and German Honor”, formalized barriers between Jews and

Germans, forbidding marriage and sexual relations between Jews and “Aryans.”
Thus, the Nazis deprived German Jews of all civil rights and effectively excluded
them from social and cultural life. Their policy was then aimed at expropriating
Jewish property with a view to compelling Jews to emigrate from Germany.
From Jews physical violence to large pogrom
On November 7, 1938, a young Jewish Herschel Grünspan assassinated Nazi
German diplomat Ernst Vom Rath in Paris. This incident was used by the Nazis
as a pretext to go beyond legal repression to large scale physical violence against
Jewish Germans. What the Nazis claimed to be spontaneous “public outrage”
was in fact a wave of pogroms instigated by the Nazi party, and carried out by
SA (Sturmabteilug or Storm detachment) members and affiliates throughout Nazi
Germany.

These pogroms became known as “the Night of Broken Glass” (literally “Crystal
Night”), or November pogroms. Jews were attacked and Jewish property was
vandalized, over 7,000 Jewish shops and 1,668 synagogues (almost every
synagogue in Germany) were damaged or destroyed. The death toll is assumed
to be much higher than the official number of 91 dead, 30,000 were sent to
concentration camps, including Dachau, Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald, and
Orangeburg concentration camp, where they were kept for several weeks, and
released when they could either prove that they were about to emigrate in the near
future, or transferred their property to the Nazi.

The question of the treatment of the Jews became an urgent one for the Nazis after
September 1939, when they invaded the western half of Poland, home to about
two million Jews. Himmler’s right-hand man, Reinhard Heydrich, recommended
concentrating all the Polish Jews in ghettos in major cities, where they would be
put to work for the German war industry. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest, with
380,000 people, and the Lódz Ghetto the second largest, holding 160,000. About
3 million of Jews were heaped together in those ghettos where they died of hunger
and suffered from dreadful deprivations and diseases.

The camps increasingly became places where Jews and Prisoners of War (POWs)
were either killed or made to work as slave laborers, undernourished and tortured.
It is estimated that the Germans established 15,000 camps and sub camps in the
occupied countries, mostly in Eastern Europe. The transportation of prisoners was
often carried out under horrifying conditions using rail freight cars, in which many
died before reaching their destination.

Starting in December 1939, the Nazi introduced new methods of mass murder by
using gas. First, experimental gas vans equipped with gas cylinders and a sealed
trunk compartment, were used to kill mental care clients of sanatoria in Pomerania,
East Prussia, and occupied Poland, as part of an operation termed Action T4.
(T4 Program, also called T4 Euthanasia Program, Nazi German effort to kill the
mentally ill, physically or mentally disabled, emotionally distraught, and elderly).

In the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, larger vans holding up to 100 people
were used from November 1941, using the engine’s exhaust rather than a cylinder.
Action T4 was a program established in 1939 to maintain the genetic purity of the
German population by killing or sterilizing German and Austrian citizens who were
judged to be disabled or suffering from mental disorder.

A need for new mass murder techniques was also expressed by the Nazi leaders.
It was this problem which led the SS (Security Squadron) to experiment with largescale
killings using poison gas. Finally, Christian Wirth seems to have been the
inventor of the gas chamber.

In January 1942, the Nazi leaders organized a conference in Berlin, the Conference
of Wannsee, where they devised the “Final solution of Jews problem”, explicitly
to kill the 11 million of Jews living in Europe. As head of the German SD or
Security service, or Security Service, Reinhard Heydrich was asked by Nazi leader
Hermann Göring to organize a “final solution to the Jewish question.” In addition,
Adolf Eichmann was entrusted by the leaders of Nazi Germany with responsibility
for carrying out and coordinating the “final solution”; the murder of almost 6 million
Jews during World War II (1939-1945). Under Eichmann’s direction, Jews from all
over German occupied Europe were sent to concentration camps to be killed.

About Jews concentration camps

A concentration camp is a place in which large numbers of people, especially
political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities are deliberately imprisoned
in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities, sometimes to provide forced
labour or to await mass execution. The term is most strongly associated with the
several hundred camps1945.

Due to the role played by these prominent personalities, the concentration camps
were built mainly in Auschwitz, Majdanek, Treblinka, Chelmno, Sobibor and Belzec
where the majority of the deportees perished.

The crematorium was used to incinerate the bodies of people killed in the camp’s
four gas chambers. Birkenau, along with the nearby Auschwitz complex, was the
site of scientifically planned and executed genocide by Nazi Germany during World
War II (1939-1945). It is estimated that between 1.4 million and 4 million people
were killed at Auschwitz and Birkenau during the war. Although it was the Jews who
were targeted by the “Final Solution”, among the victims were also the Gypsies,
the Communists, Slavic, the Russian prisoners of war, the invalids, homosexuals,
Jehovah’s Witnesses and any other person suspected of not adhering to the Nazi
ideology.
When the WW II ended in 1945, on September 2nd, the entire Jewish secular and
religious culture in Europe had been completely destroyed and near 6 million Jews
and about 11 million of Non-Jewish Europeans were exterminated. The table below
shows the estimated number of Jews killed in different extermination camps.

Table 1: Extermination camp and Estimate number of Jews killed
In general, the following table shows us roughly the number of Jews killed Number
of Jews killed during the Holocaust according to years.

Table 2: Jews killed by Year
After the war, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in
Germany to prosecute the surviving Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against
humanity. Later, in 1948, a United Nations Organization resolution established
crime against humanity as a crime under international law with no limitation period
for the prosecution of those accused such crimes.

After the Holocaust, some 250 000 Jewish were survived and in 1947 the UN voted
to partition Palestine into Jews and Arab States. The Israel, a Jewish State, was
established in May 1948 as a homeland for the Holocaust Jewish survivors.

Consequences of holocaust

The genocide against the Jewish people or the ‘Shoah’ ended at the same time with
the Second World War in Europe. Its consequences in terms of the loss of lives are
enormous. It is estimated that six million Jewish people died.

The Nazis also killed other categories of people who were not Jews with the intention
of purification of the race of Aryans. These include half a million Roma gypsies, a
quarter of a million mentally ill and disabled people.

In addition, the Nazis committed other mass crimes by sterilizing deaf people,
imprisoning homosexuals and they considered that Slavic people were sub-human
and they intended to starve up to 30 million Soviet civilians and prisoners of war.

On the other hand, Jewish people reacted in different ways:
– In some places, the Jewish people resisted, for instance the Warsaw Uprising
of 1943;
– Some of them fled from Germany and other countries such as Poland;
– Some put their children on Kinder transport trains, which took them to Great
Britain where they were fostered and others tried to hide;
– In some places, the Jewish people accepted their fate and even cooperated
with the Nazis;
– Some survived the concentration camps, often against all odds, etc.

Many Jewish people were saved by acts of bravery and compassion carried out by
Jewish and non-Jewish people alike, e.g. Oskar Schindler. Schindler was an ethnic
German and credited with saving the lives of 1,200 Jews, despite being a member
of the Nazi party. His moving story was made into the film, Schindler’s List in 1993.

After the war, Nazi leaders were put on trial at the Nuremberg War Crimes trials
(1945‒1946). Many were sentenced to death. War criminals continued to be found
and put on trial, including high profile cases such as Adolf Eichmann in 1960 and
Klaus Barbie who was put on trial in 1987. It is universally believed that such
genocide must never be allowed to happen again.

Every year, 27 January is Holocaust Memorial Day (HMD). The date was chosen
as the anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz-Birkenau. Holocaust Memorial Day
is an international day of remembrance – not only for the Jewish Holocaust, but
also for subsequent genocides in places like Cambodia, Bosnia and Rwanda. All
over the world, people honor the survivors and reflect on the consequences of
the holocaust. In 1948, the nation of Israel was established as a state for Jewish
people.
Application Activities 1.3
1. Why do you think the Nazi blamed the Jews for all their problems?
2. Describe what happen to the Jews and other targeted groups in
extermination camps.
3. Do you think was the international community in a position to stop the
Holocaust from taking place?
4. Discuss why the international community and other nations took a long
time to stop the Nazi from killing the Jews.
5. Identify actions taken by the Jews to keep the memory of the Holocaust
and promote healing and reconciliation.

1.4. Genocide against the Tutsi
Learning Activity 1.4
Use internet, read available books in your library or watch a documentary film on
the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi and answer the following questions:
1. Analyze its causes, its course and its end.
2. Discuss main actors of genocide against the Tutsi

The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi was a carefully planned and executed to
annihilate Rwandan Tutsi. It was the fastest and cruelest genocide ever recorded
in human history.

1.4.1.Causes of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

It is so hard to identify the root causes of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.
This because all Rwandans were united and shared the elements for national
cohesion like same king, clans, language, values, same religion, culture and same
country etc. However, the mainly among others, factors had contributed to the
disunity of Banyarwanda and led to the genocide:

The loss of cultural identity

The influence of colonial education is responsible for the derision and diminution
of the Rwandan culture. The colonial education made Rwandans adopt Western
culture at the expense of their own. They were conditioned to regard his traditional
as archaic and barbaric. During the colonial period, the colonial masters deliberately
applied a policy of “divide and rule”. The colonialists took the Tutsi and Hutu as
two distinct “groups” instead of looking them as two social categories. The loss of
their common cultural identity and the policy of divide and rule resulted in the first
pogroms and massacres of 1959 and very far to the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi.
The hatred culture of Rwandans vis-à-vis other Rwandans under the two
Republics
Rooted from colonial period and because of bad leadership under the First and the
Second Republics, the hatred culture was promoted and supported by divisionism
worsened by regionalism and nepotism. This undermined the national unity among
the Rwandans.

Hatred indicators showed through vilification and name calling that Rwandans were
accustomed to using while addressing each other. Such names like “snake, enemy,
malicious, fake, false, robber…” All that fueled hatred against each other.

Institutionalization of untruthfulness and the culture of impunity

Under the two Republics, the crimes were committed with the beliefs that the
culprits will never be apprehended. Indeed, some people who committed big and
atrocious crimes were rewarded by being promoted to important administrative
positions. Corruption, favoritism, cheating, embezzlement and diversion of public
funds, suspicion and mistrust were common.

Persecution and impunity

During the colonial period, the colonizers had favored a group of” Tutsi elites” which
was associated to colonial power as auxiliaries. When their alliance broke up in
the end of 1950s, the colonizers changed alliance from supporting the Tutsi elites
on power because some elite Rwandans member of UNAR spearheaded by King
Mutara III Rudahigwa were advocating for immediate independence that provoke a
break up with the Tutsi. This change is the origin of the political and violence which
happened since November 1959 characterized by mass killings against the Tutsi and
members of UNAR party their houses were burned and destroyed systematically.
The same scenarios of mass killing targeting Tutsi repeated in 1963/64, 1973 and
in 1990-1994 up the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. They were scapegoats of the
failure of the government.
The authors of such massacres were never punished for the crimes committed.
Contrarily, many of them were promoted to the post of responsibility. On the side of
international community, it has always considered the respective governments of
Rwanda as the true representatives of population. It has totally ignored the crimes
committed and the injustices that those governments are responsible for.

The genocidal ideology

After recovering independence, on the 1/7/1962 until July 1994, the leadership of
the PARMEHUTU political party led by KAYIBANDA and MNRD led by Juvenal
HABYARIMANA, instead of correcting the past mistakes left by colonialists, they
were rather encouraged the ideology by cementing hatred and divisionism towards
the Tutsi as they denied them basic human rights including right to their country,
education, job opportunities, etc.

The genocidal ideology identified the two antagonist groups like “Us” and
“Them” or “You” and after proceeded by the nomination or qualification of those
two groups. The genocidal ideology in Rwanda is based on ideas, attitude and
practices of discrimination and hatred against the Tutsi. It has been implemented
and disseminated by the political leaders since 1959. The Tutsi most important
manifestation was persecution, killing, public hatred message, loose of goods and
properties, exclusion from political and administrative functions, discrimination in
many sector like education, forced exile, physical and psychological violence etc….

Since independence, the Tutsi have been identified as “enemies” of the Hutu. In
1960’s, the first president of the Republic, Grégoire Kayibanda, used the hatred
speeches to qualify the danger of the Tutsi to the Hutu due to the attacks of Inyenzi
(groups of refugees) from outside of Rwanda. From 1990 with the attack of RPF –
Inkotanyi, the ideological speeches pointed out again the “double treat presented
by the Tutsi (of internal and of external)”.

Between 1990 and 1994, the Tutsi have been qualified as the “enemy”, “outsiders”
and “suspected” complots. From those qualifications and propaganda, many
Newspapers and Radios, called upon all Hutu, “to kill all Tutsi before being killed”.

Besides the presentation of the threats against the Tutsi, another factor was the
dehumanization or qualification of enemy not as humankind but as an animal like
rats, snakes or cockroaches. The aim was to incite to direct and public reactions
against the Tutsi considered as a “common enemy”. This shows that genocide
crime before being act of physical destruction of enemy, the genocidal ideology
begins by ideas developing the vision of a “group-enemy” to be exterminated.

Discriminatory leadership

Under the two Republics (1962 – 1994), the social inequality was maintained and
encouraged by exclusion, favoritism and regionalism. It was under the Second
Republic that the policy of “division, exclusion” and regionalism balance” was
reinforced. The social promotion was not based on meritocracy; a choice that has
generated negative effects on the development of the country and the relationship
among Rwandans.

The prefectures of Gisenyi and Ruhengeri monopolized more positions of
responsibility in the public administration. The “quotas system” was adopted in
1970’s as solution to social injustice. However, this policy led to the exclusion and
discrimination of the Tutsi from schools and services. It deprived the Tutsi to enjoy
their rights on education and employment.

Finally, the governments of the first and second republic had systematically ignored
the problem of refugees who were roaming around in the neighboring countries
since 1959. The reaction of the government to their request of returning to their
country and recovering their properties and their rights was still the same stating
that the country is overpopulated and could not receive any one other population. It
was this repeated refusal that made the refugees to organize them self in a politicomilitary
structure, named RPF – Inkotanyi and opted return by force.

1.4.2. Course of the genocide against the Tutsi

Genocide had already spread to whole country from 7thApril 1994, the planners of
genocide carry out a general genocide against the Tutsi, following the power vacuum
and incitement from the media and genocidal planners, the presidential guards,
“Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi” militias (created on September 1991) started
a systematic elimination and extermination of Tutsi and key political personalities of
the opposition who were against the genocide against the Tutsi.

Following the meetings held at the High Command of the F.A.R (Rwandese
Army Forces), the interim government has been formed. On April 8th, 1994, the
former president of National Council of Development / CND (Conseil National
de Développement) and member of MRND, Dr SINDIKUBWABO Theodore was
nominated President of Republic and KAMBANDA Jean as Prime Minister from the
extremist wing of MDR known as Hutu power became head of the government that
was exclusively made up of ministers belonging to extremist fractions that were in
favor of the genocide against the Tutsi.

That meeting adopted also the “Hirondelle operation” which consisted of violating
the cease-fire and breaking the fighting against RPF. By this operation, the Kigali
City was “cleaned” using the list of Tutsi to be killed established before. On 9th April,
an official communiqué announced the formation of a new government made up
of extremist leaders from four political parties were represented in the government
because of their “power” element that was favorable to the genocide.
In a meeting held on the 11th April 1994, the interim Prime Minister KAMBANDA
Jean called on leaders at Hôtel des Diplomates in Kigali, apart from Jean Baptiste
HABYALIMANA,(the only one Tutsi) the leader of Butare Province, to apply in
their respective Prefectures “Hirondelle operation”. He also openly called for
“Insecticide operation” and what he called “the final solution” aimed at systematic
extermination of the Tutsi and their accomplices, without “sparing neither babies,
nor women, nor aged people as the insecticide does to cockroaches. It was after
this meeting that genocide spread with a high speed throughout the whole country.

The genocide against the Tutsi was characterized by many forms of extreme
violence. The main tools used during this genocide against the Tutsi are machetes,
grenades, bullets, nailed bludgeons called “ntampongano y’umwanzi”, burning
people alive, throwing living people into pit latrines, ditches forcing family members
to kill each other among others.

At the beginning, the killers in small groups killed the Tutsi victims at their homes,
on the roads or arrested them at the road blockers. However, later on, as the Tutsi
used to escape and to look for asylums at the public offices and churches, the
killers also went to attack and kill them in those places: church offices, commune
offices, hospitals and health centers, school, stadiums, etc... There were no any
safe places to get for protection.

Many victims of the genocide against the Tutsi were killed at their respective
homeland, but a number of others had tried to look for asylum at some special
places where they thought to get protection. The concentration of the Tutsi at such
places was encouraged by the local authorities with the plan of facilitating and
accelerating the mass killings because the assailants found the Tutsi in mass in one
place. These places served as the “death camps”.

Such places included church offices (Kabgayi, Ntarama, Nyarubuye, Saint Famille,
Nyange, Kibeho, Cyahinda, Adventist Church of Ngoma, Nyamasheke, Mosque of
Nyamirambo, Mugina, Mibilizi, etc.

They also comprised commune offices such as Mugina, Musambira, Rwamatamu,
Kamembe, etc. and hospitals and health centres such as Kigali Hospital Center
“CHK”, University Hospital of Butare “CHUB”, Kibuye Hospital, Health Center of
Kaduha, Mugonero, etc.

There were also schools like Collège Saint André Nyamirambo, Petit SéminaireNdera,
Saint AloysRwamagana, Collège Marie Merci Kibeho, Ecole Technique Officielle
“ETO “Kicukiro, etc. and stadiums including Gatwaro in Karongi district today,
Amahoro in City of Kigali and Kamarampaka in Rusizi district today.
It was “Apocalypse” promised one day by Colonel Thioester BAGOSORA.
April 12th, 1994, the interim government called also “Abatabazi” fled the capital
of Kigali due to the advance of the RPF – Inkotanyi and settled in Gitarama, at
Murambi. Later on, it will move to Gisenyi and in refugees’ camps located in Goma,
Zaïre today Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

Finally, RPF – Inkotanyi soldiers stopped the genocide and scored victory over the
genocidal forces on 4th July 1994 when Kigali City and Butare were liberated.

Main actors of genocide against the Tutsi

The main actors and killers include soldiers of the Rwandese Army Forces (FAR)
and Gendarmerie. In particular, the elite Presidential Guard carried responsibility
to begin killings; another group of actors is made up by civil authorities from the
top to the local authorities: the members of the former PresidentHabyarimana
political party National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND) and the
Interim government, the Préfets of prefectures, the Burgomasters, the communal
councilors who basically mobilized and encouraged people to kill all Tutsi on hills;

There are militias such as “Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi”, respectively formed
as youth wing of National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND) and
Coalition for the Defense of Republic (CDR) political parties and members of Hutu
Power.

The extremist Medias (newspapers and radios) who disseminated the along the day
hate speeches during the genocide and encouraged the population to exterminate
the Tutsi “enemy” namely Kangura, La MedailleNyiramacibiri, RTLM or Radio
Television des Milles Collines...

The large group of killers is composed of extremist Hutu in general over the country.
The targeted group to be exterminated was the Tutsi without any distinction of age,
religion, region, etc. According to the National Service of Gacaca Courts, 1 678 672
persons were guilty of having committed the crime of genocide against the Tutsi in
Rwanda.

Application Activities 1.4
1. Assess the similarities and differences in the occurrence of the Holocaust
and Genocide against the Tutsi.
2. How effective are the testimonies from the survivors, repenting
perpetrators, genocide memorials and reports on the genocide in
educating the people of Rwanda?
3. What ideas, behaviors and actions do you think may lead to a recurrence
of genocidal violence in Rwanda if left to develop further

1.5. Consequences of Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda
Learning Activity 1.5
Read different documents or use internet assess the effects of the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi.

The consequences of the genocide are numerous at all levels of life of Rwandans.
Some of them include the following:

Massive loss of lives

Many lives are lost in the genocide, more than one million women, men and children
Tutsi were killed in this genocide. The Genocide against the Tutsi was carried out
by the perpetrators of genocide, the majority executed it while those in authority
mostly supervised it.

Destruction of property

Destruction of property occurred during the Genocide against the Tutsi, where
anarchy and lawlessness reigned supreme. Private and public properties were
destroyed and looted. Destruction of infrastructures and equipment. Homes were
torched and destroyed and animals killed during the genocide.

Increased insecurity

In 1994, Rwanda was the third highest importer of weapons in Africa. Most of these
weapons had been bought deliberately to perpetrate the genocide against the Tutsi.
Wrong use of arms caused violence and unrest in the country leading to insecurity.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

The genocide had psychological consequences for people who witnessed horrible
scenes. They experienced depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. The
trauma experienced by the survivors was deep and those who healed from it were
left with psychological scars. This was caused by the horrific actions the people
were exposed to. These among others included rape, torture, murder, physical
mutilations, psychological trauma due to sexual abuse, excessive degradation of
human dignity and high rate of HIV/AIDS prevalence and extreme violence.
High incidence of orphans

Many children lost their parents during the Genocide against the Tutsi. Some of
these children were left to fend for themselves. This led to the increase in the
phenomenon of child-headed households (CHHs). Rise in the number of widows,
orphans, the disabled etc.

Human Rights violation

Violation of Human Rights began prior to the genocide but it reached its peak during
the genocide.

Destruction of the social systems

The traditional protective structures, which held society together for many years,
were destroyed. Family networks, judicial and education systems were severely
aﬀected. Eﬀorts at rebuilding the structures were challenging. All these challenges
made the post-genocide government experience problems in rebuilding the country.
The country was also aﬀected by the spread of HIV and AIDS and poverty. These
issues were serious challenges to the efforts of the new government at rebuilding
the society.

Mistrust among neighbors

Participation in the genocide by people known to the victims spoiled relations
among neighbors. The victims mistrusted their neighbors who had participated in
CITIZENSHIP STUDENT’S BOOK, Senior 5 27
the genocide or had been passive bystanders. Relations between the two groups
were aﬀected.

Decadence of the country’s economy

During the genocide, most of the active population abandoned their economic
activities for looting and killing; other abandoned the country as refugees and
displaced people. The country recovered the development stage after their return
and reinstallation. Disgrace of Rwanda’s international image: after the genocide
against the Tutsi, the country was only seen in negative way by considering almost
the Rwandans as the killers. The Rwanda was also seen as a country destroyed
without any humanity and hope for the future.

Problem of delivering justice

After the genocide, Rwanda faced the problem of delivering justice. At the end of the
1994 genocide against Tutsi, more than one million (1 678 672) were suspected of
having participated in committing genocide had been apprehended and imprisoned.
Considering the big number of these prisoners who waited to be judged, it was
impossible to give justice to both victims and prisoners in a reasonable period.
Alternatives solutions, such as Gacaca has been initiated for that purpose.
Similarities and differences between the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
and other genocides
The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and other genocides which have so far taken
place in the world have the following as common features or similarities:

Thorough preparation and execution by the Government using militia or army; Large
mobilization of means and human resources to execute the genocide intention of
destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group;

Involvement of the government in coming up with the necessary measures to
destroy the targeted group; Ruthless killing of the targeted group in masses;

Innocent people belonging to the targeted group were killed. The survivors were
amputated, mutilated and maimed; cruel methods were used to torture victims
before killing them. Some examples of torture methods that have been used are:
burying them alive in mass graves, starving victims to death and fumigating them to
death in gas chambers with poisonous gases.

Trauma has been caused to the survivors of genocides as a result of loss of their
loved ones, loss of property and displacement. Authorities in the involved countries
have strongly denied genocide.

Differences between the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and other
genocides

The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi is different from other genocides due to the
following facts:

It was executed within a short period. Over one million people lost their lives in a
period of one hundred days. People killed their fellow citizens, their relatives and
neighbors. People who shared common culture fought, injured and killed each
other. The government agents, church members, security were all organs actively
involved in the Genocide.

Cruel methods were used in the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi. For example, torturing
victims before killing them, people were buried alive in mass graves, women were
raped before being killed, babies were crushed in mortars or being smashed on
walls.It came to an end when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) defeated the
genocidal forces in July 1994.

Application Activities 1.5
1. The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi led to both human and environmental
disaster. Explain this statement.
2. The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi had a very bad impact in the sector
of justice. Discuss this assertion.
3. Women are the category of people which deeply suffered during the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi. Write down a text of 200 words to explain
how this happened.

1.6. Consequences of genocide in general
Learning Activity 1.6
1. Discuss the kinds of bodily injuries that the Jews and the Tutsi sustained
during the genocides that befell them.
2. How did the injuries sustained by victims of the Genocide against the
Tutsi affect or change their lives?

The world has witnessed genocide and mass killings in different places. Genocide
has the following consequences:
• Loss of lives: Many lives are lost in the event of a genocide occurring, for
instance, 6million Jews and more than 1,074,017 Tutsi were killed in the
genocides.
• Sustainment of injuries: Many people sustain injuries during genocide
perpetration. Such injuries change the lives of survivors forever.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): The occurrence of a genocide
creates traumatic situations for the victims. Those who manage to survive
do suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The ugly scenes
survivors witness and many troubling conditions they endure during the
genocide bring about PTSD. Victims also experience other psychological
disorders, depression and excessive anger.
• Displacement of people: Some victims flee from areas where genocide is
taking place to look for safety.
• High number of orphans and other vulnerable dependents: The high
number of deaths associated with genocide usually results in a high number
of orphans and other vulnerable dependent. As a result, the society is tasked
to take care of the orphans. In worse cases, such children are left to fend for
themselves and most end up as child headed families.

• Spread of sexually transmitted diseases and infections: Women and girls
are raped and in some cases, contract sexually transmitted infections and
diseases such as HIV and AIDS, gonorrhea, herpes or syphilis.
• Damaged or destroyed relationships: The victim group and the perpetrator
group usually develop mistrust towards one another. This may prevent them
from working together in future. Genocide damaged or destroyed the good
relationships that existed between the victims and perpetrators.
• Destruction of property: During the occurrence of genocide, the victims’
properties are usually targeted too. Some are destroyed while others are
illegally or forcefully acquired by the perpetrators. All the genocides witnessed
in the world have led to negative impacts. This is why the occurrence of
genocide should be avoided by any society. Human beings should not plan
or implement a plan to murder others. Rationality should guide us into solving
any perceived or real problems in a peaceful and an amicable manner.

Application Activities 1.6
Compare and contrast the two genocide situations that we have learnt about in
the form of a table. Below is a format for the table to fill.

1.7. Ways of addressing the consequences of genocide with
special application to Rwanda
Learning Activity 1.8
Using the Internet, answer the following questions:
1. Explain ways in which the post-genocide government, civil society
groups, non-governmental organizations, individuals and the community
have used to address the consequences of Genocide against the Tutsi.
2. Examine ways in which community members can help reduce mistrust
between the survivors and perpetrators of the Genocide against the Tutsi.
3. Talk about the Gacaca Courts that have promoted communal healing
and rebuilding national cohesion.

The government alongside other partners and citizens has actively led in eﬀorts
aimed at addressing the consequences of genocide. Various measures have been
adopted to deal with the consequences of genocide. Some of these measures
include the following:

Gacaca courts

The Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during the Genocide
against the Tutsi. Rwandans came together to talk about what happened in 1994.
This laid the foundation for peace and reconciliation. A big number of genociderelated
cases were tried through Gacaca Courts. They helped speed up genocide
trials and strengthened unity and reconciliation by a find out the truth about genocide
and putting an end to the culture of impunity.

Social reconstruction and reconciliation

The Rwandan society was gravely affected by the genocide. Its social structures
were completely destroyed.
Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social structures that were once
destroyed.
Reconciliation refers to the process of making parties in a conflict mend and then
go on improving relations with each other. The two parties, after reconciling, reestablish
friendly relations having put aside their differences.

A third party usually facilitates reconciliation by bringing the two parties in conﬂict to
an agreement. Through the third party, the aggrieved parties open up for dialogue
to arrive at a peaceful reconciliation. Reconciliation is an interactive process that
requires a cooperative eﬀ ort between the parties involved. Individuals or groups
are encouraged to talk about the painful experiences they went through during the
genocide. This enables healing to
take root among the survivors and perpetrators alike. The government can do this
by making eﬀ orts to improve active bystandership, and promoting positive moral
values and peaceful coexistence through policies and practices.

Reconciliation is usually an interactive process, which demands that parties
involved move together for its attainment. It takes place over time, requires trust
and risk taking. Trudy Govier provides the following 11-step process as being vital
in the reconciliation process. The steps include:
For social reconstruction and reconciliation to be achieved, all parties involved in
conﬂict should go through the reconciliation process. Redress should take place for
social reconstruction of the Rwandan society to be achieved. This will bring about
restoration of the broken social structures.

At Political level

After stopping the genocide against the Tutsi by the FPR, the immediate strategy
was to rebuild peace and security as well as reconstructing Rwanda especially
infrastructures which was demolished during the time of genocide against Tutsi. In
July 1994, after the liberation of Rwanda, immediately the government of national
unity was implemented and was composed of different political parties headed by
the FPR Inkotanyi. This government implemented major strategies derived from
the pillars: unity and reconciliation among Rwandans, good government, economic
development of the country, security sustainability as well as social welfare of the
Rwandans.

The government also implemented major mechanisms such as government agenda
of not revenge and punish those who try to revenge after genocide, converging the
RPF soldiers and FAR Army and form RDF force, repatriation of refugees who
left from Rwanda before genocide and after genocide in 1994 as well as return all
properties to their owners, sharing the land among Rwandans, remove ethnics from
national identity and remain with one national identity card as a Rwandan, the merit
on education and employments to all young generation in Rwanda.

In 1996, Rwanda force entered into DRC, for the purpose of preventing insecurity to
Rwanda and fight against soldiers and militia who had participated in the genocide
fled to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), known as Zaire, and (infiltrators
named abacengezi in Kinyarwanda) back from DRC and attacked Rwanda mostly
in north and northwest and western party of Rwanda and return back the million
civilians refuges, most of them Hutu who had been told that the RPF would kill
them. Thousands died of water-borne diseases. The camps were also used by
former Rwandan government soldiers to re-arm and stage invasions into Rwanda.

The attacks were one of the factors leading to the war between Rwanda and the
Democratic Republic of Congo that took place in 1996. Former Rwandan forces
continue to operate in the DRC alongside Congolese militia and other armed
groups. They continue to target civilian populations and cause deaths, injury and
harm.

Between May 1998 and 1999 in the office of the President “Urugwiro Village” ensued
different meetings had discussion talks called “Urugwiro talks” and it happened
after four years the time of RPF Force stopping the genocide against Tutsi. The
reasons of Urugwiro talks was to find solutions of rebuilding the nation after it ruins
during the time of genocide against Tutsi, this led all Rwandans to rise up and meet

together and design the policy and vision of the country. These dialogue talks took
also most one year and a half and happened every weekend and people meet at
Urugwiro and discuss how the Rwandans can easily be outing from transitional
period and build new peaceful and development Rwanda. Different categories of
Rwandan categories participated in these talks. The included the ministers, heads
of prefectures, advocates, lecturers from university of Rwanda, people who were
representatives of the past political parties such as MDR, MRND, PSD who did not
immerse themselves in the genocide against Tutsi.
These talks or dialogues came up with a lot of strategies and new innovations
such as implementing national constitution voted by the citizens and drafted by the
researches and that’s why its preparations spent almost three and a half years and
citizen be involved to add their ideas and views as well as owning it as their national
constitution.

The led dialogue and discussions built the program of vision 2020, different
institutions including office of the Ombudsman, Office of Audit General (OAG), and
Senate mention but a few.
The establishment of the Government of National Unity after the Genocide against
the Tutsi. Institutional reform:
• Creation of the National Commission for Unity and Reconciliation;
• The National Commission for the Fight against Genocide;
• The National Commission for Human Rights;
• The National Electoral Commission and National Itorero commission as well
as Rwanda Governance Board.
• The abolition of different identity cards with ethnic mention, the annual national
dialogue conference, etc.
In context of preventing and fighting against genocide and its ideology, the
government established national commission for the fight against genocide (CNLG)
as well as FARG to matter of supporting genocide survivors.

Forgiveness

Forgiveness is the process of letting go feelings of anger and resentment towards an
individual who has done something bad or caused harm. Forgiveness beneﬁts both
parties to a conﬂict and is crucial in helping to preserve and enhance relationships.
Forgiveness usually takes time and demands patience from the parties involved.

Counselors have a role to play in achieving this process. Forgiveness is usually
voluntary and people should not be forced to forgive. After forgiveness is achieved,
reconciliation can now set in. Forgiveness enables victims and perpetrators of
genocide to achieve reconciliation and sustainable peace.

According to Trudy Govier, forgiveness demands that the wrongdoer acknowledges
his or her misdeeds to pave way for forgiveness. Victims should not take revenge
on the perpetrators. This is because forgiveness is better and healthier in a postgenocide
environment. We should remember that in forgiving the oﬀ ender, the
victim acknowledges him or her as a human being worthy of dignity and with the
moral freedom to change his or her ways.

Judicial system.

Implementing the special chambers for genocide perpetrators trials. The aftermath
of genocide against Tutsi, Rwanda faced invasive challenge of trial judging cases
of the genocide perpetrators suspects and those who committed the crimes against
humanity for the purpose of delivering justice for genocide victims as well as
eradicating the culture of impunity. The genocide suspects were imprisoned, the
number was very huge and over the judicial organs capacity, which was actually
ruined and destroyed during the genocide against Tutsi.

To find the solution of the challenge, in 1996, enacted the organic law no 08/96 on
30th/08/1996 dealing with the crimes that constitute the crime of genocide as well
as crimes against humanity.

The major elements included of this law were:
Implement special chambers within the first instance courts for specifically trying and
judging the people who accused crime of genocide and crimes against humanity in
Rwanda from 01 October 1990.

To put those who accused of genocide in different categories depending of tense
of the crimes committed and related sentences in crime categories. Implement
the ways of how the accused perpetrators can have a chance of agree the crime
they committed, repent and ask forgiveness, testify the truth-telling testimonies of
genocide against Tutsi, which based on reducing their penalties.

In 1998, genocide crime and crimes against humanity prisoners was counted to
130.000 and trial cases was only 1.300. This to say that, if trial and judging of this
way of all genocide prisoners continued, it would take over 100 years. That’s why
the government of Rwanda, find the solution of this challenge, which was easier,
genuine and fast of trying and judging the genocide cases. It is the “Rebirth of
Gacaca”.

Benevolence refers to the willingness to help, being generous or performing acts of
kindness. Human beings are usually capable of expressing benevolence regardless
of whether they are victims or perpetrators of violence. It involves development of
empathic/ empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take responsibility for
assisting victims.
People who have suﬀered usually care about other peoples’ suﬀering especially
if they have experienced protective and healing processes. This involves having
been helped by others or acting on other peoples’ behalf at the time of suﬀering.

Therefore, the victim group reaches out to assist other groups undergoing similar
situations to them. Thomas Vincent Flores developed a continuum of benevolence
which together with relevant ideas from Ervin Staub, served as a basis for an
adaptation that was made by Aegis Trust in the framework of the Rwanda Peace
Education Programme in 2013. This adapted continuum of benevolence by Aegis
Trust comprises ten steps.
There is a need to have peace to address the consequences of genocide. We
should all feel part of the Rwandan community and appreciate one another. This
can be achieved by living together in harmony without conﬂict and tension.

The process of benevolence goes through the ten steps above. The 8th step,
community, a feeling of fellowship with others resonates well with “Ndi
Umunyarwanda” which means ‘I am Rwandan’. It enables us to see one another,
regardless of the diﬀerences that may exist between us, as one people belonging
to one community. This has the potential of healing the wounds that were inﬂicted
by the genocide against the Tutsi. We are all brothers and sisters; we belong to one
family, Rwanda.

“NdiUmunyarwanda” means a call for individual and collective responsibility in
rebuilding the broken social structures. It also rekindles the true Rwandan spirit
of oneness, oﬀers a reﬂection on the painful past and provides the determination
to build a brighter future. It invokes the promotion of patriotism, integrity, selfworth,
solidarity, tolerance, self-reliance, nationalism, social cohesion and shared
language, values, norms and cultural practices.

All citizens of Rwanda need to keep the spirit of “Ndi Umunyarwanda” alive, as
they owe it to themselves and to future generations. This will ensure that the social
reconstruction and reconciliation process is not compromised and brings about
national cohesion.

Application Activities 1.7
1. Explain challenges faced by individuals, the community and the postgenocide
government in Rwanda during the social reconstruction and
reconciliation process.
2. Examine the impact of revenge on an individual and the society at social
and political levels.
3. Examine the importance of apologizing towards the improvement of
relationships destroyed in a conflict.
4. Align the 8th step of the continuum of benevolence with ‘NdiUmunyarwanda’
and show how it can help in healing the wounds inflicted by the Genocide
against the Tutsi.

1.8. Prevention of genocide in general

Learning Activity 1.8
Using the Internet, answer the following questions:
1. Define the concepts of genocide and genocide prevention.
2. Account for any three factors that may lead to genocide.
3. Explain any two practices that can lead to genocide

All efforts should be made to keep the occurrence of genocide at bay. This should
be done at the individual, societal and national as well as international levels. Some
of the ways that promote peace, social cohesion and peaceful coexistence in order
to prevent genocide include the following:

1.8.1. Development of critical thinking

Critical thinking lies at the heart of social cohesion. When people think critically,
they are able to make conscious, responsible and positive decisions. Therefore,
when incited to kill others they fail to honor such calls.

1.8.2. Promotion of empathy

Empathy is critical in achieving social cohesion, which keeps genocide at bay.
Empathy is the ability to sense and understand the feelings of other people as
if they were our own. Developing the feeling of empathy begins from the mind.
We need to process feelings through successive mental activities by thinking,
understanding, learning and remembering to feel the pain of others.

Being empathetic/empathic does not lower ones value in any way. Instead, it makes
us humane and goes a long way in trying to help the victims. Empathy enables us to
understand the perspective and to feel the pain of fellow human beings.

1.8.3. Active bystandership
A bystander is a person who is in a position to know about or see events happening
in his or her environment. However, they are not directly involved in them. There
are two types of bystanders, internal bystanders (members of the population where
violence is occurring) and external bystanders (outside groups, organizations and
nations).
Active bystandership: means that individuals, organizations and nations should
intervene whenever situations that may lead to violence in a country occur. People
should promote morality with responsibility and render both material and nonmaterial
support when called upon or on their own initiative when violence occurs.
Active bystandership should be promoted in all segments of the population. All
leaders should speak against any form of verbal and physical attacks in any section
of the population. To increase acts of active bystandership, it is vital to foster values
such as empathy, love, respect and care for other people’s welfare.

1.8.4. Individual responsibility

It is every individual’s responsibility to prevent any act of violence from taking
place. We should condemn violence through our actions and encourage practices
or activities that promote a culture of peace in our communities. Where possible,
we should pay attention to the following guidelines in an effort to resolve conflicts:
Remain calm after conflict;
Set the tone, do not overreact;
Analyze and understand where the conflict comes from;
Take total responsibility for personal action;
Use messages to communicate and express our needs and feelings;
Attentively and actively listen to the needs of others;
List and evaluate possible solutions. While doing this, be objective and fair;
Agree on a solution. It should not always work for you. It may work against you;
Keep your word and follow the agreement settled on. If you are dissatisfied,
communicate it as soon as possible to clear the air;
Ask for assistance from a trusted friend if the conflict cannot be resolved.

1.8.5. Resistance to manipulation and incitement to violence

In most cases, leaders and those in authority are responsible for manipulating
and inciting people to violence. As individuals and law-abiding citizens, we are
supposed to resist calls to engage in violence. We should be guided by the principle
that a leader is a first among equals. We should not shy away from identifying their
mistakes to enable us live harmoniously in the society. Bringing pressure on our
leaders will make them desist from hate speech and incitement that encourages
violent attacks on other groups.

Application Activities 1.8
1. Discuss interventions that individuals, nations, regional and international
organisations should undertake to prevent the occurrence of genocide.
2. Evaluate the effects of spreading propaganda, stereotyping, and racial
and ethnic profiling in the occurrence of genocide
3. Recommend ways in which individual responsibility can be used to
educate people to prevent the spread of violence?

1.9. Prevention of any future occurrence of genocide in Rwanda
Learning Activity 1.9
Examine measures taken by the post-genocide society in Rwanda to prevent
any or the future recurrence of genocide.

Prevention of genocide demands a concerted effort from all individuals, the
government and its partners alike. It should take a political, economic, social and
psychological approach. Economic development, increased security during postconflict
reconstruction, prevention of new cycles of violence, an effective judicial
system and development of other structural elements are important steps towards
preventing any future occurrence of genocide. Essential to the prevention of
genocide in Rwanda is the promotion of humanistic and national values such as
the following:

Peace building

Genocide begins in the minds of the people; therefore, it is also in the people’s minds
that defenses of peace must be constructed. Peace building involves various efforts
that usually begin with the creation of a culture of peace, which is accompanied by
harmony, cooperation and co-existence among the people.

A peaceful environment gives rise to behavior that respects life and human dignity.
It promotes observance of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, rejection of
violence and commitment to principles of freedom, justice, solidarity,understanding
between people, observance of open communication, cooperation, harmony and
observance of the rule of law.

Every effort should thus be channeled to the fulfilment of these needs to enable
peace building to be achieved. This requires that we all put our forces together
as individuals and members of the community to help the government and other
partners, both local and international, to promote peace. Some of the peace building
activities may include rebuilding ruined houses, cleaning up neighborhoods,
participating in business projects and sports. Such measures reduce mistrust,
antagonism and hostility between conflicting groups.

Peace building equally requires the administration of justice in post-genocide
society. Punishment of key perpetrators usually helps in reconciliation. In addition,
victims are relieved when public discussions are held and other forms of justice are
set on course, for example, the Gacaca courts and “Ndi Umunyarwanda” talks or
retreats.

Resilience

Resilience refers to a person’s ability to recover easily and quickly from a problem
or illness. The Genocide against the Tutsi was a great misfortune to individuals,
community and the state. People went through horrendous moments during the
100 days of genocide. Survivors recovered at different rates. This is because the
rate of resilience varies from individual to individual.

Survivors need to gain renewed trust with those they interact with in life. This is
cultivated by taking care of other people. This experience leads to strong feelings
of empathy, caring, sympathy and responsibility to help those in need. Generally,
survivors should be exposed to experiences that express love, hope and care. One
also needs moral courage to help those in need. This may only be possible where
the basic and psychological needs of the survivors are adequately catered for.

Benevolence

Benevolence means the desire or inclination to do good to others. We should be
good and generous to those around us regardless of the differences we have. This
enables us to prevent any harm being done to other people. Benevolence should
be expressed in our words and actions to fellow human beings. This demands that
we develop trust, care and love for other people.

Awareness and memory

Awareness and memory about the genocide against the Tutsi should be made
through a variety of ways such as:
– Inclusion of genocide studies in the curriculum;
– Establishing genocide memorials and museums;
– Establishing days for genocide commemorations;
– Coverage of the horrors of the genocide in mass media;
– Recording genocide events in books and other sources.
Through the above measures, awareness and memory of the genocide will remain
in the minds of all people.

Telling the truth

To prevent any future occurrence of genocide, we should be truthful about what
occurred. Telling the truth is one of the ways that enables a society to give room for
reconciliation.

Repentance and forgiveness

All religions stress the importance of repentance and forgiveness in addressing
human conflict. Those culpable of genocide should repent and the survivors should
forgive. As we have already observed, the perpetrators must acknowledge their
culpability of acts of genocide and apologize. This gives room for reconciliation
and peace building efforts in a post-genocide society. Several Genocide survivors
around the country accepted to live peacefully with perpetrators who had asked for
forgiveness for their role in the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

Reconciliation

Any attempts at reconciliation should begin with justice, individual and collective
responsibility, acknowledgement and forgiveness. These factors are vital in the
journey towards reconciliation. In a post-genocide society, the need for reconciliation
can arise at the following levels:
– Individual
– Family
– Small group or community
– Intergroup or intercommunity
– National
– International
For reconciliation to occur, the elements of truth, mercy, peace and justice must be
present. It is vital to repent, forgive and focus our attention on how we can rebuild
our country. Reconciliation demands looking at the past and asking what was done.
In the future, we need to ask how one can move beyond the wrongs of the past,
having understood and acknowledged those wrongs.

Reconciliation leads to positive and constructive relationships. This makes former
enemies see each other as fellow human beings who live and work together. It
brings forth relationships characterized by respect, acceptance and trust. To
enable healing, the survivors and perpetrators should both feel associated with the
experience of commemorating the genocide against the Tutsi.

Dialogue and consensus building

Genocide recurrence finds a fertile ground where people do not talk to each other or
disagree on issues. Everyone should be enabled to freely communicate their ideas.
An open environment and mutual respect gives rise to dialogue and consensus
building. It also demands accommodation of diverse opinions. Any emergence of
controversial views should be handled in an honest manner.

Active listening

Active listening involves effective communication. Freedom of expression should
be allowed for all individuals in a post-genocide society. However, such freedom
comes with restrictions which call for responsibility to refrain from its abuse. Active
listening demands that we shun ignorance and irresponsibility in our day-to-day
lives. It also demands that we avoid being passive listeners. We should know what
other people think and feel and avoid being selfish and equally take responsibility
where we see Human Rights are being violated.

Inclusiveness

All human beings are equal and no one should be discriminated against in any way.
All members of the society, regardless of the differences that may exist, should be
treated equally and fairly. All people should be given all the services they require
and equal opportunities and be subjected to similar laws by the state and its agents.

Exclusivity has been known to engender genocide. Every effort should thus be
made to bring every citizen on board. Fundamental principles, in article 10 for
national constitution all derived from “Urugwiro talks” another principle emanated
from Arusha peace agreements. These fundamental doctrines, 6 of them, in their
article 10 for 2013 national constitution, as it was amended in 2015 are as follows:
– To prevent and punish genocide crime perpetrators, fight against genocide
denials as well as uprooting genocide ideology and its related cases;
– Uprooting discriminations and divisionism stems from ethnicity, district origins
etc. and promoting unity among Rwandans;
– Power-sharing without greed;
– Build the constitutional and democratic government based on different political
opinions, equality of Rwanda as well as gender equality which emphasized
30% of women in different positions in decision making organs;
– Build the government that struggle for social welfare of the citizens as well as
implementing different ways of having the equal social welfare opportunities
– Find the solutions for the government through peace talks and mutual
consensus.

Application Activities 1.9
1. Examine measures taken by the post-genocide society in Rwanda to
prevent any or the future recurrence of genocide.
2. Discuss efforts you can make to promote peace building in a post-conflict
community.
3. Analyze the effects of repentance and forgiveness in post-genocide
Rwanda
4. Research and find out challenges experienced by the post-genocide
society in Rwanda in their efforts to promote reconciliation.
5. Explain the importance of dialogue, consensus building and active
listening in post-genocide Rwanda.
1.10. End Unit assessment
End of unit assessment
1. Explain the concept of genocide.
2. Describe the differences between the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in
Rwanda and other genocides.
3. Describe the common features between genocides that have been
committed all over the world.
4. Identify how genocide develops using the continuum of violence devised
by Gregory H. Stanton.
5. Discuss the consequences of genocide.
6. Examine ways in which genocide can be prevented in any society.
7. Analyze the causes and consequences of the Genocide against the Tutsi.
8. Explain ways of addressing the consequences of genocide with special
application to Rwanda.
9. Discuss ways through which future occurrence of Genocide in Rwanda
can be prevented.
10. Describe Rwandan values and explain how they contribute to preventing
genocide ideology.
11. Examine the way members of your community live with each other. Does
the behavior that individuals display fit into a cohesive society?
12. Describe how you can dissociate from and speak out against evil and
violent actions in society.
13. What are your feelings on the Genocide against the Tutsi and the
Holocaust?
UNIT 2: DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE
Key Unit Competence:
To be able to analyze and appreciate the role of democracy in enhancing good
governance

Introductory activity 2
1. Research and find out the differences between a state and a nation.
2. Explain the meaning of democracy and good governance.
3. Discuss the role of democracy in enhancing good governance.

2.1. Concept of state
Learning Activity 2.1
Use the internet and make research to find out the meaning of the concept of
State.

A State is an organized political community that is controlled by a government. A
State begins from the family level and is there for the well-being of the family. A
nation, on the other hand, is a bigger community of people who have a common
conscious of sharing similar historical, cultural and religious as well as linguistic
identity and backgrounds.

State is a political organization of society, or the politic body, or, more narrowly, the
institutions of government. The state is a form of human association distinguished
from other social groups by its purpose, the establishment of order and security;
its methods, the laws and their enforcement; its territory, the area of jurisdiction
or geographic boundaries; and finally by its sovereignty. The state consists, most
broadly, of the agreement of the individuals on the means whereby disputes are
settled in the form of laws.

A state is a community of people occupying a definite territory organized under a
government that is supreme over all persons and associations within its territory
and independent from all foreign control or power e.g. the state of Rwanda, Israel,
etc.

State refers to a group of people who are responsible for controlling (leading) a
country or a state. e.g. ministers, members of parliament etc. Citizens have equal
rights according to the laws of the state. States usually exercise judicial, executive
and legislative powers. Additionally, states can be changed in terms of both their
status and their boundaries.

A state comprises people, territory, power and sovereignty: people is population
with a nationality, foreigners living on the territory and phenomenal residents who
are foreigners for short durations; territory is a ground, underground, aerial space
and maritime space; a power is a whole set of controls governed by rules and
regulations of a Nation and sovereignty which is a political organization with a
centralized government that has supreme independent authority over a geographic
area.

In a federal union, the term “state” is sometimes used to refer to the federated
polities that make up the federation. (Other terms that are used in such federal
systems may include “province”, “region” or other terms.)

In international law, such entities are not considered states, which is a term that
relates only to the national entity, commonly referred to as the country or nation.

A state usually has people, territory, boundaries and leadership. This gives a state
the legitimacy that enables it to exercise power within its borders. All states have
laws (written or unwritten) which guide them in their day to-day operations. States
usually go out of their way to protect their interests. More often than not, a state will
strive to protect its sovereignty without which, it ceases to be.

A state is also a polity under a system of governance with a monopoly on force
According Max Weber a German sociologist a “state” is a polity that maintains a
monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. Some states are sovereign (known as
sovereign states), while others are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony,
wherein supreme authority lies in another state.

According to Thomas Hobbes, a philosopher, a state has four manly duties:
• to defend the nation against foreign enemies;
• to preserve peace and internal security;
• to allow subjects to enrich themselves;
• to allow freedom that does not threaten security.
Sometimes, there is a confounding definition between “State” and “Government”
which are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some
academic discourse. According to this definition schema, the states are nonphysical
persons of international law, while governments are organizations of people.

The relationship between a government and state is one of representation and
authorized agency.

A state can be distinguished from a government. The state is the organization while
the government is the particular group of people, the administrative bureaucracy
that controls the state apparatus at a given time. That is, governments are the
means through which state power is employed. States are served by a continuous
succession of different governments.

Application Activities 2.1
Comment this assertion “I am proud to be a Rwandan citizen’.

2.2. Concept of democracy
Learning Activity 2.2
Use different books in your library, make research, and find out the concept of
democracy.

Introduction
After the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda managed
to make a number of achievements in the promotion of democracy. In the area
of democracy, the democratization process culminated into the establishment of
elected institutions both at local and national levels.

In 2003, a new constitution was adopted, presidential and parliamentary were
organized. It also has as focal point the principle of multi-party system and
separation of powers.

In addition, according to the Rwandan Constitution and the principle of power
sharing, a political organization holding the majority of seats in the Chamber of
Deputies cannot have more than fifty (50%) percent of Cabinet members. Moreover,
the rule of law, one of the facets of constitutionalism in Rwanda is respected since
state institutions act in accordance with the law.

Concept of democracy

The word “democracy” is made up of two different words. Those are Greek words
“Demos” and “Kratos” which respectively translate to “people” and “power”.
Etymologically, the term “Democracy” is defined as a form of government where
power ultimately rests in people’s hands.

Basically, democracy is defined as the government in which the supreme power is
rested in the people. In some forms, democracy can be exercised directly by the
people but in large societies, it is by the people through their elected representatives.

In the memorable phrase of American President Abraham Lincoln, democracy
is the government of “the people, by the people, and for the people”. Therefore,
democracy is simply defined as “A government of the people, for the people and
by the people” government where the citizens directly exercise their power, and
have the right to elect the government representatives who collectively create a
government body for the entire nation (like, a parliament).

Democracy is generally defined as the government of people, by people and
for people. The underlying factor is that people own the sovereignty through
transparently elected representatives by a majority vote. This representation of
people reflects the citizens’ authentic free will. Democracy implies the respect of
the following principles:
– The people’s sovereignty and the government’s (legislative, executive,
and judiciary, each power being independent from the other) respect of the
people’s free will as expressed by their votes.
– The guarantee of fundamental citizens’ rights, legal equality and the strict
respect of law by every citizen;
– The constitution that clearly defines the main principles as well as performances
and limits of political institutions, multiparty system and respect for social
diversity.

In a democratic government, people have certain basic rights that the government
cannot take away from these rights are internationally recognized and guaranteed.
Freedom and democracy are often used interchangeably, but the two are not
synonymous. Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom,
but it also consists of practices and procedures that have been molded through
history. Democracy is the institutionalization of freedom and has different features.

Democracy is against all kind racism; ethnic, religious and regional based ideologies.
It is against any type of coup d’état or any government that does not respect its
constitutional norms. In democracy, all elections must be transparent. The citizens
differ in terms of opinions, beliefs, religion, cultures and aspirations and democracy
must respect this social diversity because it is part of their ‘fundamental rights as
well as their pillars of social dynamism.

In general, two key elements in and topics related to democracy are the
participation of the people and the elections by the people and the transparency of
the government. There are some restrictions in a representative democracy and,
for that reason, participation will be necessary to maintain the connection between
the government and the people. Nevertheless, to have an adequate functioning of
this participation and of the elections, transparency on behalf of the government is
a necessary condition for a democracy.

2.2.1 Basic features of democracy

The main features of democracy are indisputable initial requirements that are
imposed on all participants of political activities in the country. The basic features of
democracy include the following:

Political freedom: this means, a freedom of choice, social order and form of
government. It refers to the right of people to determine and change constitutional
order and ensure the protection of Human Rights.

Equality of citizens: this means equality of all people before the law, equal
responsibility of any committed offense and the right to equal protection before
court. Equality is guaranteed for all citizens. The most important aspect is the
equality of rights and freedom of men and women who have the same opportunities
for their implementation.
Selectivity of state bodies
This implies formation of authorities and local government through the people’s will.
It ensures their ability, control and equal opportunity to exercise electoral rights for
everybody.
Separation of powers
This means that interdependence and mutual restrictions are imposed on different
branches of power: legislative, executive and judicial powers. It serves as a means
of checks and balance in order to avoid the accumulation of powers in the hands
of some individuals who would transform their power into a means of suppressing
freedom and equality.

Pluralism
It refers to the diversity of social phenomena, broadening of the range of political
choice, leading not only pluralism of opinions but also political pluralism, the plurality
of parties, public associations, etc. Only when in conjunction with other principles,
pluralism assumes universal significance for modern democracy.

2.2.2. Different forms of democracy
Forms of democracy
The main forms of democracy every country interprets the meaning of democracy
in its own particular way. With a wide range of different geopolitical atmospheres,
there is a large spectrum of democratic governments in existence around the
globe. These include direct democracy, representative democracy, presidential
democracy, parliamentary democracy, authoritarian democracy, participatory
democracy, Islamic democracy and social democracy. Moreover, to shed light on
the above forms of democracy, the following explanations are provided.

Direct democracy
Direct democracy can only be exercised in areas with few people. A direct
democracy is when citizens get to vote for a policy directly, without any intermediate
representative or parliament. If the government has to pass a certain law or policy,
it goes to the people. The latter vote on the issue and decide the fate of their own
country. Direct democracy is practiced during a referendum. The people can even
bring up issues themselves, as long as they have a substantial consensus on the
matter. When the population is small, educated and mostly homogeneous, a direct
democracy does not seem like a bad idea.

Indirect democracy
Indirect democracy or Representative democracy is practiced in many states in the
world where citizens elect representatives who make decisions or laws that govern
them on their behalf. Indirect democracy is when people choose to vote for who
will represent them in the parliament. This is the most common form of democracy
found across the World. However, most countries are too large and too complicated
for direct democracy to work within their political borders. In those cases, people
prefer to elect representatives on their behalf, rather than vote on every single
issue.
A liberal democracy
Is a democracy that can take on different forms, since different countries have
different needs and different ideologies.
The following types are just a few subsets of representative democracy.
Presidential democracy
Under a presidential democracy, the president of the state has a significant amount
of power over the government. He/she is either directly or indirectly elected by
citizens of the state. The president and the executive branch of the government are
not liable to the legislature, but cannot, under normal circumstances, dismiss the
legislature entirely.
Similarly, the legislature cannot remove the president from his/ her office either,
unless the case is extreme. In a presidential democracy, the head of state is also
the head of the government. Countries like the USA, Argentina, and Sudan employ
this kind of democracy.
Parliamentary democracy
CITIZENSHIP STUDENT’S BOOK, Senior 5 53
Is A democracy that gives more power to the legislature is called a parliamentary
democracy. The executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy only from
the legislature, i.e. the parliament. The head of state is different from the head of
government, and both have varying degrees of power. However, in most cases, the
president is either a weak monarch (e.g. the United Kingdom) or a ceremonial head
(e.g. India).
Participatory democracy
This is the exact opposite of authoritarian form of democracy. There are different
types of participatory democracy, but all of them yearn to create opportunities for
all members of the population to make meaningful contributions to the decisionmaking
process. It empowers the disempowered by breaking up the state into small
networks and prefers to empower community-based grassroots politics. It values
deliberation and discussion, rather than merely voting.
Today, no country actively practices this form of democracy.
Social democracy
Arose as a reaction to neoliberal policies in international economics. Under neoliberalism,
profit-making entities like multinational corporations can easily infiltrate
other political states, thus the power of the political state seems weak. Social
democracy aims at empowering the state in favour of the neoliberal market. There
are as many theories concerned with democracy as there are different governments
in the World.

Application Activities 2.2
Etymologically, the term democracy means power of people, basing on your
own experience and the Rwandan context, attempt another definition but do
not exceed two lines.

2.3. Concept of good governance
Learning Activity 2.3
Make a research in library or use internet and find out the meaning of the term
good governance

2.3.1. What is Good Governance?
The Government of Rwanda defines good governance as: “the exercise of
political, economic and administrative authority to manage the nation’s affairs
and the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions as well
as leadership behavior through which citizens’ groups articulate their interests,
exercise their rights and obligations and meditate their differences”.

The Government is committed to ensuring good governance at all levels of public
administration. Laws were passed by the National Assembly that created checks
against the abuse of executive power, mismanagement and corruption. This was a
marked departure from the 1962-1994 era.

Institutions were created and given constitutional powers with which to ensure
accountability and transparency. These institutions include the RPPA that ensures
transparency in the award of government tenders; the Office of Auditor-General
which audits all government accounts and expenditure; the Rwanda Revenue
Authority which is a semi-autonomous body charged with tax collection.

In addition, the National Assembly was empowered as never before to take up
its role as a check against the abuse of power, corruption and mismanagement.
Government ministers and Directors General of institutions were to justify their
ministry budgets and account for expenditure to the national assembly.

Governance as the normative sense has given the concept of ‘Good Governance’.
It refers to the welfare in governance and improving the quality of governance. It
enables the government to provide equal opportunities and fair delivery of goods
and services to the people who are most marginal in society.

Good governance refers to mobilizing the people of a country in the best direction
possible. It requires the unity of people in society and motivates them to attain
political objectivity. In other words, it ensures proper utilization of all the resources
of the state for its citizens that ensures sustainable development.

The term ‘Good Governance’ is very popular in the field of Public Administration
as well as social sciences during the last decade. However, the concept of good
governance is very old, like human civilization.

Good governance is a legal concept and a cornerstone of the modern state. It is
the most modern of the three cornerstones of the state, whereas the rule of law and
democracy concepts are the more classical yet still lively cornerstones.

Good governance is a term used to describe how public institutions conduct their
affairs in the management of their activities and resources. It should be witnessed in
all types of governance; public, state, corporate and global. Governance analyses
‘what is’ and good governance analyses ‘what ought to be’. Therefore, individuals
entrusted with responsibilities should be held responsible and accountable for
ethical and moral consequences of their actions.

Another way to think about good governance is through outcomes. Since governments
carry out with goals like the provision of public goods to its citizens, there is no
better way to think about good governance other than through deliverables, which
are precisely the one demanded by citizens, like security, health, education, water,
the enforcement of contracts, protection to property, protection to the environment
and their ability to vote and get paid fair wages

Similarly, good governance might be approximated with provision of public services
in an efficient manner, higher participation given to certain groups in the population
like the poor and the minorities, the guarantee that citizens have the opportunity
of checks and balances on the government, the establishment and enforcement
of norms for the protection of the citizens and their property and the existence of
independent judiciary systems.

According to UNDP, “Good Governance is, among other things, participatory,
transparent and accountable. It is also effective and equitable. In addition, it
promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political, social, and
economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices
of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision making over the
allocation of development resources”.

In international development, good governance is a way of measuring how
public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources in a preferred
way. Governance is «the process of decision-making and the process by which
decisions are implemented or not implemented. Thus, Governance in this context
can apply to corporate, international, national, or local governance as well as the
interactions between other sectors of society.

The concept of “good governance” thus emerges as a model to compare ineffective
economies or political bodies with viable economies and political bodies. The
opposite of good governance, as a concept, is bad governance.

According to the World Bank report in 1992, “good governance is central to creating
and sustaining an environment which fosters strong and equitable development
and it is an essential complement to sound economic policies”.

Governance needs some parameters to make it good. From the above definitions,
it can be said that good governance has some Characteristics or indicators for
the establishment of sound economic management and ensuring the relationship
between the state and civil society. According to the United Nations, Good
Governance is measured by the eight factors which are mentioned below.
These are mentioned below:
Participation requires that all groups, particularly those most vulnerable, have
direct or representative access to the systems of government. This manifests as
a strong civil society and citizens with the freedom of association and expression.
Rule of Law is exemplified by impartial legal systems that protect the Human
Rights and civil liberties of all citizens, particularly minorities. This is indicated by an
independent judicial branch and a police force free from corruption.
Transparency means that citizens understand and have access to the means and
manner in which decisions are made, especially if they are directly affected by such
decisions. This information must be provided in an understandable and accessible
format, typically translated through the media.
Responsiveness simply involves that institutions respond to their stakeholders
within a reasonable time frame.
Consensus Oriented is demonstrated by an agenda that seeks to mediate between
the many different needs, perspectives, and expectations of a diverse citizenry.
Decisions need to be made in a manner that reflects a deep understanding of the
historical, cultural, and social context of the community.
Equity and Inclusiveness depend on ensuring that all the members of a community
feel included and empowered to improve or maintain their well-being, especially
those individuals and groups that are the most vulnerable.
Effectiveness and Efficiency are developed through the sustainable use of
resources to meet the needs of society. Sustainability refers to both ensuring
social investments carry through and natural resources are maintained for future
generations.
Accountability refers to institutions being ultimately accountable to the people
and one another. This includes government agencies, civil society, and the private
sector all being accountable to one another as well.

2.3.2. Importance of Good Governance
Economic Development
Without good governance in a state, the economic development of that state is not
stable. All elements of economic development, such as production, distribution,
investment, and even consumption, face various obstacles. If good governance
is established, such obstacles will be removed and the fair distribution of state
resources will be possible.
Social Development
Good governance is essential for social development. The role of it does not end
only with economic development. The result of development ensures that every
class of people in society enjoys the basis of fairness. People of different religions,
castes, and classes live in a society. Now, if there is no fair distribution of wealth
among all these people, social discontent will increase. Again, the proper distribution
of wealth is not enough. We have to make arrangements so that the minority people
can walk without fear. In the same way, various reform laws have to be enacted to
reduce the gap between men and women in society.
Political Development
Its relationship with political development is quite important. If the political leaders
of a country are not active in establishing good governance, then its establishment
in that country is not possible. Its success depends largely on the sincerity of the
political leadership and adherence to the rules and regulations of the political
establishment.

The constructive cooperation between the political institutions and the political parties
and the formulation of programs for the welfare of the people play an important role
in establishing good competition and good governance among themselves. For
example, in a democracy, mutual cooperation between the government and the
opposition helps to establish it in the country.

2.3.3.The link between good governance and Human Rights
Good governance and Human Rights are mutually reinforcing. Human Rights
standards and principles provide a set of values to guide the work of governments
and other political and social actors. They also provide a set of performance
standards against which these actors can be held accountable. Moreover, human
rights principles inform the content of good governance efforts: they may inform the
development of legislative frameworks, policies, programs, budgetary allocations,
and other measures.

On the other hand, without good governance, Human Rights cannot be respected
and protected in a sustainable manner. The implementation of Human Rights
relies on a conducive and enabling environment. This includes appropriate legal
frameworks and institutions as well as political, managerial, and administrative
processes responsible for responding to the rights and needs of the population.
The links between good governance and Human Rights can be organized around
four areas:
1. Democratic institutions
When led by Human Rights values, good governance reforms of democratic
institutions create avenues for the public to participate in policymaking either
through formal institutions or through informal consultations. They also establish
mechanisms for the inclusion of multiple social groups in decision-making processes,
especially locally. Finally, they may encourage civil society and local communities
to formulate and express their positions on issues of importance to them.
2. Public service delivery
In the realm of delivering state services to the public, good governance reforms
advance Human Rights when they improve the state’s capacity to fulfill its
responsibility to provide public goods, which are essential for the protection of a
number of human rights, such as the right to education, health, and food. Reform
initiatives may include mechanisms of accountability and transparency, culturally
sensitive policy tools to ensure that services are accessible and acceptable to all
and paths for public participation in decision-making.
3. Rule of law
When it comes to the rule of law, human rights-sensitive good governance initiatives
reform legislation and assist institutions ranging from penal systems to courts and
parliaments to better implement that legislation. Good governance initiatives may
include advocacy for legal reform, public awareness - raising on the national and
international legal framework, and capacity-building or reform of institutions.

4. Anti-corruption
In fighting corruption, good governance efforts rely on principles such as
accountability, transparency, and participation to shape anti-corruption measures.
Initiatives may include establishing institutions such as anti-corruption commissions,
creating mechanisms of information sharing, and monitoring governments’ use of
public funds and implementation of policies.
Conclusion
In conclusion, good governance is the proper management of the state, society, and
resources. It seeks to protect the interests of people from all classes. It emphasizes
on public sector management, the legal framework for development, accountability,
transparency, and free flow of information.

When good governance is established in a state, people can easily guess it by some
of its characteristics. Then characteristics of good governance like Participation,
Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness, Consensus Oriented, Equity and
Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Efficiency, Accountability can be easily noticed.

There is good governance for political, economic, and social development. Good
governance and development complement each other. It protects the social,
economic, and political rights of citizens irrespective of race, religion, caste, gender.
As a result, a country’s development index tends to go up.

Application Activities 2.3.3
1. Describe the achievements the government of Rwanda has made to
improve Good governance in service delivery.
2. Analyze the characteristics of Good governance

2.4. State governance and the three powers
Learning Activity 2.4
Explain the roles of various actors of state governance in Rwanda

A state is an organized political community acting under a government. States differ
in sovereignty, governance, geography, and interests. States may be classified as
sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to, any other power or state.
States are considered to be subject to external sovereignty, or hegemony, if
their ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. A federated state is a territorial,
constitutional community that forms part of a federation. Such states differ from
sovereign states, in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers
to a federal government.

The concept of the state is different from the concept of government. A government
is the particular group of people that controls the state apparatus at a given time. In
other words, governments are the means through which state power is employed;
for example, by applying the rule of law. The rule of law is a legal maxim whereby
governmental decisions are made by applying known legal principles. The rule of
law is rule not by one person, as in an absolute monarchy, but by laws, as in a
democratic republic; no one person can rule and even top government officials are
under and ruled by the law.

The concept of the state is also different from the concept of a nation, which refers
to a large geographical area and the people therein who perceive themselves as
having a common identity. The state is a political and geopolitical entity; the nation
is a cultural or ethnic entity. The nation state is a state that self-identifies as deriving
its political legitimacy from serving as a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign
territorial unit.

State structures (state institutions) are the visible embodiment (picture) of the idea
of the state: The Ministries, agencies and forces created to act on the instructions
of the individuals who have gained political decision making power (governments).

State institutions include:
– Legislatures, like the Rwandan parliament, to make laws
– Judicial Systems, like the Rwandan court systems, to interpret laws
– Executive agencies, such as the ministries and others, to administer the laws
which control the domestic economy, education, trade, and diplomacy, for
example
– Police and military forces, to provide security

A state can be distinguished from a government. The state is the organization while
the government is the particular group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that
controls the state apparatus at a given period of time. That is, governments are the
means through which state power is employed. States are served by a continuous
succession of different governments. States are immaterial and nonphysical social
objects, whereas governments are groups of people with certain coercive powers.

Each successive government is composed of a specialized and privileged body of
individuals, who monopolize political decision-making, and are separated by status
and organization from the population as a whole.

Application Activities 2.4
Explain different state institutions and give an example for each.

Learning Activity 2.5
2.5 Separation of powers in interdependence in a State
Search and discuss the separation of powers in in interdependence in a State

The notion of separation of powers in interdependence can be understood as
the separation of government decision-making into the legislative, executive,
and the judicial functions and their interdependence and collaboration. This aims
at reinforcing constitutional protection of individual liberties by preventing the
concentration of such powers in the hands of a single group of government officials.
It must be noted that arrangements of checks and balances among the three
organs allow an independent judiciary to hear and determine matters involving the
interpretation of constitution, a legislature to scrutinize both primary and secondary
legislation and having overseeing the activities of the executive.

However, it must be noted that the over sight of the activities of the executive by the
legislature implies that the President of the Republic is responsible to the legislature
in the political sense because political responsibility implies a day to day relationship
between the executive and the legislature. Furthermore, the impeachment process
enforces juridical compliance with the constitutional letter of the law and is quite
different from the exercise of political control over the President’s ordinary conduct
of his or her office.

In Rwanda, the separation of powers is the principle that is explicitly guaranteed in the
Constitution. Interestingly, the Constitution of Rwanda goes further by emphasizing
that the judiciary is both independent and separate from the executive and the
legislature. Furthermore, the separation of powers is enhanced by the principle of
checks and balance, and thus it is important to note that the Constitution of Rwanda
provides for checks and balance between the executive, the legislature and the
judiciary. The power sharing arrangement does not stop the Parliament from having
an over sight role over the activities of the executive. The Parliament of Rwanda
is bicameral and is made up of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The
Government is obliged to provide the Parliament with all the necessary explanations
on questions put to the Government concerning its management and activities.

In application of the principle of checks and balance, the President of the Republic
after consultation with the Prime Minister, the President of the Senate, the Speaker
of the Chamber of Deputies and the President of the Supreme Court may dissolve
the Chamber of Deputies. Elections of Deputies shall take place within 90 days
after the dissolution. By consulting the Speaker of the Chamber of the Deputies,
the power sharing arrangement is activated in so far the Speaker of the Chamber of
the Deputies is not from the same political party with the President of the Republic.

However, as previously noted, the Constitution of Rwanda does not specifically
exclude the possibility of the President of the Senate belonging in the same political
party with the President of the Republic.

Nevertheless, as far as the Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies is consulted, power
sharing becomes effective. The Constitution of Rwanda complies with the concept
of the separation of powers.

Advantages of separation of powers in interdependence
The principle of separation of powers in interdependence enables the government
to function smoothly. The following are advantages of having the three powers of
the government.
– It makes coordination and administration easy.
– Facilitates division of labour and reduces concentration of power in a single
arm.
– Reduces or eliminates the possibility of abuse of power.
– Enhances efficiency and smooth functioning of the government.
– Promotes the principle of checks and balances.
– Engenders transparency and accountability in the operations of government.
– Provides quality service to the people.
– Eliminates or reduces incidences of corruption in the management of public
affairs.
Application Activities 2.5
Assess how the three powers of government are able to promote transparency
and accountability in their operations.

2.6. The role of democracy in promoting individual citizenship
Learning Activity 2.6
1. Give the meaning of the term citizenship.
2. Using the Constitution of Rwanda, explain ways of becoming a citizen.

There is no democracy without the engagement of citizens. Engagement is thus both
a right and a responsibility of citizens in establishing, developing, and sustaining
democracy. Democracy is important and is popular sovereignty. As a ” government
of the people, by the people and for the people”. At its heart is the concept of the
population choosing a government through regular, free, and fair elections. As
crucial in all systems of administration, Democracy plays a big role in promoting
individual citizenship. Citizenship is more than voting or fulfilling public obligations.
It is not only choosing officials and using the governmental system; citizenship
involves making and shaping the system’s structures and rules and citizenship
are helpful for advocacy. Democracy, in theory at least, provides a mechanism
for some form of rule by proportionate representation, with citizens empowered to
bring about change through participation and persuade the powerful to act for the
greater good. Democratic governments have time to make changes that are in the
interests of everyone.

The roles of the government and the citizens need to be integrated to ensure
accountability, transparency, effectiveness, and good quality provision of public
services to the citizens. Citizenship is the legal right to belong to any country in this
regard, citizens have rights, duties, and responsibilities to their country.
Citizens are expected to obey the laws of their countries. Democracy is crucial in
promoting individual citizenship in the following ways:

Respect for the rule of law: In a democratic society, respect for the rule of law is
vital. By abiding by the law, one avoids conflict with people. A good citizen does not
violate the law one of the principles of democracy.

Enables individuals to exercise their rights and fundamental freedoms:
Democracy allows an individual to exercise his or her rights and freedoms.
Democracy also enables citizens to respect the rights and freedoms of each other.

This improves the quality of one’s citizenship.
• Creates a bond of unity: Democracy promotes unity among all individuals
in a country. This enables them to help one another when the need arises. It
also contributes to social justice in society. In a democratic government, all
people respect one another, obey the rule of law and actively participate in
nation building activities.
• Enables peaceful coexistence: Democracy enables peaceful coexistence
among individuals. This enables them to respect the opinions and decisions
of other people.
• Allows for individual participation in various activities: Active participation
of individuals in their day-to-day activities is possible where democracy
thrives. Therefore, individuals are able to promote the wellbeing of society in
both socio-political and economic sectors.
• Promotion of gender equity and equality: In a democratic country,
Democracy promotes gender equity and equality among citizens. Both men
and women should be given equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities
so that no citizen should trample on the rights and freedoms of others.
• Promotion of equity and equality in the society: In a democratic state, all
citizens are equal and are entitled to equal rights and equitable privileges.
Individuals are thus able to enjoy various services while at the same time
carry out their responsibilities. Democracy gives no room for discrimination
of individuals.
• Observance of honesty and integrity: Democracy is anchored on high
integrity and honesty. Based on respect for the rule of law, democracy
develops integrity and honesty in all individuals.
• Free flow of information: Democracy enables citizens to make well-informed
decisions because there is free flow of information. It also gives room for and
encourages open debates
• among the people. Individuals are able to give and share their opinions with
other people.
• Commitment to negotiation: Democracy uses a give-and-take or win-win
approach that helps individuals to develop negotiation skills. These skills are
exercised when dealing with issues that confront people in their day-to-day
lives.
Application Activities 2.6
1. Justify how democracy enables peaceful coexistence among citizens
2. Examine the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a country

2.7. The role of democracy in enhancing good governance
Learning Activity 2.7
Assess the benefits of having the three powers of the government

Democracy is a key corner element in promoting good governance in a state. The
following are ways in which democracy promotes good governance.
1. Allows for checks and balances in administration of the state
The three powers of government ensure there are checks and balances in their
administrative duties. Through these measures, abuse of power and misuse of public
resources is minimal. Therefore, those in power will exercise their responsibilities
with the interest of their citizens at heart.
2. Promotes transparency and accountability
Democracy ensures that those entrusted with responsibilities observe high levels
of transparency and accountability. Consequently, good governance is greatly
improved.
3. Encourages efficiency in service delivery
Democracy ensures those entrusted with various responsibilities do their best
in service delivery. Failure to do so means citizens will hold them accountable.
Therefore, every effort is made to accomplish the set tasks.
4. Respect for the rule of law
Democracy is founded on the rule of law. No individual is above the law. This
promotes development in a country as members of the society adhere to the laws
of a country.
5. Involvement of citizens in decision-making processes
Democratic government has an integrative function, where citizen’s participation
contributes to the improvement of public virtues, citizens’ feeling of being free
citizens, giving a sense of belonging to their community. Therefore, democracy
ensures that people are directly involved in decision-making on issues that affect
them. Where elected leaders underperform in a country, democracy grants citizens
an opportunity to remove such leaders through free and fair elections.
6. Encouragement of private initiative
Democracy encourages private initiative. This enables an individual to exploit his
or her potential to the optimum. Consequently, it improves the lives of citizens by
eradicating poverty and promoting growth and development.
7.Promotion of equity and equality
In most places, affirmative action has been accepted as a feature of democracy.
It is meant to achieve uniform development by targeting the vulnerable members
of the society. Their voices are heard and their interests are catered for during the
allocation of development resources. This reduces marginalization in society.

Human beings, regardless of the differences in them, are all the same. This is
because they are equal and possess the same rights and social status. This
demands that all people be treated similarly at all times. Democracy does not
encourage segregation of persons. It advocates that we should all treat people
uniformly despite the differences in us.

8. Creation of an enabling environment for development

Democracy creates an enabling environment for development that positively
influences good governance. Such an environment is useful in stimulating various
programs that ultimately promote growth and development.

9. Facilitation of open communication

Democracy encourages open communication. As people express their views freely
and exchange information, they are bound to be actively involved in the governance
process. They articulate their interests, mediate their differences and freely exercise
their rights and obligations.

10. The concept of decentralization:

Political decentralization refers to the transfer of political decision-making
authority to local structures, usually occupied by elected officials. Thus, political
decentralization aims to increase the voice of citizens by deciding who leads them
through free, democratic regular vote. The National Decentralization Policy is based
on the Government of Rwanda’s commitment to empowering people to determine
their own future. The policy also has its foundations in the fundamental laws of the
country as well as in the political and administrative reforms the government has
already implemented.
Leadership has been dispersed closer to the population; the people participate
in choosing their leaders and in deciding on activities of their interests. Those
local administrative entities start from the village upwards; they take decisions
after consulting the people and have to provide them with quality services
regarding their mandates and responsibilities.

Application Activities 2.7
3. Examine the different ways in which democracy allows for checks and
balances in the government.
4. Assess the relationship between powers and the impact of impunity.

2.8. End Unit Assessment
End of unit assessment
1. Explain the following concepts:
a) State
b) Democracy
c) Good governance
d) Transparency
e) Accountability
2. What are the main characteristics of good governance
3. Suggest different requirements behavior of the state that contribute to the
success of democracy.
UNIT 3: NATIONAL SERVICE AND SELF-RELIANCE
Key Unit Competence:
To be able to analyze and appreciate the importance of national service and selfreliance
in development.
Introductory activity 3
The youth, as adults, should contribute to the social transformation of Rwanda
towards its Vision 2020 – 2050. How can national service be an easy way to help
the Rwandans to achieve this goal?

3.1. Concept of national service
Learning Activity 3.1
By using internet and / or textbooks from your school library, explain the concept
of national service in Rwanda.

The term “national service” comes from the National Service (Armed Forces) Act
of 1939 enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom on September 3, 1939.
National service is a system either compulsory or voluntary government service or
usually military service. In this regard, national service is a system where citizens
(youth) people, upon completing a given level of education and meeting certain
conditions, offer their services to the state. They are also expected to serve their
nation with dignity, patriotism and pride. During this period, they are expected to
provide free and voluntary services to the state.

National service can also be defined as an organized activity in which people
serve the community in ways which contribute to social, economic and political
transformation at no financial rewards. Through this service, many young people
spend one or more years performing national duties in the army or in civil service.
This makes training compulsory.

In most countries, national service takes the form of rendering military service to the
state for a specific period upon completion of a given level of education. National
service is identified with programmes in which people volunteer for civil service.
The specific shape of the service is greatly influenced by socio-cultural variables of
the particular society in which it is implemented.

National service is crucial in the socio-economic and political development of
countries. It also fosters social cohesion and patriotism among the youth in a
country. The youth become self-reliant and cases of unemployment and drug abuse
are reduced.

Models of national service
Three models of national service have been adopted by world states. These are:
Compulsory service: this is where people of a given age, upon completing studies
at a given level, must offer services for a specific period to the state.
Voluntary service: this is where those providing their service to the state do so out
of their own will.
Blended service: this is a mixture between compulsory service and voluntary
service. People of a given age are mandated to provide their service. Others, not
falling into the compulsory categories but wish to provide their service to the state
are equally allowed.

Application Activities 3.1
Explain three models of national service which have been adopted by world
states.

3.2 Concept of self-reliance
Learning Activity 3.2
By using internet and / or textbooks from your school library, explain the concept
of self-reliancein Rwanda.

Self-reliance is defined as being independent, which means relying on one’s own
resources to satisfy ones’ needs. This implies the ability to do or make decisions
on our own. In most cases, the performance of the task is based on the individual’s
or state’s ability, powers and resources. This is done without help or support from
others.

Self-reliance arises out of the realization that we can put our resources and abilities
to use in an effort to satisfy our needs. It demands diligence, patience, sacrifice,
patriotism and commitment from the individual and the state. Self-reliance requires
a change in mentality and strengthening the commitment of participants towards
its implementation. People are empowered to undertake various responsibilities
having realized their needs. Such an approach is characterized by:
• Identification of peoples’ needs;
• Active participation of people in activities;
• Exchange of ideas, skills and values.

People and nations are expected to meet their needs in a sustainable manner. This
can be achieved through self-reliance. Social interaction and consensus building
are central to attaining self-reliance and giving people a duty to create a culture of
dialogue. Self-reliance pays attention to the socio-economic and political needs of
the people. It refers to the ability of people or states to:
• Achieve social cohesion;
• Enable social accountability;
• Mobilize resources;
• Build and maximize interpersonal capacity to address issues and take
initiatives;
• Access material and monetary assets;
• Manage materials and monetary assets.

Self-reliance encourages people to improve their living conditions using homegrown
initiatives and resources at their disposal. This concept is critical in spearheading
community development. It also discourages over-reliance on external assistance.
A nation’s development is propelled and sustained by internal resources. Selfreliance
is a strategy based on endogenous socio-economic engineering. Its
philosophy is improvement from within.

Application Activities 3.2
1. Complete the following statement: Self-reliance pays attention to the
socio-economic and political needs of the people and it refers to the ability
2. Explain how self-reliance encourages people to improve their living
conditions?

3.3 Provision of national service in Rwanda, Africa and the world
Learning Activity 3.3
1. Discuss how Rwandan people were handling their problems in traditional
society in different sectors such as defense, education, justice, local
governance, justice, health etc. and then proposes which methods from
Rwandan traditional society had been applied to our modern society.
2. Identify countries where national service is carried out in Africa and describe
what is common in the provision of national service in Africa.

3.3.1. Provision of national service in Rwanda
National Service - “UrugereroProgramme” is provided for in Article 48 of the
Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda of 2003 revised in 2015. Urugerero activities
actually started on January 17, 2013 and it was officially launched in Rwanda on
January 22, 2013 in Rwamagana, Eastern Province.

Urugerero is a form of national service aimed at developing programmers that
enhance growth in all sectors of the economy in Rwanda. The model is voluntary
to all youths aged between 16-30 years. Other categories of the population are
allowed to participate through voluntary service.
Their participation depends on their time, professional background and identified
priorities.

National service is crucial in the socio-economic and political development of
the country. It also fosters social cohesion and patriotism among the youth in the
country.

Priorities focused on during Urugerero are identified at least 3 months before the
date of commencement of mobilization and training of the participants.
In Rwanda, the adoption of national service was inspired by the concept of
volunteerism practiced in traditional Rwanda. Today, national service exists under
the term of Urugerero program. Through Urugerero activities, the youth are trained
and initiated to military trainings for physical fitness. Thereafter, they are sent into
their respective local communities to help in implementation on some national
policies like sensitization and mobilization against some diseases like malaria, etc.

The Urugereroprogramme aims at developing programmes that enhance the
current efforts put in place to accelerate growth in all sectors of the economy by
adding a formalized voluntary service component.

The rationale of the volunteerism policy is:
• Educate Rwandans on the culture of volunteerism through activities of
national development;
• Provide a framework where people are able to make effective use of
their special skills and access unexploited potential which is an additional
contribution to national development;
• Build satisfaction among volunteers for their role in volunteer work for
increasing national production skills development associated with the
volunteering activities.
• Provide an appropriate institutional framework for effective management,
coordination and use of existing and future volunteer activities and resources.
• Provide a mechanism through which volunteer services can be recorded and
accorded national recognition.

Urugerero is open to all Rwandan citizens, those living in the diaspora and nonnationals
who may desire to participate and provide service to the country. In
addition, university graduates who have previously participated in Urugerero are
permitted to participate again. Participants are drawn largely from their own local
communities and deployed to other areas.

The length of service for the compulsory category is usually 12 months. Out of
which 2 months is for training (Gutozwa), basic military training and training in the
specific domains of service during Urugerero. For the voluntary participants, the
length of time varies from individual to individual. Participants go through three
phases, for the compulsory category. The phases include mobilization and training,
placement and graduation.

The cost of the service is shared between the state and beneficiary institutions
or organizations. Activities of national service are coordinated by the Office of the
President through the former National Itorero Commission (NIC).

Urugerero aims at developing programmes, which enhance efforts put in place to
accelerate growth in all sectors of the economy. Participants undergo training related
to domains of service, civic education and basic military training. Upon completion
of training, participants are expected to implement what they learnt in the training.

The Intore, a person who has received the teachings from Itorero, engages in
activities such as awareness campaigns in development projects for HIV and AIDS,
gender balance, family planning, adult literacy and community work (Umuganda).
They also engage in environmental protection activities, construction of shelter for
vulnerable groups and support local leaders in
implementation of government policies. Throughout the programme, the students
are taught values and attitudes such as integrity, humility and patriotism. This
enables them to change their attitudes and contribute towards the development of
their country.

In Rwanda, national service is known today as volunteerism and practiced through
Urugerero. The term volunteerism is defined by International LabourOrganisation
as “unpaid, non-compulsory work, that is, the time individuals give without pay to
activities performed either through an organization directly for others outside their
own household.”

In Rwandan context, volunteerism is referred to as “Ubwitange” or
“Ubukorerabushake”, which literally means a “free will action”, performed out of
self-motivation and passion.

Adoption of national service was inspired by the concept of ubwitange (volunteerism)
that was practiced by Rwandans in building the country. This commitment led
ancient Rwanda to great achievements such as the expansion of the kingdom.
Volunteerism in Rwanda is currently exhibited through provision of services to
the community such as Umuganda, Ubudehe, Umusanzu (Communal self-help
activities based on solidarity), Abunzi, local government councils (Njyanama),
Gacaca judges, electoral commission agents, and community health workers
(abajyanamab’ubuzima) among others that do not involve any salary payment in
return and done out of free will for the purpose of benefiting the whole community.
There are voluntary interventions in various sectors which the Government of
Rwanda has used volunteerism in such sectors like local governance, justice,
health and electoral processes. This policy is aimed at providing guidance on the
management, rights, responsibilities and roles for both the volunteers and the
volunteering organizations.

3.3.2. Provision of national service in Africa and the world
a) National Service in Kenya
An Act of Parliament created the Kenya’s National Youth Service (NYS) in 1964.
The act mandated training and employment of the youth in service of the nation.
The NYS is a voluntary programme targeting the youth between 18-22 years of
age. At its inception, it aimed at creating a pool of trained, disciplined and organized
youth through training and participation in national socio-economic programmes.
Its primary roles had been nation building through volunteerism and service in the
military during a state of war or public emergency.

The programme collapsed due to inadequate financial sustenance and was
discontinued in 1989. The programme was relaunched in 2013 by President Uhuru
Kenyatta. This has enabled the country to reduce high rates of unemployment in
both the formal and informal sectors of the economy. In consultation with the Ministry
of Public Service, Youth and Gender Affairs, the government of Kenya launched
a 5-point vision in which the youth learn and provide services to the nation. The
vision encompasses paramilitary training and service regulation, national service
and youth re-socialization, dam and road construction, slum civil works and traffic
control. The restructuring, rebranding and relaunching of the NYS was done to
ensure the youth are empowered and meet the set goals.

Membership is open to interested applicants all over the country. The recruits must
be medically and physically fit, unmarried and without dependents. They must
have a minimum of D+ grade in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education.
The youths are given a daily wage and expected to save 30% of their earnings
to execute economic development projects of their own and improve their living
standards. Upon completion of service, the recruits can take up free trade training
in various courses.

Being an institution for the youth, the NYS has adopted four broad strategies.
They include:
• Empowering the youth to engage in productive activities;
• Providing the youth with the necessary financial support and market linkages;
• Moulding the character of young people through training;
• Strengthening programmes which advance the health of the youth and their
wellbeing.

The service is funded through national budgetary allocations. It also gets revenue
from its commercial ventures in different parts of the country and to a limited extent,
external funding from various development partners. Some of the commercial
ventures include agriculture and infrastructural building including roads, bridges,
dams and irrigation canals.

The recruits have managed to improve sanitation and human dignity in the country’s
largest slums of Kibera and Mathare. The youth also engage in other activities
such as vector control in areas prone to tsetse flies and mosquitoes, construction
of access roads in informal settlements, dam construction and improving food
security. The service has considerable reach and spread. Its activities are carried
out both at its headquarters and at satellite stations across the country. Since April
2013, the recruits have participated in public works in different parts of the country.

b) National Service in South Africa
The National Youth Development Agency (NYDA) was established in 2008.
Government departments, civil society organizations and NYDA itself run the
programmes. Some of the aims of NYDA are:
• Inculcating a culture of service by supporting the youth to participate in
constructive nation-building activities;
• Enabling the youth to understand their role in the promotion of civic awareness
and national reconstruction;
• Developing skills, knowledge and ability of young people to enable them
make a smooth transition to adulthood;
• Improving youth employment;
• Harnessing the nation’s untapped human resources to provide a vehicle for
enhancing the delivery of the country’s development objectives.
By 2013, the programme was voluntary, however, there are plans to make it
compulsory. The programme is open to young people who are out of school and
are below 35 years of age. However, some specific areas of the programme
demand that the beneficiaries be 25 years of age and above. Youth targeted in the
programme include the unemployed, those in conflict with the law and students in
higher institutions of learning. The participants must have completed Grade Ten.
Participants serve for various lengths of time. There are both below one year and
more than a year programmes. They involve volunteering in fields such as health
and social development, housing and community infrastructure, environment and
nature conservation, water and sanitation and education.

The NYDA activities are organized in three categories. The first category involves
unemployed, out-of-school and unskilled young people in a year of service. It
comprises accredited learning and skills development, community development
and exit opportunities. The second category involves high school and university
students. They participate in community service activities as they undertake their
studies. The last category is open to the young people and adults. They work in ad
hoc community volunteer opportunities.

Apart from NYDA, the National Rural Youth Service Corps (NARYSEC) was created
in 2010 by the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform to develop young
people in rural areas. It undertook a pilot programme in 2008 to 2011. As a result, the
Department of Environmental Affairs established the Youth Environmental Service
(YES), which was launched in 2013. This programme targets youth aged 18 to 35
years who have successfully completed Grade 12. Both the NYDA and NARYSEC
are voluntary. These programmes target the youth for national service enrolment.
The country also has a compulsory community service for health graduates. It was
established in the 1990s.

c) National Service in Israel

Israel’s model of national service is mandatory, where conscription into military
service is for all citizens over the age of 18 years. Exemptions are made on
religious, psychological and physical grounds. The Israeli Defense Forces Law
regulates the laws of service, duties and exemptions. The army educational corps
is greatly involved in teaching students History, and Geography as well as other
educational subjects. This is done to prepare them for military service once they
finish high school. The national military service in Israel is compulsory for both men
and women, where men serve for 3 years and women serve for less than 2 years.

Once one has completed military service, he or she is free to either continue serving
in the military or enroll for further education in a university or college. From the
military service, the youth are equipped with leadership skills, planning, teamwork
and analytical skills that provide a base for building a career later on in life. They
also train in basic military training, discipline, First Aid, physical fitness and chemical
and biological warfare.

Women who choose to pursue national service in terms of community work or those
who are married or have children are exempted from military service. This also
provides a substitute national service for religious girls. The programme arose due
to the reluctance of orthodox Jews to expose girls to military service and therefore,
there arose a need for the formation of a national service for girls. The Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs runs the programme called SherutLeumi, whose literal
meaning is national service. The programme is now open to male and female
participants who are not serving in the army. They serve for a period of 1 or 2
years doing vocational work in schools, hospitals and nursing homes. They also
volunteer to work in areas regarding law, teens at risk, immigrant assistance, special
education, administration, geriatrics, environment, disadvantaged communities,
internal security and other related non-profit organizations.
Israel’s national civilian service is voluntary. It draws participants from high school
graduates. The beneficiaries are free to offer service in any part of the country.
Volunteers are also entitled to a host of benefits such as living in rented homes or
being given an allowance to rent a house, a stipend, transport allowance, bonus
at the end of service, grants and scholarships, reduced tuition and mortgage and
allocation of land for settlement.

Application Activities 3.3
1. Explain the contribution of volunteerism in Rwanda.
2. What are the objectives of volunteerism in Rwanda?
3. Identify four broad strategies adopted by the Kenya National Youth
Service.
4. Compare and contrast the model of national service in Rwanda and
Kenya.
5. What are the challenges faced by the Kenya National Youth Service?

3.4 Activities through which national service is carried out in
Rwanda

Learning Activity 3.4
1. Identify activities through which national service is carried out in Rwanda.
2. Examine the poverty reduction initiatives that have been established in
Rwanda.

National service is carried out through various activities. In Rwanda, communities
have made use of many tested ways. These have been utilized to help the country
develop all sectors of the economy. Since the pre-colonial era, Rwandans have
made tremendous developments through the spirit of volunteerism. Volunteerismand
volunteering are strongly embedded in the Rwandan culture. This is featured
through mutual aid, community service and self-help activities.

A volunteer activity is defined as a self-motivated action performed by an individual
or a group of individuals who contribute their time, skills, advice, talent and passion
to the provision of services for the benefit of the larger community, without expecting
a salary.

Very many Rwandan values and practices such as Ubutwari, Ubwitange and
Ubunyangamugayo that evolved during the pre-colonial period are of relevance to
the present societies. These practices can be harnessed to help build our modern
states. The government has re-introduced these values and practices thereby
promoting socio-political and economic progress in the whole nation. All able bodied
citizens, both old and young, should strive to participate in these activities.

The term volunteerism is referred to as Ubwitange, which translates as ‘free
will action’. It is often performed out of self-motivation and passion. The people
have undertaken various activities through mutual help such as Umuganda,
Gutangaumusanzu, GuhekaAbarwayi, Ubudehe, Abunzi and Abajyananab’ubuzima.
These activities bring together several families in providing community service. The
main activities include the following:
3.4.1. Umuganda
Umuganda means coming together with a common purpose to achieve an outcome.
In traditional Rwandan society, members of the community would call upon their
family, friends and neighbours to help complete a hard task. The government
adopted Umuganda service as part of its vision 2020 development programme.
It has envisioned community service policy as being central in supplementing
the national budget utilized in the construction and repair of basic infrastructure.
Members of the community are expected to organize themselves in carrying out
these voluntary activities.

No pay is given for services rendered. Umuganda service is carried out every last
Saturday of the month in the whole country. Organization of Umuganda activities
is undertaken at council meetings. The activities are planned prior to actual
participation. Local leaders organize mobilization and sensitization of the local
communities. Once this has been done, people meet and plan a date, usually over
the weekend. Participation in Umuganda activities is compulsory for all able-bodied
citizens. Umuganda brings social cohesion among community members.

3.4.2. Ubudehe
Ubudehe is a policy rooted in Rwanda’s culture of mutual assistance. It involves
members of the community coming together to plan and implement antipoverty
measures. Through Ubudehe, members of the community in each village identify
poor families. They come up with strategies to help alleviate poverty in the identified
households. The government has identified economic categories to assist members
of the community who are in need of intervention.
Table 3: The categories of households in Rwanda

From the above table, the categories eligible for help under Ubudehe are the
first two categories 1 and 2. The Ubudehe categories are used equally in other
programmes meant to cushion vulnerable or disadvantaged groups from the effects
of poverty. They also benefit from mutual health insurance, school assistance and
basic entitlements under the national policy for orphans and vulnerable children.
3.4.3. Itorero and Ingando
During the pre-colonial era, Rwandans had sound systems and practices which
should be emulated. Itorero was a cultural school where Rwandans would learn
language, patriotism, social relations, sports, songs and defense. Itorero nurtured
and fostered the culture of volunteerism. It trained and inculcated in peoples’ minds
a set of values such as Indangagaciro and preached against taboos and vices such
as Kirazira. This enabled it to offer benchmarks upon which our value systems are
anchored.

The word Ingando comes from the word ‘Kugandika’ which means going to stay in a
place far from home, often in a group for a specific reason. Ingando traces its roots
to the pre-colonial era. This practice has been re-introduced by the government to
help in the reintegration of ex-combatants after the genocide against the Tutsi. The
concept and practice has been since expanded to include school age youths and
other groups.Today, the government has re-established Itorero to inspire positive
values among Rwandans and boost volunteerism. This has instilled a high sense of
patriotism, responsibility, selflessness and unity among the people.

3.4.4. Urugerero

Urugerero goes hand in hand with Ubukorerabushake. It is from the latter that
Urugerero is built. All able-bodied youth are thus expected to provide voluntary and
compulsory service to the state.

3.4.5. Ubukorerabushake (volunteering)
Development needs to begin at the community level. This makes Ubukorerabushake
vital in development of a community in various ways. It is embedded in Rwandan
values and practices, and has enabled us to develop our country. Community
leaders have been instrumental in mobilizing and sensitizing people to provide free
services to the community collectively. Communities have therefore, contributed
to the socio-political and economic development of Rwanda. Such efforts have
enabled our country to rise from the ashes of the post genocide era.

Application Activities 3.4
1. Assess the major strides that have been achieved through Umuganda.
2. Examine the challenges affecting the execution of Umuganda activities
in your district.
3. Discuss the benefits of Ubudehe realized in the country.
4. Discuss how Itorero and Ingando have helped create social cohesion,
peace and reconciliation in Rwanda.
5. Examine the benefits of Itorero and Ingando to the citizens of Rwanda.

3.5 Measures put in place to achieve self-reliance in Rwanda
Learning Activity 3.5
By using internet and / or textbooks from your school library, comment on different
measures put in place to achieve self-reliance in Rwanda.

Self-reliance is crucial in the socio-political and economic development of a country.
As individuals, we should support government efforts aimed at attaining these
crucial aims. The Rwandan government is keen to promote self-reliance in the
country. Towards this, it has come up with various measures. Some of these include
the following:

3.5.1. Sensitization of the community to the importance of selfreliance
Self-reliance has empowered communities to provide for themselves without relying
on external assistance. In an effort to achieve self-reliance, the government has
geared its efforts towards creating awareness of the importance of self-reliance.
This has been done through its inclusion in the curriculum and campaigns to raise
awareness to the population through publicity and advocacy measures.
3.5.2. Introduction of policies aimed at building inclusion and social
cohesion
The government has introduced policies geared towards building inclusion and
social cohesion in the population such as deepening the decentralization process,
citizen involvement and increasing local community empowerment.
3.5.3. Poverty reduction initiatives
The government has introduced policies to help address poverty in the country.
Partnership programmes have been initiated between the government and
development partners to help in poverty reduction. Many strategies and programmes
have thus been introduced to further alleviate poverty in the country such as Vision
2020 Umurenge Program (VUP), Ubudehe and Girinka.
3.5.4. Urugerero
Urugerero has changed the attitude of young people towards assisting thegovernment
in carrying out its development activities. This has enabled thecountry to reduce its
expenses to some extent. The money saved is used forother development activities.
3.5.5. Ubukorerabushake (volunteering)
Members of the community, guided by their leaders, have come up with solutions
to their problems. This is done with little or no assistance from the government and
other external partners.
3.5.6. Promotion of the culture of Ubutore
The government has gone out of its way to promote the culture of Ubutore among
the population. Through this culture, it has helped promote and entrench people’s
dignity. This has enabled leaders to promote cultural values among its citizens.
It has also been able to train Intore mentors and establish structures of the
same in government institutions and the population as a whole ‘IntoreNtiganya-
IshakaIbisubizo’.
3.5.7. Promotion of health insurance scheme
People can only be self-reliant if they are in good health. This is the reason behind
the government’s promotion of a health insurance scheme for its citizens. Various
strategies have been undertaken towards this goal, for example, the change of
government policy on health coverage. By 2013, over 90% of Rwandans had
benefitted from the Mutuelle de Santé health insurance policy. The same initiative
has over 45,000 health workers trained to reach out to the rural communities who
are in dire need of health services.
3.5.8. Establishment of the Agaciro Development Fund
The Agaciro Development Fund has been greatly instrumental in promoting selfreliance
among Rwandans. As a home-grown solution, many people have found it
useful in addressing their day to-day needs.
Through this initiative, the people of Rwanda help raise money for the fund annually.
Money raised through the Agaciro Development Fund helps the country to finance
some of its own development programmes. This minimizes the rate of government
borrowing from other countries.
3.5.9. Formation of cooperative societies
Cooperative societies are crucial in promoting a culture of self-reliance among
the people. Rwandans have formed these societies in various areas and different
parts of the country. The government has facilitated these initiatives by creating an
enabling environment for their formation and operation. People have pooled their
resources together hence enabling them to develop economically. People are able
to access finances through the cooperatives enabling them to make investments.

Application Activities 3.5
1. Discuss the challenges faced by Rwanda’ in its effort to promote selfreliance
in the country.
2. How can the government and the people of Rwanda overcome these
challenges?
3. Explain the policies established by the post-genocide government aimed
at building inclusion and social cohesion.
4. Assess the importance of sensitizing the community about self-reliance
5. Examine the poverty reduction initiatives that have been established in
Rwanda

3.6. End Unit Assessment 3
End of unit assessment
1. Explain the concepts of national service and self-reliance.
2. How has national service and self-reliance has helped improve the
socioeconomic development of Rwanda?
3. Describe the relationship between national service and self-reliance.
4. Explain activities through which national service is carried out in Rwanda.
5. Assess measures put in place in Rwanda to achieve self-reliance.
6. Analyze the ability of Africans towards attaining self-reliance.
UNIT 4: GENDER AND SOCIETY
Key unit competence:
Be able to analyze specific national, regional and international strategies for the
prevention of and response to gender based violence and child abuse and advocate
their elimination.

Introductory activity 4
Using internet, carry out research on the Rwanda laws on the Prevention and
Punishment of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and find out the offences outlined
in this law which are the most commonly committed in your village? Do you think
the penalties stipulated for breaking this law are adequate? Why do you think
many people commit GBV even with the existence of a law against it?

4.1 National commitments on GBV
Learning Activity 4.1
Using internet or reading available books in your library or watching a documentary
film on national commitments on GBV, evaluate what Rwanda has achieved up
to now in terms of Gender -Based Violence laws.
4.1.1 Gender Based Violence laws
The most common form of Gender Based Violence (GBV) is when a man and
a woman beat up or abuse each other. Gender Based Violence (GBV) refers to
violence that targets individuals or groups based on their gender or sex. GBV
takes many forms; it can be physical, such as when you slap or push or it can be
psychological, such as when you threaten or humiliate. It can be sexual, (when one
engages in rape, marital rape or touches another person sexually without his or
her consent) or economic (when a person denies the other the opportunity to work,
inherit property or access education). While gender-based violence can affect both
men and women, women tend to be victims most of the time.

In an effort to prevent and fight GBV, the Government of Rwanda has implemented
laws. The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda supports gender equality and
guarantees equal rights for women and men. Article 11 of the Constitution asserts
that all Rwandans are born and remain free and equal in rights and duties.
Any form of discrimination, including origin, tribe, clan, color, sex, region, social
origin, religion or faith, opinion, economic status, culture, language, social status,
physical or mental disability or any other form of discrimination is prohibited and
punishable by law. The principle of gender equality is also enshrined in Article 16
of the Constitution, through which the Government has committed to establishing
equity and equality at all levels of society.

Several other national laws also address the issue of gender equity and equality
and GBV in Rwanda. The 1999 Rwanda Inheritance Law grants equal inheritance
rights, including land, to male and female children of civil marriages. In addition, the
2005 Organic Land Law provides for women and men to have equal rights to own
land.
In 2008, Rwanda adopted a law on the Prevention and Punishment of genderbased
violence. The law defines the different crimes related to SGBV (sexual and
gender based violence) and specifies their penalties.

Clearly, Rwanda has laws to protect individuals from GBV. The challenge however,
is to bring about a change in the attitudes that promote GBV. Many people still view
some forms of GBV such as spousal rape, beating of spouses, verbal insults and
denial of property rights, as normal in the family. Such attitudes ought to end and all
people should work towards putting an end to cases of GBV.

4.1.2 Gender Based Violence (GBV) policy and strategic plan

The GBV policy and strategic plan is a legislative framework comprising of laws
that govern conduct in the society. These consist of a set of enforceable rules and
guidelines that can be enforced by Rwanda Investigation Bureau and which compel
or prohibit certain types of behaviour. In addition to laws, the Government of Rwanda
has put in place some policies to work hand in hand with the laws. The policies
express government commitments and priorities that provide the framework for
achieving certain goals. There are two significant policies in regards to GBV. These
are the National Policy against gender-based violence and the National Strategic
Plan for fighting gender-based violence.

a) The National Policy against Gender-Based Violence
This policy seeks to have a GBV-free society in Rwanda through effectively and
efficiently preventing and responding to GBV. The policy aims to eliminate genderbased
violence by focusing on three main areas:
1) Prevention creating an environment where gender-based violence is not
tolerated and reducing the vulnerability of people who are at most risk of
experiencing GBV.
2) Response providing a wide-range of services to victims of gender-based
violence and eliminating impunity for those who commit gender-based
violence.
3) Coordination, monitoring and building evidence – building coordination and
monitoring systems and improving the data available on GBV.
As expressed in the policy, the government regards GBV as a violation of Human
Rights and strongly supports gender equality and empowerment of women. The
GBV policy places a responsibility on every individual to report GBV cases, to
support victims of GBV and not to tolerate GBV in the community. The policy also
recognizes that boys and men can also be victims.

You might have heard some people argue that traditions in Rwanda do not allow
women to inherit property or that husbands have the right to discipline women
by beating them. Such cultural practices and beliefs have promoted GBV in most
African societies.

Effort from several government ministries is required to effectively deal with GBV
issues in the country. The GBV policy, therefore, outlines the roles of various
government ministries in policy implementation. The roles of several other important
agencies are also outlined in the policy. These include:
• The National Women’s Council raises public awareness on laws pertaining
to GBV.
• Gender Monitoring Office acts as a ‘watch dog’, monitors and evaluates
national performance on gender. It also analyses and disseminates national
data on GBV after conducting assessments.
• Rwanda Investigation Bureau (RIB) has a Gender Desk to provide
rapid and user friendly services to respond to GBV. RIB also promotes the
understanding of the GBV Law and maintains statistics of reported cases.
• National Public Prosecution Authority (NPPA) – works to ensure
prosecution of perpetrators of crime. It has a GBV unit to help in preventing,
prosecuting and punishing GBV-related offences.
b) The National Strategic Plan for Fighting Gender- Based Violence (2011-2017)
The National Strategic Plan for fighting gender-based violence outlines the various
interventions for prevention and response to gender-based violence in Rwanda.
Plans and activities are organized under three broad areas, GBV prevention, GBV
response and coordination, monitoring and building evidence.

I. Gender Based Violence prevention
The strategic plan focuses on two objectives of GBV prevention. They include:
a) To foster a prevention-focused environment where gender-based violence is
not tolerated
b) To identify and support those most at risk in order to prevent gender-based
violence.
The National Strategic Plan for Fighting GBV outlines several activities designed to
foster a prevention-focused environment. They include the following:
a) Conducting workshops and advocacy campaigns on gender and GBV for
local and religious leaders, law enforcement agencies, families, school;
b) Producing regular policy briefs on GBV and developing training for positive
cultural values related to gender and GBV for students, teachers and other
educational staff;
c) Sensitizing local and religious leaders on positive gender attitudes so that
they can pass these on to community members;
d) Training media representatives on gender and GBV reporting;
e) Establishing and strengthening ‘men and boys for change’ discussion groups
at all levels in the country;
f) Integrating anti-GBV programmes into all government administrative levels.
ls and victims of GBV;
g) Building the capacity of Community Based Organizations (CBOs) to promote
positive cultural values that can help to reduce GBV in the community.

II. Gender Based Violence response interventions

The National Strategic Plan for Fighting GBV response intervention is guided by
two broad objectives.
a) Providing comprehensive services to victims of gender-based violence;
b) Improving accountability and eliminating impunity for gender-based violence.
Interventions to provide GBV victims with comprehensive and victim-centered
services include the following:
* Providing One Stop Centres (OSC) for victims of GBV at district hospitals;
* Providing free legal aid to all victims of GBV;
* Providing GBV victim-centred services or facilities in all Rwanda Investigation
Bureau stations;
* Conducting training for professional service providers in the provision of
comprehensive victim-centred care for victims of GBV;
* Conducting awareness campaigns about service provision and access to all
service providers and potential victims of GBV;
* Supporting victims of GBV financially, medically, legally and psychologically.
III. Coordination, monitoring and building evidence
This area of focus is intended to ensure that all interventions outlined in the National
Strategic Plan are effectively coordinated and monitored to ensure success. Under
this area, the National Steering Committee (NSC) on GBV has been established.
Some of the major activities include:
a) Collecting data on GBV in the country;
b) Training community committees and other players in data collection and
reporting.
IV. Important structures for fighting GBV in Rwanda
The National Policy against gender-based violence and the National Strategic Plan
for fighting gender-based violence are two significant policy documents in Rwanda
that define how important structures in the fight against GBV operate. These
structures include the coordination mechanism, community structures for GBV and
child protection and One-Stop Centres for GBV and Child Abuse.

V. The coordination mechanism

For effective implementation of the National Policy against gender-based violence,
clear structures are created from the community level to the national level. Below
is a structure of the coordination mechanism from the national to community level.
Source: Republic of Rwanda. (2011). National Strategic Plan for Fighting Against
Gender-Based Violence, 2011-2016

VI. Community structures for GBV

Community-based initiatives to address GBV are an important approach to prevent
and respond to issues relating to GBV. Anti-GBV and Child Protection Committees
exist at the Umudugudu, Cell, Sector and District levels. They are meant to raise
awareness, gather information and coordinate GBV response services for victims.

They also identify vulnerable children and families and provide support services. The
committees address GBV issues and protect children’s rights. Monthly community

gatherings are also used to discuss Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and to make
public any such cases. Neighbors may report instances of violence on behalf of
victims who are unable to report. Rwanda Investigation Bureau also participates in
Umuganda community gatherings and work with Community Policing Committees
and Neighborhood Watch Programmes to address GBV related issues. In addition,
they conduct media and community based awareness campaigns about GBV.

Community-policing committees have been established to respond to GBV at every
Umudugudu. They help to put to an end to culture of silence and encourage people
to approach affected families instead of waiting for victims to report, which they
may not be able to do. Anti-GBV clubs exist in schools to empower the youth in the
fight against gender-based violence. There also exist formal structures at the cell,
sector, district and national levels called Children’s Forums where children are able
to share their experiences related to GBV and child abuse.

a) One-Stop Centres

One-Stop Centres (OSC), launched in 2009, serve as referral centres for victims of
GBV and child abuse. This is where victims of GBV and child abuse receive several
free services such as; medical care, psychosocial and legal support, prosecution of
GBV and Rwanda Investigation Bureau supports in the form of collection of forensic
evidence where necessary. The centres operate a 24-hour phone hotline, as well
as short-term emergency accommodation for victims who are afraid to return home
or need intensive support and time to heal psychologically.
b) Gender Desks
Gender Desks at Rwanda Investigation Bureau stations have trained staff that
sensitize the population about the prevention, response and fight against genderbased
violence. Victims or witnesses of sexual gender-based violence (SGBV) may
call the Gender Desk through a toll-free hotline to report cases or seek help. The
Gender Desks investigate gender based violence cases, counsel and assist victims
to access health, legal and psycho-social support services. Rwanda Investigation
Bureau Stations in Rwanda Work closely with health institutions to facilitate access
to medical services for victims of GBV.

Application Activities 4.1
1. Explain the mechanisms used to fight GBV in your community.
2. Assess the role of activities conducted in your community to foster GBV
prevention.
3. Explain the various forms of Gender-Based Violence.
4. Identify gender-based violence laws enforced in Rwanda.
Explain the role of Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community members in
reporting cases of rape, domestic violence and child abuse.

4.2 Regional commitments to Gender Based Violence
Learning Activity 4.2
Using internet or reading available books in your library, conduct a research,
find out and explain the regional commitments in the fight against gender-based
violence.

Rwanda is party to international treaties that require it to provide effective protection
and support for victims of gender-based violence. There are several important
regional commitments to GBV, including the Maputo Protocol (2003), the ICGLR
Protocol (2006) and The Goma Declaration (2008).

4.2.1 The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights of 2003

Also known as the Maputo Protocol, the African Charter on Human and People’s
Rights of 2003

guarantees comprehensive rights to women. This includes the right to take part in
political processes, social and political equality, control of their reproductive health
and to put an end to female genital mutilation (FGM).

4.2.2 The protocol on Prevention and Suppression of Sexual Violence
against Women and Children
The ICGLR Protocol of 2006 provides protection for women and children against
impunity of sexual violence in the Great Lakes region. It has established a legal
framework for prosecuting and punishing perpetrators of crimes of sexual violence
in the region. The member states are required to provide legal, medical, material
and social assistance, including counselling and compensation, to women and
children who are victims of sexual violence.

4.2.3 The Goma Declaration (2008)

Application Activities 4.2
1. Explain the efforts made towards implementing the regional commitments
in the fight against gender-based violence.
2. Do the Rwanda policies and laws on gender-based violence adequately
address the regional commitments and policies?

This requires that member states provide the necessary protection for women and
girls against gender based-violence, as well as assistance, care and support to
GBV victims.

4.3. International commitments on GBV and child abuse

Learning Activity 4.3
Using internet or reading available books in your library, conduct a research and
find out and explain the regional commitments in the fight against gender-based
violence and child abuse.

Rwanda has also ratified several international conventions and implemented legal
and policy frameworks that address the issue of GBV. The following are international
commitments in the fight against gender-based violence and child abuse.

4.3.1 The Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW)
This was adopted in 1979 by the UN. It aims at eliminating any form of political,
economic, social, cultural and civil discrimination against women. States are required
to enshrine gender equality into their national laws and eliminate customs that
promote superiority of one sex or gender role stereotypes. In addition, states should
establish tribunals and public institutions to protect women against discrimination.

Article 1 of the treaty defines discrimination against women as any distinction,
exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of
impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective
of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights
and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any
other field.

Article 2 requires states to enshrine gender equality into their national laws and
remove all discriminatory provisions in their laws. It also requires them to establish
tribunals and public institutions to guarantee women of effective protection against
discrimination and eliminate all forms of discrimination against women by individuals,
organizations and enterprises.
Article 5 requires states to eliminate prejudices and customs that promote the
idea of the inferiority or the superiority of one sex or stereotyped roles for men and
women.

4.3.2 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

This affirms that children have a right to be protected from all forms of abuse or
exploitation. States must take measures to provide protection through the standards
it has set for health care, education, legal, civil and social services.
Article 19 of The Convention on the Rights of a Child declares that every child has
a right to be protected from hurt or mistreatment of body or mind. The article states
that:
a) Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or
exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal
guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.
b) Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures
for the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support for
the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms
of prevention and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment
and follow-up of instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and,
as appropriate, for judicial involvement.

The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of (1995)

This was established to realize gender equality and equal Human Rights for women
and girls in the world. It recognizes that violence against women including rape,
sexual slavery and forced pregnancy, affects the whole society negatively. It directs
states not to use customs, traditions or religious considerations that promote the
discrimination and marginalization of women. States are required to ensure that
women who are subjected to such violence receive justice. The following articles
show the member states’ declarations.

Article 17, conviction that ‘The explicit recognition and reaffirmation of the right
of all women to control all aspects of their health, in particular their own fertility, is
basic to their empowerment’.
Article 29, determination to ‘Prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against
women and girls’.

Other international instruments provide protection for women in situations of armed
conflict. The Rome Statutes (1998) of the International Criminal Court recognizes
rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, and
other forms of sexual violence as war crimes and crimes against humanity.
The United Nations Security Council Resolutions (UNSCR 1325) in 2000
similarly calls on parties involved in armed conflict to put in place special plans to
protect women and girls from SGBV. States must also prosecute those responsible
for SGBV during armed conflicts, war or genocides.

Application Activities 4.3

3. Have you witnessed cases of child mistreatment in the country? Explain
what the government has done to ensure children rights are protected.
4. Assess the efforts of the government and community towards implementing
Article 29 of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995).
5. According to the Rome Statutes (1998) and the UNSCR 1325 (2000),
identify crimes committed against women during the genocide against
the Tutsi in Rwanda.
6. Explain the protective measures outlined in the Rome Statute (1998) and
the UNSCR 1325 (2000) that could have been provided for during and
after the genocide against the Tutsi.

4.4 Role of Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community members
in reporting rape, domestic violence and abuse cases

Learning Activity 4.4
Using internet or reading available books in your library, conduct a research
and explain how Rwanda Investigation Bureau reports on rape and domestic
violence

Generally, Rwanda Investigation Bureau bears a heavy responsibility in fighting
rape, domestic violence and abuse cases. Rwanda Investigation Bureau have the
following duties:
• Thoroughly conducting investigations on all alleged incidents of Gender
Based Violence against women.
• Carrying out investigations in a manner that upholds the rights and needs
of victims of abuse and violence while ensuring that they do not add to the
burden experienced by the victim.
• Protecting all victims of crime.
• Preventing crime as much as possible and enforcing laws.
Rwanda Investigation Bureau officers are guided in their work by the Code of
Conduct for Law Enforcement adopted by the 1979 General Assembly of the United
Nations officials. In line with this code of conduct, while dealing with cases of rape,
domestic violence and abuse, Rwanda Investigation Bureau officers have the
following responsibilities:
• To take steps to ensure safety of the victims,
• To gather and preserve detailed evidence,
• To ensure that any children at the scene of the crime are given appropriate
support/assistance as required, including referrals to appropriate agencies,
• To conduct detailed interviews with all victims and witnesses,
• To interrogate the offender or alleged offender at Rwanda Investigation
Bureau station.

Rwanda Investigation Bureau Gender Desk receives reports, conducts
investigations and recommends arrests and prosecution of perpetrators of Gender
Based Violence. Through the Gender Desk at Rwanda Investigation Bureau
stations, Rwanda Investigation Bureau work to prevent gender-based violence,
provide rapid response to reports of rape and abuse, assist victims to get access to
help and collect information on gender-based violence.

The Judicial Rwanda Investigation Bureau Unit responds to crimes on a daily basis
and the Child and Family Protection Unit of Rwanda Investigation Bureau provides
victims with referral services to specialized care. The Community Policing Unit at
the Gender Desk provides community sensitization on gender-based violence.
A centralized national Rwanda Investigation Bureau hotline directs one to the
appropriate response unit.

Role of the community

The GBV policy places a responsibility on every individual to report GBV cases, to
support victims and not to tolerate GBV in the community. Refusing to assist a GBV
victim or refusing to provide testimony in a case of GBV is regarded as a criminal
offence.

Where victims are unable to report violence to Rwanda Investigation Bureau,
regular public meetings and the Community policing committees at Umudugudu
level provide an avenue for neighbors to report cases of GBV and child abuse.

Application Activities 4.4
The Anti-GBV and Child Protection Committees that exist at the grassroots level in
all districts similarly provide an avenue for gathering information and coordinating
GBV response services for victims at the community level.
1. Assess the role of Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community
members in reporting cases of rape, domestic violence and child abuse
in the country.
2. Identify changes that have occurred since Rwanda Investigation Bureau
and community members have taken up their roles in reporting cases of
abuse.
3. How can Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community members make
reporting of cases of abuse easier for society?
4. Explain why the role of Rwanda Investigation Bureau is critical in the fight
against GBV.
Why would the work of Rwanda Investigation Bureau in the fight against GBV
be weakened without the participation of the community?

4.5 Procedure for reporting rape and domestic violence

Learning Activity 4.5
Using internet or reading available books in your library, find out how and where
to report GBV and child abuse cases. Provide a detailed account of how you
would ensure such cases are reported.

In Rwanda, the different service providers support each other in dealing with GBV
and child abuse cases. In the past, due to reasons such as the culture of silence,
fear of stigmatization and lack of awareness about how to report cases of GBV and
child abuse, many cases went unreported.

If a person happens to be a victim of GBV or witness such violence, there are several
venues available for him or her to seek assistance. In an emergency, someone
may call Rwanda Investigation Bureau hotline number 3512 or use 3677 for the
Prosecutor’s Office. To report cases of military-related violence against women and
girls, someone has to call the free hotline (3945). If Rwanda Investigation Bureau
station is near, someone has to rush and report the crime as fast as possible.

In cases of SGBV and child abuse, someone will be immediately referred to the
nearest hospital or health centre for a medical test and primary medical care. After
examination and tests are completed, Rwanda Investigation Bureau will hand over
the results to the Judiciary officers. There are Gender Desks at Rwanda Investigation
Bureau and Rwanda Defense Force, whose staff are trained in SGBV matters. In
addition, there is an Access to Justice Office (AJO) or Mason d’Accès à la Justice
(MAJ) in each district. One of the three staff in the AJO is specifically in charge
of the fight against GBV. If a victim first reports to a hospital or health centre, the
medical staff will give primary medical care then forward or accompany him or her
to the nearest Rwanda Investigation Bureau station to acquire a requisition form for
medical examination from a Rwanda Investigation Bureau station. Some hospitals
also have a Rwanda Investigation Bureau officer to whom the victims should report
first.

Victims may report to the One-Stop Centres (OSC) where a social worker trained in
basic counselling skills will meet them. The social worker does the following:
• Provides information to victims about their rights and the services available
at the centre
• Opens a confidential file on each victim
• Guides victims to the appropriate service providers
The OSC has a Gender Desk where reports of GBV are made and investigation
and subsequent prosecution of cases of GBV are initiated. If a victim of GBV goes
to paralegals such as the HAGURUKA Association, they will first receive medical
attention and then receive free legal assistance. A legal brief is prepared and
forwarded to the Judiciary.

Rwandan state authorities address domestic violence within the broader context
of Gender-Based Violence. The 2008 Law on Prevention and Punishment of
Gender-Based Violence defines gender-based violence as any act that results in a
bodily, psychological, sexual and economic harm to somebody just because they
are female or male. Such act results in the deprivation of freedom and negative
consequences. This violence may be exercised within or outside households.

The person raped meet a Rwanda Investigation Bureau official at a Rwanda
Investigation Bureau station, closest to either your residence or where the incident
took place. The designated official will take your statement. A person does not need
to be alone, a friend or family member can be with you while you make your statement,
and they can provide support and safety. Where necessary, the investigating officer
will make sure that the victim is examined by a health care worker who will complete
a health report and take any evidence for processing. Rwanda Investigation Bureau
investigates the case and then hand it over to a state lawyer called a prosecutor.
The service is free to the victim and both Rwanda Investigation Bureau official and
the prosecutor will be able to give him or her information about his or her case.

Gender Based Violence is a part of the problem that many victims fail to report their
cases, sometimes, it is simply out of ignorance. In case, the victims of GBV are
minor, they are advised to report to their parents or guardians what kind of violence
they have undergone. Then, the parents or guardians of victims have to report the
case to the local authorities / leaders, or Rwanda Investigation Bureau. Besides,
the victims of GBV are advised to immediately go to the nearest Isange Stop centre
for medical treatment.

In Rwanda, efforts have been made by the authorities to encourage the victims to
report through initiatives such as the Isange One Stop centres where victims are
supported medically, psychologically and offered legal aid. It is necessary to ensure
that all agents that encounter the victims are trained in the fight against GBV; this
includes the medical staff who are likely to be the first people to meet victims.

To push further these efforts, there should be a special focus on combatting the
culture of silence ingrained in the Rwandan society as a whole. One way of doing
this is to continue to encourage victims to speak out and share their experiences.

Victims of domestic violence and rape may be subject to “stigma and discrimination”.
The Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion indicates that spousal rape, physical
abuse, denial of property rights, verbal abuse and psychological harassment are
often seen as a “normal” part of family life.

According to the Gender Monitoring Office, the Rwandan government department
tasked with monitoring the delivery of services to victims of Gender-Based Violence,
factors contributing to GBV include poverty, “illegal marriage, parental rejection of
children, and lack of economic independence of women”

Legislation and Implementation

Rwanda’s 2008 Law on Prevention and Punishment of Gender-Based Violence
prescribes a punishment of 10 years to life imprisonment for rape, and 6 months
to 2 years for spousal rape (Rwanda 2008, Arts. 16, 19). The penalty for harassing
one’s spouse is 6 months to 2 years’ imprisonment and for killing one’s spouse is
life imprisonment.

Rwanda has several governmental departments that play a role in combating genderbased
violence. Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion oversees, implements,
monitors and evaluates the National Policy Against Gender-Based Violence. This
Ministry has developed also a National Strategic Plan for fighting Gender-Based
Violence, which includes objectives and cooperation among a variety of multisector
stakeholders including governmental ministries such as the Ministry of Justice,
Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, and several others, as well as the Rwanda
National Rwanda Investigation Bureau, local governments, NGOs, the media, and
the private sector.

The Gender Monitoring Office (GMO) is responsible for gender monitoring on a
national level, including the monitoring of GBV. The GMO monitors service providers
such as National Rwanda Investigation Bureau, One-Stop Centres and local NGOs.

The Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion notes that in many cases, the Gender
Desks are the first point of contact at Rwanda Investigation Bureau stations,
providing “rapid, victim-oriented and user-friendly services to respond to GBV “
promoting understanding of the law, and maintaining statistics on reported cases
Officers at the Gender Desks have received special training on Gender-Based
Violence

The central Rwanda Investigation Bureau headquarters in Kigali and several
government ministries run hotlines for victims of Gender-Based Violence. The
director of gender and child protection at Rwanda Investigation Bureau noted that
there is a toll-free line “3512” to report cases of GBV. Rwandan authorities have
reportedly established “One-Stop Centres” that provide integrated services to
victims of gender-based violence, including medical care, psycho-social support,
legal support.

The International Center for AIDS Care and Treatment Program, which partners
with the Government of Rwanda to provide HIV/AIDS services notes that One-Stop
Centres services also include HIV testing, prophylaxis for HIV and STIs, emergency
contraception and support for reporting incidents to the Rwanda Investigation
Bureau. Some One-Stop Centres provide psychosocial and reintegration support
to victims when they return to their communities.

Schools have also anti-gender-based violence clubs in schools to help educate
students of their rights. There are also gender-based violence committees at the
village or community level which “provide an opportunity to gather information and
coordinate services”

In conclusion, the fight against domestic violence goes hand in hand with promoting
gender equality. In that struggle, it is not only the government’s role to ensure that
we are all free form this type of violence, but it is rather the role of all citizens to feel
concerned and act towards ending it.

Application Activities 4.5
1. Discuss why many cases of GBV went unreported in the past and
identify what is being done to solve the problem.
2. Describe what takes place at police stations, One Stop Centres and
Gender Desks.
3. What is the role played by the GMO in the procedure for reporting rape
and domestic violence?

4.6 Procedure for reporting abuse cases

Learning Activity 4.6
Using internet or reading available books in your library, carry out a research and
identify specific steps that should be taken into consideration in Rwanda while
reporting abuse cases.

“Children /women abuse” is any action (or lack of action) that endangers or harms
a child’s physical, psychological or emotional health and development. Abuse occur
in different ways and includes the following:

Physical abuse is any physical injury to a child /woman that is not accidental, such
as beating, shaking, burns, and biting.

Emotional abuse is emotional injury when the child/woman is not nurtured or
provided with love and security, such as an environment of constant criticism,
belittling and persistent teasing. Sexual abuse, which is any sexual activity between
a child/women including activities such as fondling, exhibitionism, intercourse.

All allegations of abuse should be reported to the civil authorities, and the
organization will comply with the country’s requirements regarding mandatory

All states have a system to receive and respond to reports of suspected abuse.
If someone suspects that a person is being harmed, or has been harmed, he/
she should report the concerns to the appropriate authorities. Reporting possible
suspect abuse can be a very sensitive issue, someone only needs to report suspect
abuse case. She or he is not expected to be an investigator since that is not his/
her job.

If someone suspects possible abuse, there are specific steps she /he must take into
consideration such as:
• Gathering all the information someone can about the suspected incident or
incidents and write it up in factual observations or information.
• Notifying her/his direct administrator local authorities in her/his village
(Umudugudu) of the information she/he have that caused her/him to suspect
abuse or she/he call the mandated reporters hotline RIB on 116.
• Informing the counselor that you believe you have a suspected case of abuse.
Violence against children, young people and women is a fundamental violation of
their rights. Sexual, physical and emotional violence have a devastating impact on
health and happiness and prevent children and youth from contributing to societies
to their full potential.

Children are usually abused by people they know such as parents, neighbors,
teachers, romantic partners or friends. Some girls in Rwanda who are victims of
violence tell someone about it, and the rate is even lower for boys.

In many cases, children and young people do not seek help because they feel
violence is their fault or is not a problem. Many also believe that women should
tolerate violence, especially to keep the family together, and that men should hold
the power in sexual relationships.

Violence causes emotional scars that often last much longer after the
physical scars fade. Violence during childhood can also lead to mental distress,
early pregnancy, sexual risk-taking, and even thoughts of suicide. Urgent action is
needed to respond to the violence inflicted on children and young people.

When children/women are victims of violence, the effects can extend beyond
physical scars. In addition to serious injuries, children who are victims of violence
are also likely to miss or abandon school, or experience psychological distress. In
some cases, this distress can even lead to thoughts of suicide.

All allegations of abuse should be reported to the civil authorities, and the
organization will comply with the country’s requirements regarding mandatory
reporting of abuse, as the law then exists. The organization will fully cooperate with
the investigation of the incident by civil authorities.

Violence, neglect, exploitation and abuse affect children and women in homes,
families, schools, communities and other places where they should feel safe.
To solve these problems, the Government of Rwanda make several important
improvements. Some measures are in place:

Establishment of “One Stop Centres, where victims are report violence, receive
mental health counselling, and access medical service.

Building a workforce of professional social workers and psychologists, legal
experts, Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community volunteers known as “Inshuti
z’umuryango” or friends of family” These Friends of Family help identify, refer and
respond to cases of violence, abuse and neglect in their communities.

Finding loving family homes for children who previously lived in orphanages and
other institutions. Development of the justice for children policy in 2013 and the
justice for children guidance in 2017.

When children are victims of violence, the effects can extend beyond physical
scars. In addition to serious injuries, children who are victims of violence are also
likely to miss or abandon school, or experience psychological distress. In some
cases, this distress can even lead to thoughts of suicide. All allegations of abuse
UNIT 5: HERITAGE AND CULTURE
should be reported to the civil authorities, and the organization will comply with the
country’s requirements regarding mandatory reporting of abuse as the law then
exists. The organization will fully cooperate with the investigation of the incident by
civil authorities.

Application Activity 4.6
Describe the piece of advice and assistance you would give a victim of GBV
who is ignorant of the laws and different mechanisms available for dealing with
crimes of GBV and child abuse.

4.7. End Unit Assessment 4

End of unit assessment
1. Describe the national, community and school-based interventions for
fighting GBV and child abuse in Rwanda.
2. Discuss the role of three government ministries in the fight against GBV
and child abuse.
3. Explain the main objectives for prevention of GBV as outlined in the
National Strategic Plan for Fighting Gender-Based Violence 2011-2016.
4. Describe the coordination of various mechanisms and stakeholders in the
fight against GBV and child abuse at the national, district and umugudugu
levels.
5. Analyze the effectiveness of community-based initiatives in addressing
GBV and child abuse.
6. Explain the importance of the following international commitments in the
fight against GBV and child abuse:
a) The Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
b) Against Women (CEDAW)
c) The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
d) The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
7. Describe the role of Rwanda Investigation Bureau and community members
in fighting rape, domestic violence and child abuse cases in Rwanda.

Key unit competence:
Be able to appreciate national cultural heritage, cultural preservation and recognize
their impact in lifestyle

Introductory activity 5
While there is universal cultural heritage, each nation has his own heritage. As a
learner, explain the meaning of national heritage, identify and describe Rwandan
national heritage

5.1. Elements of national heritage and the role of culture
preservation

Learning Activity 5.1

Think of the various elements of national heritage by giving examples. Explain
your answer to your colleagues

Cultural heritage can be defined as the elements of the physical artifacts and
intangible attributes of a society that are passed from past generations, maintained
in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. Cultural
heritage includes tangible culture elements such as buildings, monuments,
landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts; intangible culture such as practices,
representations, expressions, folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge, and
natural heritage including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity. These
elements of the culture heritage need to be preserved for the future to keep the
memory of the past, to offer a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting
respect for cultural diversity and human creativity. They also form part of the tourism
industry that produces the revenues for the country’s economy.

Three key elements of heritage

The three elements used to describe historic heritage are Fabric, Stories and
Culture. One or all of these things make up the historic heritage of a place.

Fabric
Fabric is the physical remains that exist today - it is what you can see or touch.
They are divided into:
– Artifacts like different archaeological and ethnological objects preserved in
National Museum of Rwanda in Huye District. They are the objects daily used
by Rwandans in the past.
– Man-made features and plantings left behind from the past such Rwandan
kings’ palaces in Nyanza district, cave (ubuvumo) in Musanze District or
ikirenge cya Ruganzu in Rulindo District. They can be also buildings ranging
in size from enormous government buildings, to large homesteads, down to
small huts, and even smaller castaway shelters.
1. Stories
Stories describe and explain our history - they are what you read, hear or watch.
Stories can be told in many different ways. They tell us what happened in the past,
the people involved, what events took place and why. In case of Rwanda, they
include different myths and legends on Rwandan country and its populations:
ibirariby’insigamigani, imigani, etc.
This domain can also account:
– Visual records like drawings, photos, old movies and maps allow us a
glimpse into the past that often makes us want to find out more.
– Written records found in libraries, archives, museums and government

departments help us to uncover more of the history behind the stories.
2. Culture
Culture describes the connection people have with historic places – what they feel,
experience or do there. Our cultural experience is enriched by knowledge of the
past. This includes:
– Spiritual connection: People get involved in conservation projects at places
that are special to them. This category can include practices related to
kubandwaand guterekera.

– Pilgrimage, our identity People make pilgrimages to places both to remember
special events in their history. The examples are regular commemorations of
the victims of the genocide committed against the Tutsi at memorials or mass
graves.
– Traditional skills People still practice today skills from our past. In spite of
expansion of modern consummation in Rwanda, some Rwandans maintain
their traditional foods and drinks. For, they are still making an extraordinary
yeast (umusemburo) for sorghum or banana beer to keep the skills for young
generation.

Culture preservation plays a great role because heritage has been described as
the “fingerprint of generations”. It refers to any prominent destination or object
which is to be passed on to the future generations. While over the years, the
term heritage has been used only to refer to the transfer of something from
one generation to another; heritage is actually of two types- natural heritage
and cultural heritage. Natural heritage comprises everything that comes in
the biological sphere including flora, fauna, geological formations etc. Cultural
heritage, on the other hand, is the legacy that is inherited from our ancestors,
maintained in the present and passed on to the future generations for their
benefit. For any nation, cultural heritage has always held an im portant place.

Application Activity 5.1
Explain what cultural heritage is and characterize briefly the importance of its
preservation

5.2. Impact of differing cultures of lifestyle and habits

Learning Activity 5.2
Discuss how the evolution of Rwandan culture affected progressively lifestyle
and habits of Rwandans

Our culture shapes the way we work and play, and it makes a difference in how we
view ourselves and others. It affects our values—what we consider right and wrong.
This is how the society we live in influences our choices. But our choices can also
influence others and ultimately help shape our society.

What is the impact of cultures?

In addition to its intrinsic value, culture provides important social and economic
benefits. With improved learning and health, increased tolerance, and opportunities
to come together with others, culture enhances our quality of life and increases
overall well-being for both individuals and communities.

Culture is the lifeblood of a vibrant society, expressed in the many ways we tell
our stories, celebrate, remember the past, entertain ourselves, and imagine the
future. Our creative expression helps define who we are, and helps us see the
world through the eyes of others.

Individual and social benefits of culture
Intrinsic benefits
Participating in culture can benefit individuals in many different ways, some of
which are deeply personal. They are a source of delight and wonder, and can
provide emotionally and intellectually moving experiences, whether pleasurable or
unsettling, that encourage celebration or contemplation. Culture is also a means of
expressing creativity, forging an individual identity, and enhancing or preserving a
community’s sense of place.

Cultural experiences are opportunities for leisure, entertainment, learning, and
sharing experiences with others. From museums to theatres to dance studios to
public libraries, culture brings people together.

These benefits are intrinsic to culture. They are what attracts us and why we
participate. Improved learning and valuable skills for the future. In children and
youth, participation in culture helps develop thinking skills, builds self-esteem, and
improves resilience, all of which enhance education outcomes.

Cultural heritage increases opportunities for education and lifelong learning,
including a better understanding of history. Culture heritage in Rwandan national
museums as well as cultural landscapes can serve as educational products and
learning resources.

Vibrant communities

Culture helps build social capital, the glue that holds communities together. By
bringing people together, cultural activities such as festivals, fairs, or classes create
social solidarity and cohesion, fostering social inclusion, community empowerment,
and capacity-building, and enhancing confidence, civic pride, and tolerance. The
social capital created through culture increases with regular participation in cultural
activities. Cultural engagement also plays a key role in poverty reduction and
communities-at-risk strategies.

Culture is important to the vitality of all communities. In Rwanda, through different
expressions of culture like gacaca, umuganda, traditional games as igisoro,
traditional dances like ikinimba, imishayayo, … revitalize connections between
Rwandan community and neighborhoods. Diverse cultural heritage resources tell
the story of our shared past, fostering social cohesion. They are intrinsic to the
sense of place. Investments in heritage streetscapes have been shown to have a
positive impact on sense of place. Benefits include improved quality of life for local
residents, a feeling of pride, identification with the past, and a sense of belonging
to a wider
In cities, culture helps to develop compelling city narratives and distinctive brands,
with unique selling points for tourists and business investors. Culturally rich districts
also enhance competitiveness by attracting talent and businesses. Cultural heritage
is also a factor in rural development, supporting tourism, community renewal, and
farmstead conservation.

Application Activity 5.2
Through examples, demonstrate how the government of Rwandans uses
culture to vitalize Rwandan communities in different sectors of life

5.3. Influences of culture on what is considered acceptable and
unacceptable sexual behavior

Learning Activity 5.3
Establish relationship between culture and sexual behavior

Notions on sexual behavior

In order to explain the influences of culture on what is considered acceptable and
unacceptable sexual behavior, it is imperative first of all to understand the meaning
of sexual behavior biologically and socially or culturally. From a bio-evolutionary
perspective, sexual behavior functions primarily to assure reproduction, and
throughout most of human evolution, sexual activity was closely related to pregnancy
and childbearing. Through evolutionary processes, numerous physiological
structures have emerged that usually make sexual behavior pleasurable and easy
to do, though sexual pain and problems are common.

The thoughts, emotions and physiological responses involved in sexual behavior
are mediated by the brain and spinal cord. The limbic system, which encircles the
upper end of the spinal cord below the cortical hemispheres in the brain, plays a
crucial role in regulating emotions and sexual behaviors. Stimulation of parts of the
limbic system can produce sexual arousal. The cerebral cortex, which processes
memory, fantasy, language, and thinking, has multiple connections with the limbic
system and plays multiple roles in sexual behavior. These neural structures are, in
turn, influenced by countless biological, psychological, and social factors.

Although neural and hormonal mechanisms help to explain many aspects of
sexuality, they are also influenced by social and cultural factors. Countless mixes
of social and cultural inputs mediated by the brain at conscious and unconscious
levels make human sexuality far more complex than the more basic sexual activities
seen in other species.

Before the development of reliable, modern contraceptive techniques, sexual
behavior was closely linked with reproduction in most societies. Whereas people in
many parts of the world attempted to unlink sex from pregnancy by using potions,
magic incantations, and pessaries (inventions worn in the vagina), most had little
success. Given the close connection between sex and procreation, most cultures
surrounded sexuality with rituals and morals that demanded and/or sanctified family
commitments, even though many people failed to follow those rules in their entirety.

In the last four decades, the development of increasingly effective contraception
and abortion techniques has allowed increasing numbers of people to avoid “procreational
sex” (except when they want babies) and explore “recreational sex” (the
fun side of sex). This adds to the already considerable variability within and among
cultures in their sexual values and practices.

Cultural norms influence certain sexual behaviors but it is important to understand
the context of cultures and traditions when talking about sexual activities. But we
have to note that other factors besides cultural norms influencing sexual behaviors,
such as individual will, peer pressure, gender and age. Cultural practices can be
powerful drivers of behavior because these are standards people live by. They are
shared expectations and rules that guide the behavior of people within particular
social groups. There are clear expectations that young men have to adhere to
as they are constantly judged and assessed as to whether they live up to these
expectations. The context becomes important in prescribing and endorsing certain
norms and behaviors.

Acceptable and unacceptable sexual behavior

Cultural norms influence certain sexual behaviors but it is important to understand
the context of cultures and traditions when talking about sexual activities. But we
have to note that other factors besides cultural norms influencing sexual behaviors,
such as individual will, peer pressure, gender and age. Cultural practices can be
powerful drivers of behavior because these are standards people live by. They are
shared expectations and rules that guide the behavior of people within particular
social groups. There are clear expectations that young men have to adhere to
as they are constantly judged and assessed as to whether they live up to these
expectations. The context becomes important in prescribing and endorsing certain
norms and behaviors.

Acceptable sexual behavior

Characteristics of acceptable also known as typical or normative sexual behaviors
include that the behavior is spontaneous or intermittent, light hearted and playful,
occurs between partners of similar age, size, and ability who may be the same
and opposite genders, and typically decreases with caregiver guidance and
supervision. Normative sexual behavior, does not cause discomfort, fear or shame
and, is not coercive. In Rwanda, the ideal is that a sexual relationship takes place
between married couples. In Rwanda, the ideal is that a sexual relationship takes
place between married couples. The marriage is concluded between the fiancés
(a girl and a boy over 21 years old) after observing cultural, judicial and religious
requirements. In Kinyarwanda culture marriage, cultural marriage requirement is
respected through at least five steps: kuranga, kurambagiza, gusaba, gukwa and
gushyingira

Unacceptable sexual behavior

Unacceptable also known as problematic sexual behaviors involve sexual body
parts in a manner that are developmentally inappropriate and potentially harmful
to themselves or others. Problematic sexual behaviors include repetitive sexual
behaviors involving oneself or others that may be frequent or excessive or include,
sexual touching without permission, coercive or aggressive sexual contact, sexual
contact with animals, transmissing sexual images via cell phone, the internet, and
other electronic media, and persistent viewing or focusing on developmentally
inappropriate sexual media or pornography involving young children or violence.
Sibling sexual experiences are also included in this category.

This sexual behavior is more known as incest which is any sexual activity between
blood relatives such as parent-child, brother sister even between cousins. Incest
usually begins with touching and petting when the victim is very young. Unacceptable
sexual behavior comprises also different forms of sexual abuse and violence such
as:
• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
• Forced/early marriage
• Sex trafficking
Sexual abuses concern people of all ages, including children. The abuser may be
a stranger, a family friend or acquaintance, or a family member. Then note that
someone who sexually abuses a child demands secrecy from the abused person.
The child is often threatened with harm if he/she tells anyone. The child may also be
told that nobody will believe him/her. As a result, it is very important for young people
to be encouraged to report when an adult, even a family member, touches them
inappropriately or makes sexual advances at them. Children should be reassured
that they are not to be blamed and that they did the right thing by speaking out.

Application Activity 5.3
Based on examples from Rwandan culture, demonstrate what is considered as
acceptable and unacceptable sexual behavior.

5.4. Ways in which culture, human rights and social practices
influence gender equality and gender roles.

Learning Activity 5.4
Cite and describe 3 activities that Rwandan traditional society assign
respectively to boys and girls.

Gender is a social and cultural construction, which distinguishes differences in the
attributes of men and women, girls and boys, and accordingly refers to the roles
and responsibilities of men and women. It also refers to the state of being male or
female in relation to the social and cultural roles that are considered appropriate
for men and women. Applied to the notion of human rights, on one hand, Gender
Equality implies that women and men, girls and boys have equal conditions,
treatment and opportunities for realizing their full potential, human rights and
dignity, and for contributing to - and benefitting from- economic, social, cultural and
political development. Gender equality is, therefore, the equal valuing by society
of the similarities and the differences of men and women, and the roles they play.
It is based on women and men being full partners in the home, community and
society. Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but
that women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on
whether they are born male or female. Gender equality is not only a fundamental
human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable
world. In Rwanda, there has been progress over the last decades: More girls are
going to school, fewer girls are forced into early marriage, more women are serving
in parliament and positions of leadership, and laws are being reformed to advance
gender equality.

On the other hand, our society has a set of ideas about how we expect men and
women to dress, behave, and present themselves. In this regards, gender roles
in society means how we’re expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct
ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls and women are generally
expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and
nurturing. Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold. Every
society, ethnic group, and culture has gender role expectations, but they can be
very different from group to group. They can also change in the same society over
time.

For our country, Rwandan society is primarily characterized by a patriarchal social
structure that underlies the unequal social power relations between men and
women, boys and girls. This has translated into men’s dominance and women’s
subordination. Gender inequalities have not seen as unjust, but as respected social
normality.

During the colonial era, men’s supremacy over women was reinforced. For example,
the abrupt shift from a subsistence economy to monetary economy based on paid
employment and a formal education system, weakened women’s position relative
to that of men. In particular, it weakened their bargaining position on matters
concerning their access to and control over resources and the degree of their level
of participation in the development process. However, historically there are many
cases to show that although women largely played a dominant role in the Rwandan
society, some positive tendencies existed within the Rwandan culture, which
reinforced women’s social role and ensured their autonomy. For example, women
played a pivotal role in the management of household resources and participated
in decision-making at different levels.

Today, Rwanda offers many opportunities that is contributing positively to the
implementation of the national gender policy. The promotion of gender equality as
a development goal is explicitly articulated in the key national policy as well as the

Application Activity 5.4
Assess the impact of colonization on ger equality

5.5. End Unit Assessment 5
End of unit assessment
Based on three examples, demonstrate the impact of national cultural heritage
and cultural preservation on Rwandans’ lifestyle

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S5: Citizenship

Topic outline

General

UNIT 1: GENOCIDE

UNIT 2: DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

UNIT 3: NATIONAL SERVICE AND SELF-RELIANCE

UNIT 4: GENDER AND SOCIETY

UNIT 5: HERITAGE AND CULTURE

Table of contents