Topic outline
UNIT1 CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 1 MODERN SOCIETY
Key Unit competence:
The student-teacher should be able to explore the contribution of the mainancient civilisations of the world to the development of the modern society.
Introductory activity
The world history has described different civilisations which were developed
from the antiquity to modern times. Among these civilisations include the
Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Greek, Roman civilisations and others.
Each of these civilisations influenced the way of life in the world. Using
a range of written materials and internet, research on the location and
expansion of Greek and Roman civilisations and describe the elements and
contributions of both the Greek and Roman civilisations to the developmentof the modern society.
1.1 Location and expansion of Greek and Roman
civilisations
Use various books and internet and describe the location and expansion of
Greek and Roman civilisations.
Activity 1.1
Use various books and internet and describe the location and expansion of
Greek and Roman civilisations.
The word “civilisation” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city.
Therefore, civilisation is a way of a group of people that entails their various wayof life such as culture, dressing and food.
The word “civilisation” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city.
Therefore, civilisation is a way of a group of people that entails their various way
of life such as culture, dressing and food.
Civilisation: Refers to an advanced and organized way of human development.
It is also the advanced stage of human life in which people have cities and
organized governments. People have also various specialties and occupations,such as farming, pottery, merchant, teachers and others.
Most of civilisations have also included the construction of big structures, such
as temples, palaces, city walls etc. The civilisation also includes literature,
mathematics, architecture, calendar and arts of various types.
The civilisation is a kind of human living characterized by great advance in human
culture where people began to farm, form governments, use metals, live in cities
and use writing.
To reach to that stage, for many years, man wondered from place to place in
search of food with no permanent settlement. He lived a life of animals feeding
on wild fruits and insects. After many centuries of wondering, man felt a need
to settle down in one settlement and grow crops instead of picking wild fruit.
Therefore; man became food producer instead of food gatherer.
The earliest civilisations began along great river valleys in the third millennium
BC and they were developed around the great rivers: Egyptian civilisation began
around Nile River, Mesopotamian civilisation around Tigris and Euphrates, Indian
civilisation around Indus River and Chinese civilisation around Huang River
(Yellow River). In the second millennium other civilisations appeared aroundMediterranean Sea. They include Roman, Greek civilisation and others.
A number of factors explain why the first man settled along river valleys ratherthan any other place.
• The presence of fertile soils in river valleys. This was due to the silt
deposited during seasonal flooding of the river. This encouraged
farmers to settle there.
• The availability of water which could be used for both domestic and
irrigation purposes.
• The presence of a wild game. There was much kind of small animals
and birds along river valleys that attracted man for survival.
• The climate along the river valleys. These river valleys had suitable
temperatures and well distributed rainfall which played a big role in the
civilisation process.
• The attractive scenery along river valleys characterized by many kinds
of colourful flowers like water lilies.
• River valleys provided fishing grounds which attracted people to settle
and specialize in fishing.
• The river favored communication and exchange of ideas. Trade was
developed, boats were built and helped in the civilisation process.
• The presence of resources along river valleys such as clay and papyruswhich helped in making pots and mats.
a. Location and expansion of Greek civilisationsMap 1: Ancient Greece
Greece is a country in southeastern Europe with thousands of islands throughout
the Aegean and Ionian seas. Among the different islands of Greece, Crete is
the biggest. Influential in ancient times, it’s often called the cradle of Western
civilisation. Athens, its capital, retains landmarks including the 5th-century
B.C. Acropolis citadel with the Parthenon temple. Greece is also known for its
beaches, from the black sands of Santorini to the party resorts of Mykonos. This
country is located near Africa and Asia. It is separated by these two continents
by waters of Mediterranean Sea.
From Greece mainland, there is a piece of land that forms a peninsula. This is
the Peloponnesus peninsula. The great city of Peloponnesus is Sparta. The
great city of Attic is Athens and the great city of Boeotia is Thebes.
Greece is bordered by Macedonia in north, Mediterranean Sea in south, and
Aegean Sea in East. Generally, Greece is a mountainous country. Therefore,
road transport is difficult but water transport is easy because of many islands
and there are well located ports that help people from the coastal region to
communicate. In Greece, there is a Mediterranean climate, dry and hot mainly inspring and summer. The main economic activity is trade.
The Greek culture originated from island of Crete. This island served as a link
for trade between Europe, Africa and Asia. As a result of this strategic location,
Crete became a place where many people from different cultural backgrounds
went and exchanged ideas. The civilisation that developed on Crete city
became known as Minoan, named after a great King of Crete called Minos. The
Greek culture copied a lot from Minoan civilisation. The Minoan civilisation was
replaced by Mycenaean civilisation about 1400 BC. The Dorians then camearound 1200 BC and pushed the Greeks to Aegean Island (Ionia).
The Greeks stayed for 200 years on the Aegean Island a period known as
“dark period”. The Greeks mixed with different people and this gave birth to
the Hellenes people who shared the common language, customs and beliefs.
What emerged from this mixture was the Greek civilisation. According to F.
Kenneth Cox, Greek civilisation developed out of a combination of two earlier
civilisations, Minoan and Mycenaean. The Minoans, who were known as Cretans,
were a seafaring people. Their civilisation arose around 2800 B.C on Crete,
an island in the Mediterranean Sea. Little by little the people of Athens mixed
with other cities in religions and games. These activities led to Olympic Games
which united the Greeks even further. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes,after Hellas a town in northern Greece.
Note that with Dorian invasion, the Mycenaean fled in the plateau of Arcadia,
Boeotia and in Attic or in the Aegean Islands. They also moved to the coast of
Minor Asia. This invasion makes all Greek speaking people to be scattered in
the whole basin of the Aegean Sea (Present Greece +Islands+ costs of Asia)hence spreading the Greek culture.
The Roman civilizations
b. Location and expansion of Roman civilisations
Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images
Rome is the capital city of Italy and of Lazio (Latium) Region and Rome Province,
on the Tiber River, in the central part of the country near the Tyrrhenian Sea.
The geography of the Italian Peninsular made possible the rise of Rome. The
peninsular extends about 750 miles from north to south with a width of about
120 miles. It is centrally located in the Mediterranean. The city of Rome is in the
center of Italy. This central location made Rome to expand, first in Italy, and later
in the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.
Italy’s location made it easier to unify than Greece. The Peninsular is not broken
up into small, isolated valleys. The Apennine Mountains formed a ridge from
north to south and divides the country into west and east. Italy was equally
blessed by having broad, fertile plains, both in the north under the shadow of
the Alps, and in the west, where the Romans settled. The fertile lands supported
her growing population.
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753bc on one of the Seven Hills:Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Palatine.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome#/media/File:Seven_Hills_of_Rome.svg
The Roman civilisation grew along the Tiber river in central Italy. It was mainly
first concentrated in the city of Rome. This was after the Romans conquered theGreeks in 146 BC that they founded the city in 753 BC.
Romans have a legend about the founding of their city.
After the fall of Troy the gods ordered a Trojan prince called Aeneas to lead his
people to a promised land in the west. When Aeneas reached Italy they joined
forces with a people known as Latin. About 800 BC a Latin princess gave birth
to twin sons fathered by the god Mars. The princess had taken an oath neverto have children. Because she broke her word, she was punished. Her sons,
Romulus and Remus were taken from her and left to die on the bank of flooding
Tiber. Romulus and Remus were found by a she-wolf, which fed and cared for
them. One day a shepherd killed the she-wolf and discovered babies. He took
them to his home. There the shepherd and his wife raised them as their sons.
When the boys grew older, they decided to build a city. The sign from gods
showed Palatine. Romulus and Remus wanted to be the king, therefore they
fought and Remus was killed. Romulus became king of the city which he namedRome (753 BC) in the plain of Latium.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_of_Rome#/media/File:Kapitolinische_W%C3%B6lfin_Museum_Capitolini.jpg
Sculpture of theshe-wolf feeding
the twins Romulus
and Remus, the
most famous image
associated with thefounding of Rome.
Rome also managed to take control of the powerful North African city of
Carthage hence uniting the entire Mediterranean region. She also controlled
the Mediterranean Sea. At the peak of its powers, her empire covered Egypt,
Greece, Asia Minor and Syria – all to her East. To her west were Tunisia, Algeria,Morocco and Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Belgium and England.
Rome’s development was greatly influenced by the geography of the Italian
peninsular. The area had excellent marble and small quantities of lead, tin,
copper, iron (on the island of Elba) and silver in its extensive coastline. There
were few good harbours, most of which faced the west away from Greece and
the Near East. Ancient Italy, nonetheless, was well endowed with large forests.
It had more fertile land than ancient Greece. However, it was more exposed
to invasion. Invaders entered it easily, as the Alps posed no effective barrier to
invaders from central Europe. To make matters worse, Italian low lying coastline
opened it to invaders from the sea. All these made the Romans, from an early
time in their settlements, to be absorbed in military pursuits to defend their own
conquests against the invaders.
Rome wanted to expand its borders. In order to do so, it had to fight against
many neighboring countries such as Carthage, Spain, Parts of Italy, Asia, andMacedonia.
a. Conquest of Italy
Firstly, Rome had been attacked by the Etruscans. Later, the territory was
invaded by other group: Celts in 390 and they settled in the valley of Po. But
these people didn’t occupy the territory, they only looted and left. From refuge,
the Romans organized many attacks and they start conquering central Italy
against the Etruscan cities because they feared that these people could try to
regain control of Rome.
After conquering the whole Italy, they went in Greece. As they become the
master of Italy the Romans tried to conquer other neighboring territories or
made alliances with them in order to protect their boundaries. After this, they
constructed many roads from Rome to the whole Italy and neighboring countriesconquered.
b. The war against Carthage
By 264 BC, the Romans had conquered some Greek City-states in the southern
Italy. This brought them into contact with the Phoenician city of Carthage.
Carthage controlled all of North Africa, most of what is now Spain and some of
islands of the coast of Italy. It also ruled the western half of Sicily, a large island
at the toe of the Italian foot. Between 264 and 146 BC Carthage fought threewars against Romans and these wars came to be known as Punic wars.
Different factors helped the spread of civilisations to other parts of the world:
• Through trade, ideas and products moved from one region to another
and from one civilisation to another thereby enabling civilisation to
spread.
• Wars and military expeditions also helped civilisation to spread. When
civilised people conquered a less civilised people, the conquered
people often absorbed the ideas of their conquerors, thereby spreading
their civilisation.
• Through intermarriage between different groups civilisation could
spread also from one area to another.
• Migration movements helped also the spread of civilisation to other
parts of the world. Migrating people carried their ways of life to new
lands where they settled. They could also exchange their skills with
people they encountered.
• Through education ancient civilisations spread to other places. For
instance, when Greek teachers went to teach in Roman Empire, they
spread Greek culture among the Romans.
• Through colonization also the civilisation spread to other parts of the
world. The strong countries which dominated small ones, they imposed
their culture on the population they dominated.
• Religious conversion also helped to spread the civilisations to other
regions. The converted people had to adopt a set of beliefs identifiedwith one particular religious denomination.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilisation
Application activity 1.1
1. Locate Greek and Roman civilisation in the time and space.
2. Identify the factors that helped the spread of civilisations to otherparts of the world.
1.2. Elements/ Achievements of Greek and Roman
civilisations1.2.1. Elements of Greek civilisations
The Greek Civilisation permeated virtually every aspect of the human life. It
marked a complete refinement of its predecessors, which are Egyptian andMesopotamian civilisations. Some of its elements were:
Greek medicine
“The father of medicine”, the Physician Hippocrates believed that the disease
had natural, not supernatural cause and that the body could heal itself. He was
the first doctor to view medicine as science. Basing his work in the late 400s
BC on observation, he diagnosed and treated illness all over Greece. According,
to tradition, Hippocrates drafted a code for ethical medical conduct that has
guided the practice of medicine for more than 2,000 Years. Many doctors today
recite the Hippocratic Oath when they receive their medical degree.
A common language
All the Greece islands spoke an identical language known as Greek. They were
thus able to communicate easily with one another. The common language also
brought feelings of togetherness among the islands’ inhabitants. Greek wasspoken and written.
Technology
Since Greek coastal cities were sandwiched between the ocean and the sea,
they developed an awesome navy for trading and fighting. All cities need fresh
water. This is a Greek aqueduct, basically a brick water pipe. The first aqueductwas Assyrian, but most ancient societies had them.
Greek Military
The Greeks invented many military weapons such as catapults, one could throw
300 pound stones at walls and buildings. Other weapons invented include
Flamethrower, a phalanx. Soldiers get in a tight box. They each have a large
shield and a 9 foot long spear. Some of the weapons were used by Greek
infantry soldiers called hoplite. Hoplites were middle-class freemen who had topay for their own weapon and shield.
Settlement in cities
City states were a major feature of the Greek Civilisation. Greeks lived in cities
which were all independent of each other. Each city and the farms around
it formed a separate state called a polis. By the 8th and 7th Centuries BC,
cities were built almost everywhere throughout Greece. All these cities were
independent. The city-states forged alliances with one another.
The city-states governed themselves differently. Sometimes they had kings for
example at Sparta. Other cities were led by a self-imposed strong man who
ruled the way they wanted. Such a leader is known as a tyrant. Sometimes the
nobleman ruled, and this was called an aristocracy. Sometimes all the citizens
took part in the government. This was called a democracy. It was practiced in
Athens. All adult male assembled together to discuss issues of interest to their
polis. Other forms of government in the city states were: monarchy, oligarchyand aristocracy.
Ancient Greek city of Athens
In city states were found the asty (city itself) with its watchtower, the agora
(public square/market place) and surrounding rural- agricultural lands referred
to as the chora. The asty was the business, political, religious and social centre
of the entire community while the Chora provided the food to both the villages
and to the city.
The ancient Greeks believed that each city-state had one or two gods keeping
a special eye on that city-state. The god in charge of Athens was Athena,
goddess of wisdom. The city of Athens was named after their special goddess.
Education was very important in Athens. From their mothers, girls learned how
to cook and sew and run a home, and how to be a good wife and mother.
Boys went to school. They memorized poetry and learned to play a musical
instrument, usually the lyre. They studied public speaking and drama and reading
and writing. Sons of nobles went to high school - four more years of learningabout the sciences and the arts and politics and government.
For about 100 years, ancient Athens was ruled by direct democracy! It didn’t
last long, but the invention of democracy is one of the most important gifts we
received from the ancient Greeks.
Citizens of Athens had many rights, including the right to stand trial and the right
(when Athens was a direct democracy) to vote. But not all people in ancient
Athens were citizens. Originally, a free male would be a citizen if his father was
a citizen. But Pericles changed that rule in 450 BCE. The new law stated thatboth father and mother be Athenians for a child to be an Athenian. Out of the
Athenians, only men had full citizenship. Women had partial citizenship, which
basically meant they had few if any rights. Pericles changed this rule to give
Athenian women more status. It worked. Even though Athenian women had
no power of their own, their status as an Athenian made them more likely tocontract a good marriage.
Participation in games
In Ancient Greek, there was a strong belief that athletic competitions were a way
to please the gods and honour the dead heroes. Greeks therefore participated
in the Olympic Games from 776 BC. During the games, fighting city-states
even suspended wars between them to allow the competitions to go on. The
games were held after every four years. They attracted some 40,000 Greeks
into the stadium built in Olympia. The games were dedicated to the god Zeus,father of the gods. The games lasted for more than five days.
Games events included foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, and
javelin, discus throwing and chariot-riding. Athletes were proud of their
bodies and emphasized physical fitness. The most celebrated event during the
Olympic Games was known as the pentathlon. It was considered the supreme
contest of athletic skill. Winners were crowned with a wreath of olive leaves,
a coveted Olympic prize. The wreath of olives awarded the candidate wasconsidered sacred to Zeus.
The Greeks took the Olympic Games quite seriously. Nearly all the ancient
Greek cities sent teams to participate in the ancient Greek Olympics. If two or
more Greek city-states happen to be at war with each other when the gamedate arrived, war was halted for the duration of the games.
Women were not allowed to attend the games because men did not wear
clothes when they competed in the events.
The Greek Olympic Games came to an end in 393 AD. They were banned by a
Christian Roman Emperor. He saw them as pagan practices. But fifteen hundred
years later, the games were revived through the efforts of a French baron, Pierre
de Coubertin, who was inspired by the ideals of the Ancient Greeks. In 1896,
the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece. Since then, thegames have been a major event in the history of sports in the world.
Belief in gods and goddesses
Ancient Greeks were very religious. They believed in gods and goddesses.
They had a common religion based on twelve chief gods and goddesses. These
deities were thought to live on Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece.
The gods and goddesses include the following:
• Zeus – the chief god and father of the gods.
• Athena – goddess of wisdom and craft.
• Apollo – god of the sun and poetry.
• Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty.
• Poseidon – brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes.
• Hades – the god of the underworld – where the spirits of the dead went.
• Nemesis – god of vengeance.
• Nike – goddess of victory.
• Apollo - god of archery, music, poetry, prophecy, medicine and later ongod of the sun.
Although the twelve gods and goddesses were common to all Greeks, each
city-state usually singled out one of the twelve Olympian gods as its guardian
for example, Athena was the patron goddess of Athens. Each polis also had itsown local gods. These local gods remained vital to the community as a whole.
Important elements in the Greek religion were rituals and festivals. The Greekswanted the gods and goddesses to look favorably upon their lives and activities.
Artistic heritage
The Greeks loved all arts. Painting, sculpture and mosaics decorated the
buildings and almost everything they owned. It might be as simple as a geometricpattern or as elaborate a scene from a battle or myth.
The Greeks attached a lot of importance to artistic expressions. Their arts havegreatly influenced the standards taken by those of other European groups.
Greek art was shown in their unique architecture and sculptures. Here, they
went to great lengths to show their expression of beauty. Some of these works
still stand today. On architecture, their artistry was visible in the temples they
built for their gods and goddesses. An example was the famous building built
in the fifth century BC, the Parthenon. This temple was built between 447 and
432 BC under the supervision of Ictinus and Callicrates as the master builders.
The temple covered 23,000 square feet. It was dedicated to Athena, the patrongoddess of Athens.
The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with
their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric,Ionic, and Corinthian.
They also made sculptures and statues. Their sculptors, showed relaxed
attitudes. Most of their faces were self-assured; their bodies flexible and smooth
muscled. Greek art and sculpture has had a profound effect throughout the
ages. The Greeks used many different types of materials in their sculptures
including stone, marble and limestone as these were abundant in Greece.
Other materials such as clay were also used but due to their brittle nature very
few have survived. Greek sculptures are very important as the vast majority of
them tell us a story about Gods, Heroes, Events, Mythical Creatures and Greekculture in general.
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/abiemason/greek-civilisation-10452091
Love of philosophy
In the Greek society, there were thinkers who challenged the belief that
events were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, these thinkers, used
reason and observation to establish the causes of things. They were known as
philosophers or lovers of wisdom. The philosophers explored many subjects
from mathematics and music to logic (rational thinking). Some were interested
in ethics and morality. Through reason and observation, the thinkers believed
that, they could discover laws that governed the universe. Philosophers focused
on personal behavior, especially the question of how to achieve peace in mind.
Three systems of thoughts attracted most of Hellenistic intellectuals: Cynicism,
Epicureanism and stoicism. The best known cynic was Diogenes. He
criticized materialism and asserted that people would be happy if they gave up
luxuries and lived simply, in accord with nature. The scholar Epicurus started
the philosophy of Epicureanism He argue that people should avoid both joy
and pain by accepting the world as it was, ignoring politics and living simply and
quietly with a few close friends. Zeno founded Stoicism. The name stoicism
comes from the Stoa Poikileor “painted Porch” in which Zeno lectured.
The stoics believed that what happened to people was governed by natural
laws. Accordingly, people could gain happiness by ignoring their emotions, and
instead following their reason. In this way, they were able to accept even the
most difficult circumstances of life and do their duty. Stoicism later affected
both Roman intellectuals and early Christian thinkers. The Greece’s greatest
philosophers included Socrates, Aristotle and Plato. Socrates developed a
teaching technique known as the Socratic Method. He encouraged the young
to clear away mistaken ides and discover the truth. Plato is known with his
earliest book of political science “The republic”. In this book he presented a
plan for what he considered would be the ideal society and government. The
third greatest philosopher of ancient Greece was Aristotle who wrote more than
200 books on different topics. He influenced later philosophers with his work onlogic. He developed syllogism.
Literature and drama
Athens led the other Greek city states in literature and drama. The latter was
made up of both tragedy and comedy. Epic and lyric were other literary forms
in the Greek world of literature. Drama is said to have developed out of the
choruses that chanted lyrical poems also known as Odes, to the god Dionysius.
A group of citizens judged the plays and awarded the winner a simple prize: a
wreath of ivy. The plays were partly acted and partly chanted. Action was limited
as emphasis was on the story and its meaning. Greek literature began with
the epics of Homer, whose stirring tales inspired later writers. The drama wasclosely tied to the political and religious life of the state, which sponsored it.
In the drama, staging remained simple. There were two or three characters
(all male) wearing masks, with a chorus of twelve to fifteen members chanting
commentary on the action. The purpose of tragedy was to inspire pity and fearin the audience. While comedy intended to amuse people by inducing laughter.
Prose was another literary genre that emerged in Ancient Greek. The people,
from the fifth century, began to express philosophical and political ideas throughprose.
The Greek theatre of Epidaurus
Writing of History
We owe the discipline of History to the Ancient Greeks. At first, History was
part of literature until Herodotus campaigned for its separation from literature.
The Greeks applied observation, reason, and logic in understanding the human
past. Herodotus was the pioneer in this hence he is often referred to as theFather of History.
According to Thucydides, history was to be written in an accurate, factual and
impartial way. He also vouched for the use of eye witness accounts in writing in
this discipline.
Trade
Ancient Greeks were also traders. They traded with the neighbouring lands in a
variety of goods. The Greek city states also traded with each other. Trade made
the city states to be rich and prosperous.
The Greeks were united by geographic region, language, religion, economics
and common customary practices. However, they remained divided politically
into the scores of the independent city states. Loyalty was first and foremost tothe city state before it extended to the more remote ideal of Hellas.
1.2.2 Elements of Roman civilisation
1. Architecture
Like other ancient communities, the Romans paid attention to architecture.
Their architecture borrowed a lot from the Greek and Etruscans ones. They also
introduced new designs and materials in their works. The Romans, for example,
pioneered the use of concrete in construction. Roman architectural works were
hence an improvement over the earlier Greek ones.
Roman civil engineering and building construction technology became developed
and refined. Some of what they built have remained to date for example, the
Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world), a building
still found in the business district of the present city of Rome. There was also
the Colossium, a theatre which could accommodate 50,000 spectators. The
pantheon was a temple of all Roman gods.
The architectural works were visible in palaces, stadiums, temples, private
dwellings, villas, public buildings and hydraulics. Roman architectural works
emphasized grandeur.
Romans are known to have experimented with the dome and pioneered in the
building of amphi theatres, public baths, and race courses. In the empire, publicbuildings were of massive proportions and solid construction.
Roman architecture made use of rows and columns and rectangular buildings.
They also used curvilinear forms (forms based on curved lines): the arch, vault,and dome.
2. Law
The early Roman republic had a written code of law which was heavily based
on custom. It was known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets’. They were written to
make the interpretation of the law objective. Work of writing the law begun in
451 B.C. It involved a group of ten officials. Upon finishing the work, the laws
were carved on twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum (market place).
These laws became the basis for future Roman law. They were based on the
spirit of equality of all citizens to the law. Every individual had thus a duty toprotect the law.
Through the universal laws, they were able to establish standards of justice that
applied to all people. An individual was regarded innocent until proved guilty.
Every suspect was allowed to face his or her accuser and themselves before
a judge who was expected to weigh the evidence carefully before making a
verdict. The Roman law was based on the following principles:
• All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.
• A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.
• The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.
• A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.• Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside.
3. Government
From the earliest times, the Romans had distrust of Kingship and of a sole ruler.
This was due to the lessons they learned from their experience with Etruscans.As a result, the Romans devised a complicated system of government.
In the Roman republic, the chief executive officers were the consuls and
praetors. Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the
Roman army into battle. In 366 BC, a new office, that of praetor was created.
The occupant was in charge of civil law. A consul’s term was only one year, and
once elected, he could not be elected again for ten years. One consul couldalso overrule or veto the others’ decision.
The senate was made up of a select group of about 300 land owning men who
served for life. It begun by serving as an advisory body to government officials.
Senators each year, elected from the patrician class two consuls. The power
of the consuls was thus checked by the senate. Consuls’ power was further
checked by limitation of terms. They could only serve for one term. Membershipto the senate was for life.
There were also a number of assemblies in the Roman republic. It was
organized by classes based on wealth. This assembly was fixed in such a way
that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. It elected the chief officialsand passed laws.
The senate was allowed during war, to elect a dictator, or a ruler who enjoyed
complete control over government. The consuls chose him before the senate
elected. Each Roman dictator was granted power to rule for six months. After
the expiry of the time, the dictator had to give up power and go back to his former
duties. When Rome became an empire, from the reign of Octavian, Senate gave
him the honorific title of emperor. He became known as Emperor Augustus.
This marked the beginning of the Roman Empire. From the date, Roman rulers
adopted the name of emperor. But like before, they exercised the very powersas during the period of consulship.
4. Social organization
The family held a central place in the Roman society. By law and custom, power
at the household was vested exclusively in the eldest man, known as the ‘pater
familias’ or the father of the family. This individual had absolute authority over the
family. He controlled all family properly. He could sell a member of his household
into slavery or even kill any member of the family without penalty. The father was
equally the individual who protected the family, spoke on behalf of the family inpublic assemblies or in law courts. He also acted as the family’s chief priest.
Roman women were in charge of the day to day management of their families.
Generally in Rome, women enjoyed more freedom than in the Greek society.
They had right to own property and testify in court. They also often provided
advice to their husbands on business and politics. All members of the family
and by extension the clans, were supposed to uphold the principles of theirancestors.
The Roman society was divided into classes. At the top was a group of families
which claimed that their ancestors had been “fathers” who had founded the city
of Rome. These families were privileged and belonged to a class known as the
patrician. They claimed that due to their ancestry, they had the right to makelaws for Rome and its people.
The other class which brought together common farmers, artisans and merchants
formed the plebeians. They were citizens with a number of rights, including the
right to vote. However, they were considered to be below the patricians. In the
Roman society thus, birth and not merit or wealth, was the sole determinant ofan individual’s social and political status.
Voting when the Republic was founded in 509 BC was exercised by thepatricians and plebeians. Slaves, women and children were not allowed to vote.
On food, the Romans observed very simple dietary practices. They usually ate
the first meal of the day at around 11 O’clock. It consisted of bread, salad,
olives, cheese, fruits, nuts and cold meat which had been left over from theprevious night’s meal. They also had other meals such as breakfast and dinner.
5. Education
The formal schooling begun around 200 BC. In most of the Roman Empire,
pupils began to learn at around age six and spent the next six to seven years in
school. They learnt basics of reading, writing and counting. By age twelve, they
were introduced to learning Latin, Greek grammar and literature after which,
they undertook training for public speaking. Romans highly valued oratory. Good
orators commanded respect from the rest of the society. It was for this reason,
that one of the objectives of education and learning was becoming an astuteorator.
6. Language
The Romans’ native language was Latin. This was a form of Italic language in the
Indo-European family. There were several forms of Latin spoken in the empire.
Silver Age Latin was the most popular. The language’s alphabet originally came
from the Greek one. Greek was spoken by the well-educated elite. Most of the
literature studied by Romans was in Greek. Latin in this area was mostly used
by the Roman administrators and soldiers. Eventually, Greek replaced Latin as
both the official written and spoken language of the eastern empire. The western
empire used Latin. Later Latin was to spread in various dialects to Western
Europe as a distinct Romance language hence giving birth to Portuguese,Romania, French, Italian and Spanish.
7. Literature
Roman literature, like, its religion, was greatly inspired by the Greeks’. The
earliest were historical epics which told the early history of Rome e.g. Augustus
sponsored the historian, Livy, to document the history of Rome from its founding
to the rule of Augustus. He did this in 142 Roman style books. Generally, Latinliterature took many forms.
The expansion of the empire culminated to expansion in the type of literally
works. Writers began to produce poetry, comedy, history and tragedy. Some of
these works have survived in today e.g. “Histories” of Tacitus, Julius Ceasers’“Gallic wars” and Livy’s “History of Rome”.
A piece of ancient Roman art
During the reign of Augustus, the literature of the time is generally referred to asworks of the Golden Epic.
Most literature of the “Golden Age” was vigorous, affirmative and uplifting. It
mainly served political and propaganda ends. Whereas that of the silver age was
characteristically less calm and balanced. Its effects are said, to have derived
more often from self-conscious artifice. Most were intended to entertain than toinstruct or uplift the mood of the reader.
8. Visual art
Roman art was greatly influenced by Etruscans – especially in portrayal of political
issues. Greek art also influenced Roman art from the 3rd BCE. It surpassed the
influence the Etruscans had exerted on the Romans. Many Roman homes weredecorated with landscapes by Greek artists.
With time the Romans came up with their own styles. Some remarkable ones
were: “Incrustation” in which the interior walls of houses were painted to
resemble coloured marble. A second style involved painting interiors as open
landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals and buildings.
The Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. From the knowledge,
they were able to create realistic portraits in stone. Much of the Roman art waspractical in purpose. It was intended for public education.
The Roman artists were especially good in creating mosaics. These were
pictures or designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a
surface. Most villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one coloured
mosaic. Romans also made good works of painting. Most of the wealthy peoplehad bright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls.
9. Music
The society in Rome recognized and appreciated the vital role played by
music in life. There was music during nightly dining and in military parades and
maneuvers. Romans used a variety of musical instruments in their songs. Some
of the main ones included tuba, cornu, flute, panpipes, lyre, lute, cithara, timpani,drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.
Some Roman musical instruments
10. Economy
In Imperial Rome, agriculture was the main economic activity. About 90% of
the population engaged in farming. Most people survived on produce from their
farms. Additional food stuffs (when needed) and luxury items for the rich wereobtained through trade.
From the time of Augustus reign, a silver coin called a denarius was used as
a medium of exchange. Existence of a common currency made commercial
transactions throughout the empire. The coins often carried the likeness of
the emperor or depicted a Roman achievement. A standard system of coinagedeveloped in 269 BCE.
Transportation when carrying out trade was made easy by the existence of
the Mediterranean Sea. Ships from the east travelled along the sea under the
protection of the Roman’s navy. Trade made cities on the eastern Coast of
the Mediterranean to expand and become rich. Examples of these cities were:Corinth, Ephesus and Antioch.
A part from water transport, the empire had a good network of roads. Roads
linked various places in the empire. The roads were originally built by the Roman
army for military purposes. The most important were the silk roads, named forthe overland routes on which silk from China reached the Romans.
11. Religion
The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divine forces, called Mumina.
These spirits were thought to reside in everything around them. Closely relatedto these spirits were the Lares, for each family.
Interactions with the Greeks and Etruscans, made the Romans begin to associate
the spirits with human like forms and individual personalities. The spirits now got
Roman names and were honoured through rituals. People expected the godsand goddesses to give them favor and protect them from misfortunes.
In the empire, the state and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of
the state. Individuals were expected to honour them in private rituals and in theirhomes. Priests also conducted public worship ceremonies in temples.
Polytheism or belief in more than one god, thrived in the Roman Empire. Among
the most important gods and goddesses were Jupiter (father of the gods), Juno
(Jupiter’s wife who supposedly watched over women), Minerva (goddess a
wisdom and of the arts and crafts) and Vesta (goddess of home). Emperor
worship also came with the creation of the institution. It became part and parcelof the state religion of Rome. Priests were appointed to work for the governor.
Their religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer,
ritual and sacrifice. They also never placed great emphasis on rewards and
punishments after death. But unlike the Greeks, the Romans revered their
ancestors, their “household gods” included deceased members of a lineage
who were worshipped in order to ensure a family’s continued prosperity. Each
home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations were offered to thefamily deity.
There was religious toleration in the Roman Empire. This witnessed varied
religious traditions. People were expected to honour Roman gods and
acknowledge the divine spirit of the empire and upon meeting these conditions;they had freedom to observe their other religious practices as they pleased.
12. Sports
In the ancient city of Rome, there was a place called the campus. Here, Roman
soldiers conducted military exercises. Later the campus became Rome’s track
and field playground. Other urban centres in the empire copied the campus intheir centres and military settlements.
The youth in the urban centres, assembled in the campus to play, exercise and
perform inappropriate acts. These acts included: jumping, wrestling, boxing
and racing, riding, throwing and swimming. In the rural areas, people also
participated in fishing and hunting. Women were prohibited from partaking ofthese activities.
There were several ball games which could be found in Ancient Rome. These
included: dice (Tesserae or tali) Roman Chess (Latrunculi) Roman Checkers(Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli) and Ludus duodeeim Scriptorum and Tabula.
13. Philosophy
Roman philosophy heavily borrowed from its Greek predecessor. Two major
philosophical schools – Cynism and stoicism – derived from Greek religion and
philosophy became prominent in the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd Century
AD. These two philosophies were fairly merged in the early years of the Roman
Empire.
The two philosophies expressed negative views on civilisation, something which
was reflected in their adherent way of life. Cynicism upheld that civilisation
was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings while
stoicism, on the other hand, taught that one must surrender all earthly thingsand assist others.
Apart from the philosophical schools we have mentioned above, there was
also Epicureanism. The most renowned of its Roman exponents was Lucretius
(98- 35B C). He expresses the view that everything is a product of mechanical
evolution, including human beings and their habits and beliefs. He however
admitted the existence of the gods but saw them as living in eternal peace,neither creating nor governing the universe.
Cicero wrote in a rich and elegant Latin prose style that has never been
surpassed. His prose became a standard for composition and has been up totoday.
14. Militarization
The Roman society was highly militarized. Citizenship for provincials could be
obtained after 25 years of military service. The army doubled as an army corps ofengineers. They built roads and other forms of infrastructure such as aqueducts.
Rome fought mercilessly with its neighbours. It had most of its male population
pass through military service. This made it a highly militarized state. Even leaders
had to have passed through the military to be accepted to lead. Political careerof an individual could only commence after ten years of service in the military.
The Roman Civilisation spread to all the lands they controlled. This happened
through trade and conquest. Its location along the Mediterranean region enabled
people to pursue their commercial interests, while their military nature allowed
them to register victories in their enemies’ camps. Once they had brought an
area to their fold, the Roman administrators helped to spread their civilisation inthe areas.
Application activity 1.2
Examine the elements of the Greek and Roman civilisations as they havebeen described by history authors.
1.3 Contributions of the Greek and Roman Civilisation
Activity 1.3
Use the Internet, the encyclopedia and History textbook to find out the
contribution of the Greek and Roman civilisations with special focus on theRwandan context.
1.3.1 Contributions of the Greek Civilisation
1. Sports: In sports we owe to the Greeks the Olympic Games which are
held after every four years. The games are today a global event which
attracts teams from various nations in different parts the World, Rwanda
included.
2. Literature: Greeks pioneered drama as a form of entertainment. They
performed plays which explored the struggles made by individuals to free
themselves from the imperfections in their characters. The playwrights
balanced their tragedies with comedies. They are famous for their love
and appreciation of literature especially poems and plays. The world today
has borrowed heavily from their rules and habits for writing, reaching and
theatre arts performance. Some of their plays are still being performed in
different parts of the World today.
3. History: The Ancient Greeks are credited with developing history as a
distinct discipline of study. Prior to this, history was considered to be
part of literature. Herodotus, father of history, constructed a narrative of
the Persians wars using critical methods and interpretative framework.
Later, Thucydides (460 – 400 B .C) used scientific methods in writing
the History of the Peloponnesian war. He used the analytic methods
borrowed from science and philosophy in writing the history so as to
produce ‘an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation ofthe future.’ The Greeks were the first people to develop history.
4. Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the
universe and of human life. The Greeks believed in rational explanation
for the existence of the universe or wise people. The philosophers tried
to understand humanity’s relationship to nature, the gods, individual to
another and between the individual and the groups of human society.
Some of the most famous philosophers of ancient Greece are Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurious.
5. Science and Mathematics: Greeks made most pronounced legacy
in science and mathematics. Various personalities made numerouscontributions. A few examples include:
6. Architecture
Ancient Greeks excelled in great architectural works. Most of the formulas they
invented as early as the 6th Century B.C have informed the world of architecture
for the past two millennia. They built temples, theatre and stadiums which are
still the envy of the present world. We owe today our theatres and stadium
designs to this Ancient civilisation. Greek architecture still influences many
people today. The US Supreme Court design, for example, was influenced by
the Parthenon, the Greek temple to the goddess Athena.
Part of the United States of America Supreme Court showing Greekarchitecture
7. Government and Law
Greeks are credited for introducing and practicing democracy, the system of
checks and balances in government, equality before the law and active citizen
participation in the civic functions of the state. They also brought the issue of
political and civil rights which were limited to citizens of a city state. Athens was
the first Greek city to set up a democratic government. Today, the principles of
democracy spread all over in the world.
8. Art, music and dance
Greek art, music and dance have exercised an enormous influence on the culture
of the present world. In art they made sculptures and statues of stones marble,
limestone and clay. On music and dance, Greek folk music and the balladlike
reciting of epic poetry. The Greeks civilisations as can be seen from these
contributions left a rich legacy to the modern world. However, it equally had
weaknesses. Women and slaves had no political rights. Foreigners were also
prohibited from owning land. These made the Greek system to be discriminativeby today’s standards.
9. Religion
The Greeks shared a common religion and belief system. They believed in many
gods and goddesses. Their belief system was also made up of heroes andmyths.
Greek gods and goddesses had human appearance. They also bore human
characteristics and attributes. The deities participated directly in human affairs
according to Greek beliefs. In addition, the Greeks believed in oracles to tell thefuture and to give prophesies.
Today, religion is common to humanity. It is based on a system of beliefs just
as during the Ancient Greek period. Belief in oracles is still practiced in games
and sports and many other fields of human endeavor. The belief in existence
of gods (or god), life after death, provision of sacrifices and offerings to god,
command of divine powers over human life and observance of festivals and
rituals in religious life, were evident in the Greek Civilisation. We owe thesepartly to the Greek Civilisation.
10. Belief in military power of a country
Sparta was renowned for her military power. She built an army which proved
fatal to other Greek city – states and beyond. War was glorified and every effort
was made to train boys to serve in the military. Today, all world states have
developed their military along almost similar lines. A might of a nation is partlyseen through its military capability.
1.3.2 Contributions of the Roman Civilisation
The Romans made countless contributions to us in virtually all the fields. Today,we use some of their inventions and innovations. The main ones include:
1. Christianity: The romans have promoted Christian religion. Rome allowed
Christianity to spread and flourish in her empire. Today, Christianity is oneof the major world religions.
2. Government: Representative democracy was reflected in the Roman
republican system. Senators represented groups of people thus bringing
an element of democracy. Power was distributed and not concentrated in
one office. This form of government has been emulated by governments
in the world today. In a way too, the Roman division of their republic into
three branches: The Consuls (who served as judges and army leaders)
the Senators (who acted as political advisers) and the Assembly (made
up of army members whose role was to approve or reject laws) mirrors
the separation of powers found in democratic governments today. Like
modern democracies, the Romans through their “Twelve Tablets” hadsomething similar to a written constitution.
3. Architecture: Architecture is one field in which the Romans made great
strides in. Their knowledge and skills have been acquired in the modern
world. Their architectural styles were evident in use of improved arches
and columns of the Greeks; the rounded domes, sculptures, frescos and
mosaics. They also used concrete, mortar and cement. This enabled
them to develop some structures which have withstood the test of timesuch as the pantheon and the colosseum.
The Roman colosseum
Roman engineering skills were also evident in the construction of aqueducts.
These structures were made across rivers, and included large networks ofunderground channels which supplied water to cities and valleys.
Today all the innovations of Romans have made our life easy. Buildings, bridges
and harbours and pipeline transport for water are in use in virtually every part of
the world. The Roman architectural styles have also been copied in many parts
of the world e.g. the US capital building, the Lincoln memorial and most statecapitals in the USA.
Roman aqueduct
4. Entertainment: Our idea for mass entertainment came from the
Romans. People were entertained in the forum and in the colosseum,
Rome’s amphitheater which had a capacity of accommodating 60,000
persons. Games were played, sports were held, musical and theatrical
performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat performed.
Today mass entertainment is a feature of modern humanity.
5. Romans introduced the idea of urban planning: The romans were
the first people to introduce the idea of city planning. Roman Empire had
well planned towns linked by a good road network, portions of which
exist up today. The cities were very well planned with very well street,
avenues and quarters. Modern man used this knowledge to improve and
come up with advanced modern urban planning.
6. Roads: Roman roads have greatly influenced our modern road
construction. Some of these roads are still in use today. Their highways
were straight, plane and resistant to damage. Like today’s highways,
these roads use the most direct route to connect cities.
7. Calendar: The Julian calendar (named after its inventor, Galus Julius
“Ceasar”) gave a lot to the modern calendar which was reformed by
Pope Gregory 1600 years later. The calendar is still being used the way
it was in many Greek Orthodox churches. Our modern calendar has
retained the names of the months as they were in the Julian calendar.
All the months’ names are derived from Latin e.g. January (from “Janus”,god of the beginning of times) February (from “Februa” a Roman festival),
March (from “Mars” the god of war), April (from “aspire” meaning “open”,
referring to the blossoming of plants in spring), May (from “maia,” goddess
of fertility), June (from “Juno”, goddess of women and marriage, hence
the expression “June bride”), July (from Julius Ceasar himself), August
(from emperor Augustus), September (7th” as March was the first month
at the time), and, October (8th), November (9th) and December (10thmonth). The use of calendar has remained in today’s society.
8. Law: The modern world has also borrowed a lot from the Roman law. To
maintain law and order, Romans were law- making people. Roman legal
principles are still used in France, Italy, and Latin America.
9. Literature, philosophy and history: Romans were good writers of
stories, poems, literature; painting walls, Poetry and use of satire in verse
in literature were popular in the Ancient Roman Empire. The Romans
respected philosophy’s contribution to society. They were guided by Greek
philosophical schools. The Romans spread ideas of these philosophies
to the areas they controlled. Today, the world owes a lot in these three
fields to the Romans. Even some of the books they wrote in literature,
philosophy and history have been interpreted in other languages and are
still being used today.
10. Art: Art was another area where the Romans have left an indelible mark.
Uses of realism, idealism and revealing of an individual’s character in a
piece of art have their origin in Ancient Rome. Today, art is dominated
with these qualities. We can also not forget the idea of beautifying homes
with works of art in the modern society. This was also popularized by the
Romans. Uses of frescoes and mosaic have also their roots in ancient
Rome.
11. The Latin language. It became the intellectual language in Europe.
Today the Roman alphabet is still widely used in the whole world. For
instance, Latin was the official language of business, education, law,
government and arts and in the contemporary world Romance languages
include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. Latin has
influenced the English language widely to the extent that Latin is a source
of many English words like audio, face, graduate, homicide, labour etc.
12. Currency and trade: Throughout their reign, the Romans maintained a
stable currency and a prosperous international trade. Stability of currency
and promotion of international trade, are today still vital economic issues.
13. Romans are remembered for roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V, X, L,
C, D, M, Roman calendar of AD (Latin for Anno Domino or After Birth of
Christ; also After Common Era) and BC (Before the birth of Christ; also
Before Common Era).
14. Romans are remembered of their military organization in sections,
companies and platoons.
15. Engineering: Roman builders had invented many construction
techniques like building of roads with many layers of stones which arestill used today.
Greek and roman civilisation left a good number of legacies to the modern world.
These contributions include mathematics, engineering, medicine, Olympic
Games, Literature, philosophy, history Government and Law, architecture
Art, music and dance, Religion, urban planning, Christianity, Government,
Latin language, roman numerals, engineering and many others. All these
contributions are applied to Rwanda. Let’s consider few examples to prove
this truth to Rwanda. The Latin language which is a roman contribution is today
taught in seminary schools in Rwanda. The Latin language is also the mother
of Romances languages which are the Spanish, Italian, French and Portugueseamong others. French is an official language in Rwanda.
Latin has influenced the English language widely to the extent that Latin is a
source of many English words like audio, face, graduate, homicide, labour etc.
This English is also used in Rwanda as an official language. In sports we owe
to the Greeks the Olympic Games which are held after every four years. The
games are today a global event which attracts teams from various nations in
different parts the World and Rwanda included because Rwandans participatedin Olympic Games for many times.
Application activity 1.3
Identify the legacies of Greek and Romans civilisations visible in Rwanda todate.
Skills Lab
With reference to various contributions of the ancient civilisations to
Rwanda, imitate either Greeks or Romans to create one feature of yourchoice and present it to the class.
End unit assessment 1
1) What is civilisation?
2) Using maps, locate Greece and Italy where Greek and Roman
civilisation developed respectively.
3) What achievements is the Greek philosopher Pythagoras credited
with?
4) Explain the elements of Greek and Roman civilisations.
5) Discuss the contributions of Greek and Roman civilisations toRwanda.
UNIT 2 POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN TIMES.
Key Unit competence:
The student-teacher should be able to examine the political, economic andintellectual progresses in the medieval and modern times.
Introductory activity
The medieval times also known as Middle Ages was the period between
300AD to 1500AD. The medieval period saw two major world religions
such as Christianity and Islam and they attracted many followers in different
parts of the world. Middle ages was also marked by European early
explorations. The impacts of these religions and explorations were further
to be witnessed in the modern times. The period begun from 1500AD up
to date. Modern time also witnessed enlightenment era known as the age
of reason that took place between 1720 and 1790.Use internet, textbooks,
maps, photographs and media to answer the questions below:
1. Describe the origin, spread and effects of Christianity and Islam.
2. Show the relationship between Islam and Christianity in the middle
and modern times.
3. Analyse the causes and effects of the early exploration.
4. Examine the ideas of Philosophers.5. Discuss the impacts of the ideas of the era of enlightenment.
2.1. Origin, spread and effects of Christianity and Islam inEurope and the rest of the World
2.1.1. Christianity
Learning activity 2.1.1
Observe the photos above and use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs
and media to research on origin, spread and effects of Christianity in Europe
and the rest of the world and answer the following question:Discuss the origin, spread and effects of Christianity.
Origin of Christianity
Christianity emerged from a Jewish background. Christianity was founded by
Jesus Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Jesus was a Jew who was born
in Bethlehem. Upon attaining 30 years of age, he began his public life which
involved preaching about the way God wanted human beings to act towardsone another. He made many followers who believed in his teachings and actions.
He was the Son of God but born through Mary and Joseph. Jesus was born at
about 4 BC at almost the same time Rome took over the Jewish Kingdom. He
was thus both a Jew and a Roman subject. He was born during the reign of
Emperor Augustus. Information on him is found in the four Gospel books in theBible, which are; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
According to the gospels, Jesus grew up in the village of Nazareth in northern
Palestine. It is said that each year he went with his parents, Joseph and Mary,
to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. This is a Jewish ceremony which
commemorated the Israelites’ exodus from slavery in Egypt. During the visits,
Jesus displayed an amazing knowledge of religious matters which impressed
Jewish scholars of the time. Jesus began to attract large crowds through his
teachings, especially when word went round that he performed miracles of
healing. This made his followers to equate him with the legendary Messiah or
anointed King sent by God to lead the Jewish people to freedom. They even
said that before conception, an angel called Gabriel told Jesus’ mother that she
would give birth to the Messiah. “He will be great,” said the Angel, “and will be
called the Son of the Most High God.” Mary’s pregnancy was believed to havebeen supernatural. She did not conceive with Joseph because she was a virgin.
Paul of Tarsus, a Jew and a Roman citizen did much to spread Christianity in the
Roman Empire. He travelled extensively in Eastern Mediterranean spreading
the faith. The letters he wrote constitute the earliest Christian writings. His
interpretation of Christ’s teachings, which divorced it from following the Jewish
traditions, enabled it to spread widely in the non-Jewish communities. Heargued that Christ had brought the one detailed in the Hebrew Bible.
Christianity was further supported by Emperor Constantine’s conversion to
the faith. The emperor made efforts to see the faith embedded in the Roman
Empire for example through the Edict of Milan, all forms of religious worship
were legalized in the empire. Constantine reached the decision with his coruler,
Licinius. The Edict made the faith to be granted imperial recognition in
the Roman world. Many Roman emperors took to Christianity after the end of
Constantine’s reign. The faith thus received official support, and spread in mostparts of the empire – Europe included.
Christianity survived the fall of Rome and Grew to be one of the major influenceson Western civilisations.
Spread of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world
Factors that facilitated the spread of Christianity in Roman Empire
From Palestine, Christianity spread to other parts of the Roman Empire and
beyond. There are many reasons which have been advanced for the spread
and success of Christianity in the Roman Empire and they include thefollowing:
– Christianity had changed people’s behavior to leave the traditional
customs and religions.
– Christianity spread the idea of a unique God.
– The belief in life after death taught by Christianity attracted many
non-believers.
– Stability and peace in Rome also helped in the spread of Christianity.
– In 312AD, Emperor Constantine I authorized the Romans to convert
to Christianity and heal lowed the use of government money to
support Christianity in Rome and Jerusalem.
– The good communication network in the Roman Empire enabled in
the guide and spread of Christianity. E.g. good roads.
– The good examples shown by the Christian community also helped in
the spread of Christianity, where pagans admired believers.
– The good examples shown by the Christian community also helped in
the spread of Christianity where pagans admired behavior.
– People wanted the love, kindness and security that Christianity
offered.
– In 392, Emperor The odosius made Christianity the official religion ofthe Roman Empire and outlawed all other religions.
Spread of Christianity
The support Christianity got from the Roman emperors greatly contributed to its
spread in areas under Roman Ruler. Most of these lands were in Europe and to
some extent Asia and parts of Africa. Christianity with the political backing from
the Roman rulers grew rapidly with time. It was the religion of choice of people
in various parts of the world.
Expansion (30-65 AD)
This period witnessed the spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to other parts
of the world starting with Rome. They took a threefold approach at this time:
Kerygma (proclamation of gospel message), did ache (further teaching and
explanation of Christianity to new converts who had accepted the Kerygma)
and finally, the worship and liturgical activity of the early communities gatheredtogether especially to celebrate the supper of the Lord.
Persecution (AD 65 -90)
The first period of expansion ended in 65 AD. By 70 AD persecution of Christians
commenced. This persecution was spearheaded by Emperor Nero. Life for
Jews and Christians alike become unbearable in the Roman Empire. Inspite of
this, Christians were happy and believed in Christ. They soldiered on. A host
of Roman emperors led in Persecution of Christians. It began with Emperor
Nero (54 -68 AD) then came Decius (250 -251 AD), Galerius (who was in
charge of the Eastern part of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor
Diocletian (284- 305 AD). There were equally those emperors who supported
Christianity. The most notable one was Constantine (312 -337 AD). Others
were Valerian (251-260 AD) Diocletian (284 -305 AD) and lastly Theodosius
I. The emperors who supported Christianity greatly contributed to its spread inthe Roman Empire, Europe and some parts of Asia and Africa.
During the period of persecution, the Christians were outlawed and hunted
down like criminals. Many were killed due to their faith. Many Christians were
undeterred by the persecutions and they remained steadfast in their spread of
the faith. They produced written gospel literature during this time. The presence
of eyewitnesses and the excellent uncluttered memories of those times
were sufficient enough. The recording of the teachings of Christ was partly
necessitated by the disappearance of the eyewitnesses due to persecution of
Christians thus making them disappear at an alarming rate. Peter and Paul, who
were some of the disciples of Jesus Christ, were killed in Rome for their faith
and another disciple by the name of James was killed in Jerusalem. Apart from
the killing, Christianity was also under the threat from new ideas and heresies.
All this made recording of the story and teachings of Christ very important.
It would provide a fixed, written definitive account, which would be available
for the increasing number of converts. The Gospel of Mark opened the floor
to others. Mark was the disciple and interpreter of Peter. He thus recorded
Peter’s preaching. Luke was also to do the same for Paul. The Gospel of Luke
and Mathew were written towards the end of A.D 96. Mathew had a Jewish
audience in mind while Mark, had a Roman one. Luke on the other hand had
a Gentile world in mind. He sought to put straight on Christianity amidst thehostility, false accusations and misunderstanding which Christians aroused.
Effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world
• Emergence of monotheism: Previously communities were
polytheists. It was Christianity which brought the belief in one supreme
God. It preached against the existence of many gods and goddesses.
The Christian God was all-powerful and was believed to have been thecreator of everything in the universe and beyond.
• Belief in salvation: Christianity brought individualism in humanity’s
relationship with God. An individual was required to receive salvation
in order to enter the heavenly kingdom. This was to be seen in ones’
behaviour both to God and secondly to fellow human beings. Good
behaviour thus became a practice in society.
• Promotion of justice in society: The pillar of Christ’s teachings
was justice. All Christians were expected to be just in all their dealings.
As a result, Christians developed a just society where the interests of
all were respected.
• Promotion of equality in society: Christians did not tolerate
discrimination. Discrimination of women slaves, non-Jews and later
racism, was not encouraged. People were treated as equals in spite of
their differences.
• Promotion of social services: Christians strongly believed in
serving others. From an early time, Christian monks and nuns traversed
different parts of the world spreading spiritual, physiological and mental
food. They spearheaded provision of medical, educational and other
social services in lands where they spread their faith. In Africa and
many parts of Asia, it was the missionaries who opened up services. In
both the Middle Ages and later, education became a path for upward
mobility and employment. This was first done by Cathedral schools
which later developed into universities e.g. University of Paris.
• Development of infrastructure: Roads and buildings were
constructed in different parts of the world courtesy of the missionaries.
Christians travelled to remote areas which were lacking infrastructure.
They helped stimulate the making of such areas accessible.
• Promotion of Western culture: Originally, Christianity was Jewish
in cultural orientation. This however changed when most of Europe
embraced the faith. The western world gave Christianity some aspects
of its culture. These came to be part and parcel of the faith. Today,
most of these cultural practices have been adopted by Christians in
different parts of the world. Christianity equally evolved its unique
culture, e.g., it came up with the Eucharist – these involved converts
taking the blessed bread and wine. It was a symbol of God’s sacrifice
for unity with his people.
• Encouragement of trade and urbanization: During the crusades,
Christians evolved commercial relations with the Muslim states they
waged the war against. Mostly, the crusades stimulated the demand
for luxury goods. Population of towns increased thus leading to rapid
urbanization.
• Adoption of new ideas: The interaction between the Christians and
Muslim groups during the crusades enabled Muslim ideas to find their
way in Europe. In an equal measure, western ideas found their way in
the areas traversed by the Christian traders, e.g. new translations of
texts by Aristotle, texts on astronomy, numerals and paper, made theirway across the trade routes.
• Loss of lives and destruction of property: Christians organized
crusades against the non-adherents to the faith. This involved waging
wars which brought untold suffering, loss of lives and destruction of
property to the victims. The crusades took place in the 11th and 12th
centuries. They were holy wars sponsored by the Pope to recover
holy land from the Muslims. These crusades grew partially out of long
conflicts between Muslims and Christians in Spain. The crusaders
believed they would receive spiritual merit and earn a place in paradise.
• Discrimination in society: Even though Christianity taught on equality
of persons, the Christians discriminated the non-Christians in various
ways. Many non-Christians were excluded from certain privileges. Thisin itself was discriminative hence encouraging inequality in the society.
Application activity 2.1.1
1) Explain the origin of Christianity.
2) Describe the spread of Christianity.3) Discuss the effects of Christianity to the world.
2.1.2. Islam
Learning activity 2.1.2
Observe the photos above and use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs
and media to research on the origin, spread and effects of Islam in Europe
and the rest of the world and answer the following question:Describe the origin, spread and effects of Islam.
Origin of Islam
The word Islam means submission to Allah (Arabic word for God). The followers
of Islam are known as Muslims (ones who submit). The Islamic religion was
founded by Arab merchant named Mohammed. He came to be known as
the prophet of Allah or God. In the 7thc, Islam originated from Mecca and
Medina. The Koran is the holy book of Islam and it contains the teachingsof Prophet Mohammed that were revealed to him by Allah.
The birth of Muhammad
Muhammad was born in Mecca around AD. 570. In his youth, he worked as a
shepherd among the Bedouin Arabs. Later, he led caravans across the desert
and became a successful merchant at the age of 25. He married Khadija, a
wealthy widow who ran a prosperous caravan business. Islam developed in twocities – Mecca and Yathrib (Medina).
Muhammad received a series of spiritual revelations from God. These were to
form the religious basis of Islam. He met with opposition to the new faith butmanaged to place it upon firm foundations. The prophet was very religious.
He often went to a cave outside Mecca to quietly contemplate spiritual matters.
At about the age of 40, he had a spiritual vision. While meditating in the cave,
an angel spoke to him. Angel Gabriel was communicating with him. This
happened from time to time and Muhammad discussed it with his wife Khadija
and close friends. These people accepted the seriousness and truthfulness of
the revelations. They were later written and are today what are contained in the
Quran, the Muslim holy book. Muhammad started to convey the content of some
of his revelations to a wider public around AD 613. Some people found the
message appealing, particularly that a single God was the source of all power
and goodness in the world. The message was especially attractive to the poor
nd those who were not in power. It was attractive because it transcended tribalgroupings hence a challenge to the tribal leaders.
Spread of Islam
Islamic expansion was carried out through Jihads, Trade and Education.
At first, the teaching of Muhammad did not change Mecca’s people from their
old way of praying idols and human sacrifices. He escaped to Medina. In
Medina, he preached by the use of force or Jihad (holy war). Muhammad and
his followers spread the faith by conquest and persuasion. Those
who tried to oppose Islam, were killed. Sword was the main instrument of
conversion for example if you died in the act of killing disbelievers, they would
go straight to heaven and see the presence of God. By 8thc, Islam expandedto Egypt, Perce, Berber, Spain, Turkey, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia.
Factors that led to the rapid spread of Islam
• Prophet Muhammad’s military expeditions: The prophet was a
good military organizer. He led his army from Medina to many successful
excursions in Mecca and other areas.
• Role of merchants: Muslim merchants spread their religion during
their commercial activities in other areas. Islam thus easily spread along
the busy trade routes of western Arabia.
• The Hajj ceremonies: Every Muslim, as we have already learnt, was
expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. This
ceremony brought Muslims from various places together. It bound them
and made them to put all efforts at spreading the faith.
• Decline of the Eastern Roman and Persian empires: The fall of
the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) and Persian Empire created a
power vacuum which was easily filled by Islam.
• Teachings of the Quran: Arabs were passionate in their new faith.
This was strengthened by the teachings of the Quran which held that
wars fought for God were just. A warrior killed in a jihad or holy war,
was promised immediate entry into paradise.
• Use of a mixture of force and diplomacy to win converts:
Muslims used jihads and diplomacy to spread the faith. Force which
involved using jihads was employed on large un-cooperative groups. The
Muslim traders used diplomacy to spread Islam. The merchants spreadIslam to West and East Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.
The teachings of Islam
Islam is based on two basic truths in what is called the Islamic creed. The creed
of Islam is La ilaha il’Allah, Muhammadan Rasoulu Allaha simple statement
in two parts translated as “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is
the messenger of Allah.”This is the shahada (witness) and expresses the
very heart of the Islamic creed.
1. The first part of the creed means that: ‘there is no God but Allah the
Almighty’.
2. The second part of the creed is that ‘Muhammad is the messenger
of God’.
Muslims accept these two basic statements in the heart, that there really is
one God, supreme and unique, and that the revelation given through Prophet
Muhammad by Allah is genuine, final and complete, and super cedes allrevelations that came before it.
The teachings of Islam are based on the revelations Prophet Muhammad received
from God. They were first memorised by the prophet before they were written in
the Quran. Muslims believe that the original books from where these revelations
were got are in heaven with God. To Muslims, God will not reveal anything else
beyond the Quran. They regard Muhammad as the medium through whichGod’s revelations reach humanity.
Muslims believe that the Quran is the direct word of God. It contains 114chapters, or suras. The chapters are divided into verses called Ayah.
Adherents of Islam have five principal duties which they are obliged to fulfill as
part of the faith. These are usually termed the five pillars. They constitute themain teachings of the Quran. The five pillars are discussed below.
1. Profession of faith/creed (Shahadah): All Muslims are expected
to utter the following statement: “There is no god but Allah and
Muhammad is the messenger of the God.” This statement is to
be uttered by new converts and is also the principal means by which
an individual asserts his or her adherence to Islam. It stresses that for
Muslims, there is only one God and the belief in one God (monotheism)is central to the Islamic faith.
2. Ritual prayer (Salah): It requires that Muslims who may pray to God at
any time of the day to pray five times a day, using certain words while
facing Mecca. The prayers are also accompanied by certain forms of
kneeling and bowing (prostrations). This form of prayer is known as Salah
and should be preceded by ritual washing to create a sense of spiritual
cleanliness prior to prayers in what is known as wudu. Where there is no
mosque, a clean and peaceful place is used and a prayer mat is placed
on the ground as a symbol of spiritual cleanliness. The ritual prayers
take place on five occasions during the day: at daybreak, midday, the
middle of the afternoon, at sunset and during the evening. The main
prayer time of the week is at noon on Fridays. These prayers are said
by the Imam, who also gives a sermon based on a few verses from theQuran.
Islamic prayer
3. Giving of alms (Zakat): Zakat is regarded as a requirement in Islam.
It does not stop Muslims from giving money or goods to charity at any
time. The alms usually consist of giving two and a half percent of one’s
income, and perhaps other assets to charity or deserving causes. There
are however, variations in the income and goods which form its basis,
how it should be donated and how it should be collected. Communities
may differ on who is required to give the alms. The zakat collected is often
used not only to support those in financial need, but also to help withpassing the message of Islam onto others.
4. Fasting during the holy month of Ramadhan (Swam): Ramadhan
is usually marked in the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The fast is
observed from sunrise to sunset for a total of 30 days. All Muslim adults
are prohibited from taking food or drink during the day. This occasion is
a period which Muslims demonstrate great discipline, both in a physical
sense and in a spiritual sense. They also contemplate God and the religious
life. At sunset each day during Ramadhan, Muslims eat a light meal to
break the fast. Later in the evening, there is a much more substantial
meal taken together with family members. People visit the mosque in the
evening for prayers and to take part in the special events marked during
the holy month. After a night’s sleep, people wake up early to take a
light meal which they will survive on up to evening. Towards the end of
Ramadhan there are special celebrations. One important celebration is
celebration symbolises the first night during which Prophet Muhammad
received revelation from God. The conclusion of the fast of Ramadhan
is usually graced by great celebration, when family members gather andoffer each other presents. This festival is known as Eid-Ul-Fitr.
5. Making of pilgrimage to Mecca: This is also known as hajj. A Muslim
is expected, where possible, to make the pilgrimage at least once during
one’s lifetime. The event is held every year at approximately the same time.
This date is usually between certain specific days on the 12th month of
the Islamic calendar. Prophet Muhammad made a hajj in AD 632. Most of
the tradition and celebratory features of the hajj are based on this visit.
During the pilgrimage, people visit Mecca, the neighbouring towns and
sites of religious significance in the history of Islam. There is a particular
dress code for men and women. The first place to be visited is the Kaaba
(a large cube-shaped building covered in black cloth at the time of the
Hajj). In one corner of it, there is a black stone which was said to have
been given to Ibrahim (Abraham) by Angel Jibril (Gabriel). The Kaaba is
situated in the grand mosque in Mecca. Pilgrims walk around it seven
times, moving in an anti-clockwise direction. All Muslims are expected to
“fight” to further the faith and to defend it against any acts that might seekto undermine Islam. Jihad may at times involve a physical struggle.
The Five Pillars
Effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the world
Islam had both positive and negative consequences in Europe and the rest ofthe world.
Arab scientists called alchemists tried to turn base metals, such as tin, iron
and lead, into gold and silver. Arabs are considered the founder of modernchemistry.
Astronomy and Geography
Arab astronomers studied the heaven and gave many stars the names they still
have today. They determined the size and circumference of the earth. From
their studies they concluded that the earth might be round. Additionally, the
Astronomer geographers created the first accurate map of the World. They
accurately described the eclipses of the Sun and proved that the Moon affectsthe oceans.
Mathematics
Arab mathematicians invented algebra and introduced it to Europeans. Arab
mathematicians also borrow the zero and the numerals 1-9, from Hindumathematicians in India and passed them on to Europeans.
Medicine
Arab doctors had to pass an exam before they could practice medicine. The
Arabs established the World’s first School of pharmacy and opened the
World’s first drug stores. They organized medical clinics that travelled through
the empire proving drugs and care for the sick. Arab doctors were the first to
discover that blood circulates or is carried to and from the heart. They were also
the first to diagnose certain diseases, that Tuberculosis is contagious. They also
discovered that one way to prevent illness from spreading is to keep the sickpeople apart from those who are not infected.
Arabs also made many contributions in arts
One of the best known writings is The Arabian Nights, a collection of tales puttogether from Persian stories. They designed swords, books, Mosques, etc.
Islamic Mosque
• History
At first Arab historians wrote about events one year at a time. Then they
began to organize events around rules and peoples, which is what most
historians do today.
• In literature
Arabic language influenced English. E.g. tariff, traffic magazine, alcohol,
Muslim, sugar, algebra, etc.
• Trade
Muslims penetrated Asia, China, Africa, India and Europe for trading
reasons.
• Chemistry
They discovered different chemical processes like distillation, filtration and
sublimation.
• Belief in monotheism
Muslims believed in only one God-Allah and his prophet was (is) Muhammad.
People reached Allah through prayers. Islam also brought an end to
paganism in areas it controlled.
• Loss of life and destruction of property
This issued from the Jihads. It involved waging a physical struggle against
nonbelievers who threatened Islam. The wars led to massive loss of lives
and destruction of property.
• Division of Muslims
At first Islam had uniform adherents. But due to interpretation of the faith visà-
vis leadership, divisions occurred. This led to the emergence of the Sunni
and Shi’a. Each has interpreted the teachings of the prophet differently.
• Change in dietary habits
Islam brought some dietary regulations on its adherents. Acceptable foods
were (and are) called ‘Halal’ while forbidden ones are called “Haraam”.Muslims have since stuck to these dietary regulations.
Application activity 2.1.2
1. Examine the origin of Islam.
2. Describe the spread of Islam.3. Discuss the effects Islam to the world.
2.2. Relationships between Islam and Christianity in themiddle and modern times.
Learning activity 2.3
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
the causes and effects of crusades and jihads to answer to the following
questions:
1) Examine the causes of crusades.
2) Identify the effects of crusades.3) Explain the causes and effects of jihad movements in West Africa.
2.2.1. The christian crusades (1097-1271)
Crusades were religious military holy wars or expeditions carried out by the
Christians of Western Europe under the leadership of pope Urban II against the
Muslim Turks of Eastern Europe in order to liberate the holy land of Jerusalem.
These Christian holy wars involved a series of military campaigns where pope
Urban II appealed to Christian soldiers to carry the cross in a struggle to purifyChristianity and stop the spread of Islam.
In 1095 at Clermont in southern France while addressing churchmen and
nobles, Pope Urban II made one of the most moving speeches in history. “…
Jerusalem a land fruitful above all others, a paradise of delights, the royal city,
situated at the centre of the Earth, implores you to come to her aid. Undertake
the journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, and be assured of the reward
of imperishable glory in the kingdom of Heaven.” As the pope concluded his
speech, a feeling of intense excitement swept through the crowd, with manybelievers chanting, “God wills it, God wills it.”
During the medieval times, Christians thought of Palestine, and all other places
connected with the life and works of Jesus, as the Holy land and as early as200 AD, Christians from Europe had begun making pilgrimages to Jerusalem.
However, in the 7th century AD, the Muslim conquered Palestine. Despite the
Arab conquest, Christians were tolerated by the Arabs, and they continued
visiting the holy sites. The situation changed in 1071 when Seljuk Turks (an
extremist Arab tribe) captured Palestine and started mistreating Christian
pilgrims, charging them large sums of money to access Jerusalem. The Seljuk
Turks had recently stormed Baghdad, taken Jerusalem, and conquered all Asia
Minor from the Byzantine Greeks. This prompted pope Urban II to appeal to the
Christians to join the crusades to liberate Jerusalem. The first crusade in 1097was followed by seven additional ones. However, only the first was successful.
Causes of crusades
• The desire to liberate Jerusalem: Christian desired to liberate Jerusalem
(Christian holy land) from Turkish Muslim domination led to Crusades.
Begun in about 1071 and followed by killing and heavy taxation of
Christian pilgrims. The Muslims had also destroyed the holy places,
sacred to Christians but of no religious significance to Muslims.
• The crusades were also intended to re-unite the Christians in the
west (Roman Catholics) with those in the East (Orthodox Christians).
In 1054, the Christian church experienced a schism, a heresy which
split the Christian faith in two, because the Byzantine Christians had
denied the supremacy of the pope as head of the church, causing a rift
between the two. Pope Urban hoped to settle the differences between
the Byzantine and the roman Christians through a successful crusade
against a common enemy, “the accursed Muslims”, as the pope called
to them.
• Crusades were organized also to completely eliminate Islam from the
face of the earth. The crusades could therefore help to purify Christianity
and stop the spread of the Islam especially in Europe.
• Some Christians joined the crusades because they wanted to go to
heaven. These were inspired by the religious zeal. It was believed that
if one died in a crusade (Holy war), his/her sins would be forgiven and
it was a sign of spiritual fulfillment. This therefore forced many to join
the crusades hoping that if they died in action, paradise awaited them.
• Some Christians hoped that through the crusades, they would conquer
and loot great wealth from the Arab world and become rich men.
• Some crusaders especially merchants, joined the crusades in order to
protect their monopoly over the Mediterranean Sea trade, threatened by
the possibility that their trade routes would be lost if Muslims expanded
to Spain and Italy. By means of a crusade, the western merchants would
defeat and drive the Muslim back and thereby also take control of the
important trading centers of Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem, which
Muslims had controlled for centuries.
• Many Christians joined the crusades as a sign of obedience to Pope
Urban II. The pope had unquestionable powers and therefore given
orders from him, all Christians felt obliged to join the crusades.
• The pope was also motivated to launch a holy war with an army of
crusaders, knights from all over Europe’s kingdoms to display his power
as the leader of all Christians.
• Some joined Crusades as a sign of obedience to the Pope.
• Love for adventure made people to join Crusades. Many Christians
joined Crusades in order to know what was happening beyond their
home land.Effects of crusades
• The Crusades led to loss of lives: just like any armed conflict, the
crusades were destructive as many crusaders and civilians lost their
lives. In the first crusade, about 80% of the crusaders died. Thousands
of Muslims were slaughtered in Jerusalem including those who took
cover in Solomon’s Temple.
• Crusades led to destruction of properties: like houses, the crusaders
re-sacked Constantinople and the looters set fire that burned much
of the city including libraries priceless ancient documents and
artefacts.
• Crusades increased (widened) the enmity between Moslems and
Christianity up today.
• The Crusades brought humiliation and disrespect to the Church
leaders especially the pope who preached and assured victory, but
at the end, the Crusaders were defeated.
• Crusades helped to create unity among Christians from different
parts of Europe. That is to say Christians from Western Europe and
Eastern Europe.
• Crusades to some extent, stopped the spread of Islam, in some
parts of Europe, and this is the reason as to why Islam is not widely
spread in Europe.
• The Crusades helped spread of civilisation: where Christians from the
West adopted the culture of Eastern Europe which quite civilised.
• Crusades led to complete collapse of Christian influence in holy
places.
• Crusades led to disruption of economic activities: in Eastern Europe,
during the fighting, there was insecurity which disorganized trade
and commerce.
• The Christians of Western Europe learnt about gunpowder from
Moslems, who had also learnt it from Chinese.
2.2.2. Jihad movements in west Africa
A jihad is an Islamic religious movement or a holy war that is fought by fanatic
Muslims against those who do not believe in their faith. It aims at spreading,purifying and strengthening Islam.
The 18th and 19th centuries saw a wave of jihads or Islamic movements in
northern Sudan. Although, the causes were religious, they had a mixture ofpolitical, economic and intellectual causes.
The first jihads in West Africa took place in Guinea in Futa Jallon in 1720s. They
were led by Ibrahim Musa. In the 1770s there was yet another jihad in Senegal
in Futa Toro led by Sulayman Bal. In 1808, Uthman Dan Fadio started holy wars
in the Hausa states (Daura, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Rano, Gobir and Hiram). Other
West African jihadists were Seku Ahmadu of Macina, Al Hajj Umar of Tukolorand Ahmed Bello.
Causes of Jihads in West Africa
• Need to purify Islam: After the decline of Mali and Songhai, there
was a decline in Islam in western Sudan. Islam was mixed with pagan
practices. Therefore, there was a need to revive Islam.
• To stop unfair judgments in courts of law: There was a lot of
corruption and bribery in the courts which were against the teaching
of Islam.
• Local political competition: The Fulani were discriminated. The
Fulani leaders of the jihads aimed at overthrowing the government of
the Hausa people and to establish a government favourable to their
people.
• Widespread belief in the Mahdi (Savior): According to the
Muslims, a Mahdi was supposed to emerge during the 13th century of
the Islamic calendar. This started from 1785 to 1882.
• Nee to overthrow pagan governments: The jihadists wanted to
establish governments based on Islamic rule. Strict Muslims in West
Africa could not tolerate rule by pagans. Muslims were also forced to go
to war against fellow Muslims which was contrary to Islamic practice.
• To spread Islam: This was aimed at the people who had resisted
conversion to Islam. Thus they would be forced to join Islam.
• Desire to spread Islamic education: Through the conversion of
pagans who were against Islamic education, the jihadists hoped to
build an ideal Islamic society through education.
• Over taxation: Governments in western Sudan imposed heavy taxes
on the Fulani town merchants while the Fulani pastoralists or nomads
were opposed to the heavy taxation.
• Methods used to collect taxes: The tax collectors were harsh. They
whipped and imprisoned the people who failed to pay. Some of the
property was confiscated. This is why the people welcomed Islam.
• Defence of African independence: The West Africans joined jihads
in order to protect their independence and fight against slave trade. This
was because according to Sharia, no Muslim is supposed to enslave
or sell another Muslim. Therefore, the time was right for a revolution
that only needed someone to start it. This was provided by the arrival of
men filled with religious zeal and reformist ideas and with the ability to
lead and organise. For example, Uthman Dan Fodio, Al Hajji Umar, Seku
Ahmadu among others.
• The belief that the end of the world was going to come soon:
The belief that the world was going to come soon made people to
Jihads.
• Most of the Hausa rulers were corrupt. The need to overthrow
corrupt Hausa rulers who were corrupt caused the Jihad wars in West
Africa. They embezzled government resources and the taxes corrected
remained in the hands of the few. This forced the Fulani Jihads to rebel
hence the Jihad wars.Example of the Jihad leader
Uthman Dan Fodio and his caliphate. (Source: Google.rw/image)
Uthman Dan Fodio
The first jihad in western Sudan took place in Hausa land in 1804. This jihad
was led by Uthman Dan Fodio. He was a Fulani and a scholar. He was born in
1754 at Martha in Gobir.
He received Islamic education from various teachers but finally he ended up
in Agades under the famous Islamic teacher Jibril Ibn Umar. At the age of 20,he started his career as a writer and teacher in Senegal. From here, he started
missionary tours in Hausa land, especially Zamfara, Kebbi and Daura in his
preaching and writing, he attacked all unreligious tendencies. He condemned
corrupt and unjust governments, and illegal taxation. He insisted on complete
acceptance of the spiritual and moral values of Islam.
He soon mobilised a large number of followers. Most of these believed that he
was the Mahdi or the saviour. His fame attracted the administration of Sultan
Bawa, the leader of Gobir. He was employed as the tutor of the Sultan’s son. All
these increased Fodio’s influence.
Because of this influence, he successfully negotiated with Sultan Bawa of Gobir
to release all Muslim prisoners. He also requested the king to grant freedom of
worship and also exempt Muslims from un-Islamic taxes.
Unfortunately, Bawa was succeeded by Sultan Nafata and later Yunfa who did
not support Uthman Dan Fodio. Because of Uthman’s growing influence, Yunfa
arranged the assassination of Fodio but he managed to escape.
Along with his brother Abdullah and son Mohammed Bello, Fodio escaped to
Gudu outside Gobir. At Gudu, many Fulani tribesmen joined him and he was
elected commander of the faithful, Amir Al Munimin. He then, declared a jihad
on the non-believers in 1804 and confronted Yunfa’s army.
After a prolonged fight, Yunfa’s army was defeated and he was killed at Akolawa.
Serious resistance against Fodio’s army collapsed in 1809. Immediately, Fodio
declared the Sokoto Caliphate and he became the undisputed caliph.
Once the conquest period was over, Fodio returned to his work of writing books
since he was basically an Islamic scholar.
He divided the empire between his son and his brother. Mohammed Bello his
son was in charge of the eastern region and Abdullah his brother the western
region. Fodio died in 1817 and his son Mohammed Bello was recognised as thecaliph of the Sokoto Caliphate.
Consequences of Jihads in West Africa
• The jihads led to closer contacts with the outside world. This was true
with Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. In fact a pilgrimage made by Al
Hajji Umar to Mecca in 1825 further exposed the Sudan to the outsideworld.
Al Hajji Umar
• They led to the spread and revival of Islamic culture for example the way
of dressing with items such as the veil, the turban and the daily prayers
and the hijja.
• Literate Muslim officials were employed by kings and emperors as
clerks, secretaries, judges, auditors, inspectors and teachers. This
strengthened Islamic way of life.
• Large and powerful Islamic states were formed under Muslim rulers
like Uthman Dan Fodio of Sokoto, Muhammad Bello of Sokoto, Seku
Ahmad of Macina, Al Hajji Umar of Tokolar and Al Kanemi of Dinguiray.
• They caused clashes and conflicts between the pagans and the Muslims.
For example there was enslavement of non-Muslims as permitted by
the Koran. This led to tribal wars and antagonism.
• Strong states emerged to resist European infiltration. Jihads united the
masses and their leaders against French colonialists.
• A Centralised system of administration was introduced and managed
according to the Koran.
• There was the stabilisation and efficient management of the economy
in the Islamic states.
• They abolished unlawful taxes and levied taxes as stipulated in the holy
Koran.
• They led to the decline of the African traditional religions. This is because
leaders of traditional religion and people who refused to change to
Islam were executed.
• The jihads checked the spread of Christianity in West Africa. This is
because the Christian Missionaries were not allowed to enter Muslimlands.
Application activity 2.3
1) Explain the term crusades.
2) Discus the causes of crusades.
3) Identify the effects of crusades.4) Discuss the effects of jihad movements in West Africa.
2.3. Causes and the effects of the early explorations.
Learning activity 2.3
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
causes and effects of early explorations and answer the questions below:
1) Identify the causes of early exploration.2) Explain the effects of early exploration.
To explore refers to search for the purpose of, or obtaining information or
resources. Europe led the rest of the world in early explorations. Various
countries made voyages of exploration to distant lands away from Europe.
Europeans sailed and explored the rest of the world. They were mainly searching
for material wealth. Explorers came mainly from Portugal, Spain, Netherlands,Britain, and later, France.
Map showing early exploration routes
Early exploration is also known as the age of discovery was a time characterised
by the explosive overseas expansion of European civilisation. The European
nation states of Western Europe, led by Portugal, embarked on a series of
explorations and colonisation whose impact was felt in virtually every part of
the world. This development represents the first and earliest manifestation ofglobalisation.
Causes for early explorations
The early explorations were caused by many factors. The main ones were:
i) The explorations were made possible by advances in science
The main advances in science and technology that had been occasioned by
discoveries during the renaissance period were:
• Widespread dissemination of newly rediscovered geographical
knowledge about the earth; especially the realisation that it was round
and not flat.
• Much improved and detailed maps, sea charts and star charts used for
navigation.
• The application of an improved compass for establishing direction.
• Effective use of the astrolabe used in determining latitude.
• The development of the ship’s rudder and geared steering system.
• Improvements in cannon fabrication and use aboard ships; used for
offensive and defensive purposes.
• Basic education and marine training instituted for ship’s officers andsailors.
ii) Commerce
There existed a profitable commerce between European states and the regions
of Asia. Europeans had a high appetite for goods from the Asian countries.
However, the trade was dominated by traders and merchants from Asia, the
Near East and Italians. These people grew rich and powerful by selling a variety
of goods to Europe. Spices were the most valued goods at the time. The
European powers wanted to equally benefit from this trade from the 15th Century.
Spain and Portugal wanted to break the monopoly enjoyed by the Asiatic states
and the Italian traders. To achieve this, they financed voyages to try and find sea
route to the Far East and therefore, to completely bypass the overland route
through the middle East to Asia. Apart from the goods from Asia, cloves from
the coastal regions of East Africa, pepper, curry, nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon and
other spices added new and very popular elements to the food consumed bythe Europeans who could afford such luxury items.
iii) Curiosity to understand the nations and civilisations of Asia
Europeans are said to have become increasingly curious and interested about
the nations and civilisations of the orient. They wanted to get more information
about the regions especially in India and China. Many Europeans were eager to
get information about the “strange” and unknown worlds beyond the boundaries
of Europe. The thirst and quest for knowledge about people, civilisations,
continents and other dimensions, greatly encouraged the spirit of overseas
travel and exploration.
iv) Desire for colonies
Monarchs in Europe desired to get colonies in other parts of the world so as to
shore up trade and wealth. They were also aware of the capacity of the colonies
to provide their states with prestige. This made the rulers to go out of their way
to support the voyages of exploration. Rulers took great risks to channel capitalinvestment and manpower necessary to make the missions successful.
v) Desire to spread christianity
The Europeans also expected to spread Christianity to other parts of the world.
Many Portuguese and Spaniard traders remotely intended to convert those they
came into contact with during their commercial excursion.
vi) National prestige and power
Exploration was also influenced by power politics. European states were led
by desire for prestige and power. This made the search of Gold and Glory beintertwined in the countries’ quest for knowledge and wealth.
Example of some early explorers
Effects of early explorations
The early explorations had long lasting effects on the history of the world. These
were both positive and negative. The main ones included:
• Expansion of empire
All the European powers which participated in the explorations built themselves
large empires. For example, Portugal acquired Brazil in the New world and had
numerous territories in Africa and Asia. Portugal controlled most of the African
Atlantic and Indian seaboards, India and other parts of Asia.
Spain took most of the territories in the New world. She had settlements in the
West Indies, Mexico, Central America, Florida, the south west areas of what
later became the USA and California. Her riches in these areas made her theenvy of rival powers.
• Spread of war in the colonies
As the quest for colonies intensified in the new lands and areas outside Europe,
colonial rivalries and economic competitions forced the major European powers
into many conflicts. More often than not, these led to wars between the 16th
to the 18th centuries due to overseas hostilities. Each power built its army
and navy to safeguard or expand its colonial acquisition. England, for instance,
fought bitter wars with Holland, France and Spain. By 1763, England, nowcalled Great Britain, had emerged as the world’s first modern super power.
• Introduction of new products in Europe
Expanded global trade brought many new products into European markets,
commerce expanded as the quantity and type of imports increased. Some of
the new food products were: maize, tobacco, chocolate, tea, quinine, tomatoes,
peppers, indigo, sugar, rice and the king of them all. There were also products
that the Europeans could not get enough of. Examples were: Chinese porcelain,
silk and Indian cotton or calico cloth. These items were in addition to what had
become known as “the spice trade” of the East Indies. These goods, coming inlarge numbers, improved the standard of living in Europe.
• Slave trade
Although slaves were considered goods, it is vital to treat it independent of
the new products. At first a few slaves were captured by the explorers, but
later armies and navies got involved. This saw large Africans being captured
and sold as slaves to go and supply labour in the New world. The New world’s
appetite seemed insatiable in the demands for slave labour in sugar, rice, indigo,
tobacco and cotton plantations now dotting various parts of the continents. The
demands for European markets and the lust for profits superseded any ethical
or moral considerations when it came to slavery. Even the so called Christians
turned a blind eye to the practice. It didn’t prick their conscience at all from
the 15th Century when the Atlantic slave trade begun in earnest. Africans were
exposed to the horrors of the “middle passage” the pain and suffering slaves
underwent as they crossed the Atlantic Ocean. This only stopped in the 19th
Century. Slavery had grave consequences on the victim population.
• Cultural exchange
Exploration led to cultural exchange. People exchanged ideas, products,
languages, and many other aspects of culture between Europe and the other
civilisations. This is what has been referred to as the ‘Columbian Exchange”.
Subsequent world history remains essentially the story of the results of the
Columbian Exchange. Today, this is what underlies globalization. During the
early exploration, both the European and the new communities were not spared
the vagaries of cultural exchange. Each borrowed from one another.
• Mineral exploitation
The new world and areas outside Europe which were of interest to the explorers,
had large deposits of minerals. When the European countries realized this, they
embarked on a serious exercise of mineral exploitation in the New World. This
was done by slave labour while in other areas, the indigenous communities
were engaged forcefully. As a result, large quantities of minerals were shipped
to Europe. Such minerals include: gold, silver, tin, copper and diamond. Goldand silver were minted into coins and used as currency.
• Invention of the concept of insurance
Governments and merchants tried to reduce and control their risks and losses
due to overseas ventures by contributing a restricted amount to help in case
of loss due to inflation or theft or accident. The amount paid into the fund was
termed the insurance premium. This was the genesis of the insurance industry
as we have it today. Investors thus received compensation from loss due to
piracy, war, fire, storm, etc. The most famous of these insurance companies has
survived to today. This is Lloyd’s of London, founded in the 17th Century.
• Shift of economic power base
Commercial activities and trade networks shifted from the Mediterranean Sea
and its bordering countries to the Atlantic Coastal nation-states. The Ottoman
Empire, the Italian city states and the countries of North Africa entered a period
of economic decline in economic and therefore, political in significance. Trade
fell sharply across the Sahara Desert, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and even
in the Baltic Sea. This made all these areas to witness both economic and
political decline. This was in sharp contrast to developments in the Atlantic
Coast. Here, there was an increase in power, wealth and importance. In fact,
new nation-states emerged. These were mostly based upon powerful absolute
monarchies a feature which was to be dominant in western civilisation from the
16th to the 18th centuries.
• Increased population
Early explorations also occasioned widespread demographic and social
changes. There was increased migration while due to education, abundance of
food and security, people’s standard of living greatly increased. All these factors
contributed to increased population. Job opportunities equally expanded the
middle class. People moved to secure employment. With time, distinctions
between classes: middle class, nobility and lower class, and even slaves became
blurred. This was to be with time, lead to an end to distinctions of population
along classes. All races found home in the New world. Some in favoured status
while others, like Africans, as slaves. Nonetheless, all contributed to the rise in
population.
• Development of mercantilism
The governments of European states developed a doctrine of economics called
mercantilism. This was geared towards obtaining wealth from the new lands.
The benefits would be felt by the ordinary citizens and rulers. This doctrine was
pursued by virtually all the European powers. It was based on certain interrelated
elements. They were:
• Nations must adopt economic policies that attract the most amounts of
gold and silver.
• A nation should arrange its trading matters so that it exports more than
it imports.
• A nation could increase its exports most advantageously if it subsidized
and supported domestic manufacturing.
• Tariff levied on imported goods.
• To obtain as many colonies as practically possible.
• Limit or forbid the rise of colonial industries and the production of
manufactured goods in the colonies.
• Prohibit colonies to trade with any other rival power except the mother
country and ensure that any raw material from the colony is supplied by
vessels from the mother country.• Require the colonies to pay taxes to the mother country.
Colonies lived to satisfy the economic needs of the mother country. Mercantilism
preceded the emergence of capitalism by about 200 years but it bore all the
hallmarks of the latter. A free market economy was encouraged with strict
government control. Business persons paid large fees to the government to
enable it control monopolies over a particular product in even an entire subcontinent.Trade was thus undertaken by joint-stock companies.
• Emergence of the banking industry
The early explorations directly led to the accumulation of capital which
necessitated the development of the banking industry. Banks sprung up to
support business enterprises. They provided the services that were required
to accommodate the increased supplies of gold and silver to the nation-states.
Lending money to reliable customers in return for interest charges and bank
services commenced. Banks also gave loans to governments to run their
services, examples of outstanding banks were The Medici family of Florence
in Italy and the German family of the Fuggers. These were family-ran banks.
They were very successful. To reduce the challenges of the use of gold and
silver, banks adopted innovative systems of exchange. This included the use
of new ideas as bills of exchange (used in international trade) and adoption of
bank notes (a kind of paper money printed by the primary bank involved in the
transaction). Later banks also came up with cheque system. Cheques were
mainly used in national, regional and local business transactions. Their usethen, has not changed much as we have them today.
• Emergence of the factory system
Production moved from the guild system to factories. Large manufacturing
industries were shifted to factories. Here products were produced in large
quantities to satisfy the demands of the nation-states. These factories were the
precursors of the factory system of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th
centuries. Apart from the factory system, the guild system was also bypassed
by the use of the cottage industry. This involved people producing the goods
in the comfort of their homes. The raw materials were brought by the rich
business persons to the homes of the workers from where the latter made them
into various products in exchange for payment for his or her labour.
• Discovery of bio-diversity
Early exploration led to the discovery of various animals and plants. New animal
and plant species were now studied thus contributing to the field of scientific
knowledge.
• Spread of christianity
The explorers were partly driven with the motive of spreading Christianity. This
was true of the Portuguese in East and Central African Coast. However, the
Portuguese made little mark in as far as the spread of Christianity was concerned.
They were more driven by the trade motive. Nonetheless, there were some areas
away from the Portuguese dominated coastal regions of East and Central Africa
where Christianity made a foothold. It became a dominant religion in the newworlds and in Goa and India.
Application activity 2.3
1) Examine the contribution of science and technology to early
exploration.2) Discuss the consequences of early exploration.
2.4. Ideas of philosophers/ Age of Enlightenment
Learning activity 2.4
Use internet, textbooks, photographs and media to research on
Enlightenment era and answer the following questions.
1) Describe the ideas of philosophers.2) Discuss the impact of the ideas of the Enlightenment era.
Concepts of enlightenment
The enlightenment was a sprawling intellectual, philosophical, cultural, and social
movement that spread throughout England, France, Germany, and other parts
of Europe during the 1700s. It was an intellectual and philosophical movement
that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, and later in
North America. It is a term used to describe a time in Western philosophy and
cultural life centred upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocatedfor as the primary source and legitimacy for authority.
The Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was a period in Europe during
the 17th and 18th centuries when many individuals refused to acknowledge
the authority of the Scripture and instead exalted their own reason to a place
of extreme authority. It was a period in which people rejected traditional
ideas and supported a belief in human reason. Thus from 1650 to 1800, the
European philosophers began rethinking old ideas about government, religion
and economics. This movement was spearheaded by philosophers like Jean
Jacques Rousseau, Baron Charles-Louis Montesquieu and Denis Diderot. They
criticized different ideas, condemned prejudice and mistakes of the past. Based
on reason, these philosophers criticized the religion, (They were against the
religion of the state), the absolute monarchy and the society in general. Theyhad a Slogan: liberty (freedom), equality and fraternity.
A philosopher is a person who seeks wisdom or enlightenment; a scholar ora thinker.
During this period, the use of reason in shaping people’s ideas about the society
and politics defined a period called the Enlightenment. People began to put
great importance to reason, or logical thought. They used reason to try and
solve problems such as poverty and war. It was believed that the use of reasoncould achieve three great goals: knowledge, freedom and happiness.
The occurrence of the Age of Enlightenment was due to political, scholarly andreligious causes.
Politically
• People believed and wanted economic improvement and political
reforms and believed that both were possible.
• Rulers who believed in enlightened absolutism wanted to centralise
their authority to reform their countries.
• They put the well-being of their country above anything else; including
religion.
• Need for administrative reform in France after the wars of Louis XIV.
• The wars of Louis XIV left a huge debt and lots of commotion.
• Philosophers started to write topics that related to the government,
politics and rights.
• People began thinking differently about these subjects and coming
up with their own opinions; which, according to Kant, happens whensomeone is enlightened.
Scholarly
• Growth of the print culture that made ideas circulate faster through
books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets.
• Isaac Newton and John Locke’s ideas were the basis for the
Enlightenment.
• Newton’s tabula rasa (blank page) and other fundamental ideas were
brought to the public.
• Newton’s discoveries in science allowed people to question things
more.
• People began to think the universe is understandable through science,
not religion.
• Inspiration came from the Scientific Revolution.
• The discovery that the earth was not at the centre of the universe and
the discovery that God had not created everything led to a new way ofthought where the Church’s validity was questioned.
Religiously
• Deism believed that rational and religion can be combined.
• Philosophers wanted to transform religion into an encouraging force to
improve living.
• People started to think for themselves and disregarded the idea of
following God’s laws by following their “own” laws and thinking for
themselves.
Characteristics of Enlightenment era
• The Enlightenment or The Age of Reason was marked by the glorification
of man’s ability to reason.
• Science and development served as the backbone for the popularity of
law and reason.
• Stability and peace were regarded as the symbols of this period.
• Greater cultural development took place but with the social desire
of everyone remaining within the hierarchical order for stability to be
established.
• At the same time, it should be borne in mind that due to the agrarian
society evolving into an industrial economy, there was a great flux in the
value system and the cultural background of England.
• Its participants thought that they were illuminating human intellect and
culture after the ‘dark’ middle Ages.
• Characteristics of the Enlightenment include the rise of concepts such
as reason, liberty and the scientific method. Enlightenment philosophy
was sceptical of religion, especially the powerful Catholic Church.
• Independent thought was embraced, scepticism ran freely through
work, and new values, including an emphasis on science, became
quite common among the educated classes. Not surprisingly, this
Enlightenment found its way to the literary world as well.
• This era was dominated by the Declaration of Independence and the
thoughts of thinkers such as Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton
and James Madison, who laid the founding stones of the modern freeworld that we enjoy today.
Ideas of philosophers
Impact of the ideas of the era of Enlightenment
We have already discussed at length the contributions of selected personalities
during the age of reason to the modern world. Below is a summary of the
contributions of Enlightenment to the modern world.
1. Emergence of modern European feminism: campaign for women’s
rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to
earn fair wages, equal pay and eliminate the gender pay gap, to own
property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights
within marriage, and to have maternity leave.
2. Promotion of individual rights.
3. Separation between the Church and the State.4. Promotion of democracy in the governance process
5. Promotion of the capitalist ideology (Adam Smith and Marquis de
Mirabeau). It encouraged individual ownership of wealth.
6. Separation of power of the three arms of government for efficiency in the
governance process.
7. Provision of equal educational opportunities for both boys and girls.
8. Creation of an enabling environment for the child (learner).
9. Role of education in liberation.
10. Broadening of historiography (writing of history) so as to cover political,
social and cultural aspects of humanity’s life. They advocated for total
history.
11. Promotion of aesthetics: This was marked by treatises and debates
over abstract questions such as the nature of taste, beauty, the sublime,
imagination and creativity, and by speculation on the relations between
the arts.
12. Morality: The problem of moral values was central to the Enlightenment
period. Revelation and traditional Christian doctrine were rejected. The
demand for happiness and pleasure set the standards for morality. The
Enlightenment period marked a turning point in human development. It
made people to be rational. It had both moral and intellectual significance
to humanity. This period was revolutionary. It destroyed myths by which
people lived and proposed new myths of its own; many of which were
later to be challenged in the second half of the 20th Century.
Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned
the traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be
improved through rational change.
The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment
ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of itsdecline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to the 19th-century Romanticism.
Romanticism was the attitude or intellectual orientation that
characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture,
criticism, and historiography in Western civilisation era from the late18thto the mid-19th century.
The first effect of the Age of Enlightenment was a general rebel against the
teachings of the Church. Earlier, the Church used to profess that God was the
absolute power and the reason behind every occurrence. People used to believein miracles. But with the age in discussion, all those were being questioned.
People deduced that there was scientific logic and reasons behind every
happening around the World and not simply God’s wish. Thus everybody
began to stop believing the Church blindly and put their own reasoning behindeverything. For this, that period is also called the Age of Reason.
The most apparent effect that followed the Age of Enlightenment was the
development of new ideas in every field. Everybody also began to be intolerant
to all the dictations made by their earlier faith. Economically, the Industrial
Revolution happened, changing the very face of the then society in Europe as itgave rise to a new group of independent, wealthy and educated class of men.
A whole new political scene emerged with the formation of nations and state,
led by independent kings and parliaments. Earlier the Church was the supreme
power, but after the enlightenment, it began to lose its position. All these pavedway to the social and political scene that we know today.
The Enlightenment developed through a snowball effect, that is to say small
advances triggered larger ones, and before Europe and the world knew it,almost two centuries of philosophizing and innovation had ensued.
During this period, people like John Amos Comenius (1592-1670), the father
of modern education, fostered the belief that education should “follow the
natural order of things”. Children’s development follows a timetable of its
own and their education should reflect that fact. They should be allowed to learnat their own pace and learn by doing.
John Amos Comenius was an innovator who first introduced pictorial textbooks
written in native language instead of Latin. He applied effective teaching based
on the natural gradual growth from simple to more comprehensive concepts. He
supported lifelong learning and development of logical thinking by moving from
dull memorization. Three most important contributions that he made are: books
with illustrations, education with the senses, social reform-educate the poor aswell as the rich.
During the Age of Enlightenment, there were many discoveries in the fields of
earth science and astronomy, as notables such as Johannes Kepler and Galileo
Galilei took the old, beloved ‘‘truths” of Aristotle and disproved them. Thinkers
such as René Descartes and Francis Bacon revised the scientific method,setting the stage for Isaac Newton and his landmark discoveries in Physics.
From these discoveries there emerged a system for observing the world and
making testable hypotheses based on those observations. At the same time,
however, scientists faced ever-increasing contempt and scepticism (doubt
as to the truth of something) from people in the religious community, who feltthreatened by science and its attempts to explain matters of faith.
Scepticism is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more
items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains, such as thesupernatural, morality, religion, or knowledge.
a. Summary of the unit
This unit examines with the political, economic and intellectual developments
in medieval and modern times. The medieval time is estimated to be the
period between AD 300 to AD 1500 and it recognized the influence of
two strong religions. Christianity is believed to have been founded by Jesus
Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Early Christians shared a common
faith in the teachings of Jesus Christ. The word Islam means submission to
Allah (Arabic for God). Muslims believed in Allah and Muhammad was the
messenger and the prophet of Allah (God). Every Muslim was/is expected
to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. The modern period
refers to the historical era that started with the end of Renaissance in 16thC.
It was marked with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.
There were great discoveries in science, religious reformation and the
beginning of capitalism. In politics, there were centralized states and the
rise of democratic practices. This was also the beginning of globalization
where world became interconnected through trade, spread of new ideas,
improved agricultural production, etc. The Age of Enlightenment known as
ages of reason was a period in European history in the mid-18th Century
when scholars believed in the use of reason and in the scientific methods.
The scholars in the Age of Enlightenment applied the methods of new
science which had been developed during the scientific revolution to study
human behaviour and provide solutions to political and economic problems
facing them. All of these features that marked enlightenment greatly shapedcontemporary history.
Application activity 2.4
1) Explain the term enlightenment era.
2) Analyse the ideas of John Locke and Voltaire.3) To what extent did the age of reason shape today’s world?
Skills Lab
Move around your school/college and observe the social, economic,
political and intellectual activities carried out in your sector to examine the
legacies of the medieval and modern times to contemporary era. Make areport and present your findings to the plenary.
End unit assessment
1. Discuss the contribution of Christianity to the world.
2. Why do we say that Mohammed was the founder of Islam?
3. In 1095 at Clermont in southern France while addressing churchmen
and nobles, Pope Urban II made one of the most moving speeches
in history. “… Jerusalem a land fruitful above all others, a paradise of
delights, the royal city, situated at centre of the earth, implores you
to come to her aid. Undertake the journey eagerly for the remission
of your sins, and be assured of the reward of imperishable glory in
the kingdom of Heaven.”
4. To what extent was this statement responsible for the outbreak of
the crusades?
5. Use a sketch map of the world to show the main routes of early
explorers.6. Identify the ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseau.
UNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY
Key Unit competence:
The learner should be able to evaluate the major events that happenedbetween 18th to 19th centuries.
Introductory activity
The period between 18th and 19th century witnessed Great Revolutions and
world wars. Among these revolutions include industrial revolution, American
and French revolutions. Read relevant materials and use internet to answer
the following questions and make presentation in class.
1. Explain the reasons that led to the industrial revolution in Britain and
identify its effects.
2. Examine the causes and consequences of American and French
revolutions.
3. Discuss the factors responsible for the rise and downfall of NapoleonBonaparte.
3.1. Causes and consequences of industrial revolution
Learning activity 3.1
Use the internet and history textbook to explain the factors that led to the
industrial revolution and its effects.
The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was first used by the historian Arnold Toynbee,
to describe the economic development in England, from 1760 to 1840. Charles
Beard gives a good description of the Industrial Revolution, which he calls a great
transformation brought about by discoveries and inventions that changed themethods of production and distribution of the means of life and of the economic
functions of society. During the 18th century, Britain and Europe witnessed this
transformation caused by the mass production of consumer goods with the helpof the newly invented machines.
The Industrial Revolution thus refers to the transformation in the method of
production, from man-made, to machine made goods. Being mechanical
in nature, the Industrial Revolution was peaceful. However, it proved to bedestructive as well as constructive, and indeed very noisy.
Industrial Revolution was also defined as a widespread replacement of manual
labor by machines that began in Britain in the 18th century and is still continuing
in some parts of the world. It is a series of dramatic changes in the way the work
was done. Human labour was replaced by machines. The Industrial Revolution
thus refers to the transformation in the method of production, from man-made,to machine made goods.
Map of England showing major industrial areas in the 18th Century
3.1.1. The Causes or origin of industrial revolution.
The Industrial Revolution first started in England from where it rapidly spread to
the U.S.A. and later to Europe. Several factors were responsible for the adventof the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and not elsewhere in the world.
England had sufficient money (capital) to finance new industries. Overseastrade, commerce and industry were encouraged by England’s naval supremacy.
There was political and social stability in England, so people could invest
their savings in new enterprises. With this political stability, Britain’s political
development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals
occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none
of them took place on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question
the government’s authority. By 1750 Parliament’s power far exceeded that of
the king, and its members passed laws that protected business and helpedexpansion.
An Agricultural Revolution: The Industrial Revolution would not have been
possible without a series of improvements in agriculture in England. Beginning
in the early1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms through
enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new
techniques of farming. These scientific farmers improved crop rotation methods,
which carefully controlled nutrients in the soil. They bred better livestock, and
invented new machines, such as Jethro Tull’s seed drill that more effectively
planted seeds. The larger the farms and the better the production the fewer
farmers were needed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either
became tenant farmers or they moved to cities. Better nutrition boosted England’s
population, creating the first necessary component for the Industrial Revolution:labor.
England began to manufacture practical and inexpensive articles, which
could be exported if they were produced on a large scale. Hence Englandinvented new techniques and machines to produce such articles.
Many agriculturists, who became unemployed owing to the Agriculture
Revolution, were available as laborers in mills, factories and workshops. These
laborers were able to move freely from place to place for jobs in factories. Coal,
a cheap fuel, was available in large quantities for running factories, mills andworkshops.
Napoleon’s Continental System of preventing the import of English goods
into Europe enabled England to blockade the continental ports. Thus England
bought raw materials at low rates and supplied finished products at highprices to her colonies.
England had a large man power or labor force due many skilled immigrants.
Many Spanish and French artisans, who were persecuted owing to their religion,went and settled down in England, thus giving an impetus to English industries.
The English colonies were ruthlessly exploited for raw materials and asmarkets for finished products.
Scientific discoveries were encouraged by the Royal Society of London. The
inventive genius of the English, as seen in scientists like Sir Humphry Davy,
George Stephenson, Dr. Edmund Cartwright and James Watt, favored theIndustrial Revolution.
Source: Encarta premium 2019
New inventions and new methods of production went hand in hand, givingrise to many factories over a span of a hundred years in Britain’s countryside.
Improvement in transport and communication. This included roads,
railways and water transport which were much developed. Canals were
constructed linking existing rivers and lakes. During the second half of the 18th
century, roads and railways were constructed to link industrial centres. They
were to transport raw materials and finished products to their destinations as
well. It eased connectivity in terms of sources of raw materials, transportation ofworkers, industrial centres and markets.
Favorable geographical location of Britain and good harbors favored
industrialization. As an island, Britain has good harbors and direct links to almost
all parts of the world. This encouraged overseas trade which allowed Britain
access to raw materials and markets in Africa, America and India.
The good banking and insurance systems in Britain also encouraged
industrial revolution. Banks promoted savings and gave people loans for
businessmen that encouraged them to invest in better machinery, build new
factories and expand their operations.
Technological leadership: Britain took the leading role in technological
innovations and inventions. Machines such as water wheel, spinning jenny,
spinning mill and steam engine were first invented in Britain. This was a greatstep towards industrial development.
Natural resources - Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and
iron - two of the most important raw materials used to produce the goods for
the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power to fuel the new
machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation.Britain could also get these resources from her overseas colonies.
Key inventions during the industrial revolution
Textile Industry
The Industrial Revolution first started in the textile industry in England and startedwith the techniques of ’spinning’ as well as ’weaving’.
• Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny, 1764: Spinning was an extremely slow
process, with the spinner spinning only one thread at a time, with the
help of the spinning wheel. In 1764, James Hargreaves invented
a machine called the ’Spinning Jenny.’ It enabled a spinner to spin
as many as eight to ten threads at a time, on his new machine. This
increased the production of yarn (wool, fiber).
• Arkwright’s Water-Frame, 1769: In 1769, Richard Arkwright
invented a machine run by waterpower instead of manpower. Hence
it came to be called the ’Water-Frame’. This second machine could
produce stronger and finer yarn than the Spinning Jenny. It increased
the production of threads to a very great degree, as it worked on water
force.
• Crompton’s Spinning Mule, 1778: Samuel Crompton removed the
defects of the Spinning Jenny and Water Frame, with his machine known
as ’Spinning Mule’. A spinner could now spin threads of stronger and
better quality on this machine.
• Cartwright’s Automatic Loom, 1785: In 1733, John Kay had invented
a device called the ’Flying Shuttle’, which speeded up the weaving
of cloth. It helped the weaver to do the work of two or three people at
a time. In 1785, Dr. Edmund Cartwright invented the Automatic or
Power Loom. It could do the work of many people at a time, since it
worked on waterpower.
• Whitney’s Cotton Gin, 1793: Eli Whitney invented a machine called
the ’Cotton Gin.’ It separated the seeds from the fibers of raw cotton.
So cotton could be produced in large quantities for spinning and
weaving of cloth.
Eventually, inventions were made involving new techniques and processes forbleaching, dyeing and printing fabrics.
Basic Industrial Materials
• Coal: Wood was used in large quantities as a fuel in Great Britain,
before the Industrial Revolution. However, as the supply of timber
diminished, and since wood was not able to withstand the strain of
new techniques and processes, coal and steel was brought into use by
industrialists. Thus coal mining became an important industry.
• Davy’s Safety Lamp, 1816: In 1816, Sir Humphry Davy invented a
machine called Davy’s Safety Lamp.’ It could save the lives of the
miners by giving them a warning, in case of any danger in the mines.
• Steel: Large Quantities of iron and steel were required to make new
machines. This led to the establishment of smelting plants and foundries
in Great Britain. In 1856, Henry Bessemer discovered a process by
which impurities could be removed from iron. This purified refined iron
came to be known as ’steel’, which helped in making more accuratetools, implements, weapons and machines.
Transport and Communication
• McAdam’s Roads (1756-1836): John Loudon McAdam found
out a new process of road building. Heavy stones were placed at the
bottom of the roadbed and smaller stones at the top, with a mud-binder
between them, in order to produce a hard surface. Later, tar was used
in place of mud binder. These Macadamized roads became popular in
Great Britain, and also in the U.S.A, Canada and France.
• Trevithick’s Locomotive (1801): Since roads were not sufficient to
meet the needs of transportation, railroads became necessary. Therefore,
in 1801, Richard Trevithick invented the first steam locomotive.
• Stephenson’s Rocket (1814): George Stephenson is regarded as ’the
father of the railway locomotive’, because he made great improvements
on Trevithick’s locomotive in his ’Rocket’ in 1814. It moved at a speed
of twenty-nine miles an hour.
• Canals: John Smeaton (1724-1792) built the Forth and Clyde
canals, while Charles Telford constructed the Ellesmere canal and the
Caledonian Canal.
• Fulton’s Clermont (1807): In 1807, Robert Fulton invented the
steamboat called the ’Clermont’. It completed the one hundred and
fifty-five-mile trip on the River Hudson from New York to Albany, inthirty-two hours, at a speed of about five miles an hour.
Motive Force
• Steam Power: Initially manpower and river water was used as the
motive force in order to run all kinds of machines. However, this proved
to be inadequate, when the new machines were invented. Further water
and wind-power proved to be limited resources. Hence, a new motive
force was sought and discovered in the form of steam power.
• Steam Engine (1705): Thomas Newcomen invented the first steam
engine in 1705, in order to pump water out of the mines.
• Watt’s Beelzebub (1769): In 1769, James Watt invented a better
steam engine called the ’Beelzebub.’ This engine was also used to shift
spinning and weaving machines in the textile industries.
• Electricity: In 1800, Giuseppe Count Alexandro Volta invented
the Voltaic Cell and Michael Faraday invented the Dynamo. These
inventions led to the production of electric power, which was widelyused in industries.
Agriculture
• Tull’s seed Drill: Jethro Tull (1674-1740) experimented with farming
on a scientific basis. He invented a Seed Drill that would distribute the
seeds evenly in rows, over a large piece of land.
• Townsend’s Crop Rotation: The discovery of a new method of
’Crop Rotation’, was made by Viscount Townsend (1674-1738). This
enabled one to keep land always under cultivation, without letting it lie
idle for a season. This helped to double the yield per acre.
• Scientific Breeding of Animals: Robert Bakewell (1725-1795)
introduced scientific breeding of farm animals. He found through
experiments, that by selective breeding of farm animals, he couldimprove the quality of cattle, horses and sheep.
3.1.2. The consequences of industrial revolution
The Industrial Revolution revolutionized art, architecture, literature and science,
as also the social, economic, political and cultural life of the people.
• New machines which were used led to unemployment of many people.
• There was expansion of international trade as countries produced
different goods.
• The Industrial Revolution encouraged Colonialism and imperialism.
Industrialization led to the need of market and raw materials from
Africa and subsequent colonisation of Africa. They needed colonies
for securing raw materials at low prices for their industries. They also
used the colonies as markets for setting their finished products at high
prices.
• It led to the development of modern transport and communication
systems. Many roads, railway lines, bridges and canals were constructed
during this period.
• It led to increased utilisation of idle natural resources that were not in
use before.
• Industrial revolution led to urbanisation, that is, urban centres developed
due industrial activities and rural-urban migration.
• Industrial revolution increased the demand for services provided by
lodges, hotels, banks, insurance companies and schools.
• Industrial revolution led to the rise of socialism. People advocated for
state ownership of property to replace private ownership and income
inequality.
• It increased the number of middle class for these owned factories and
mines. Some started sending their children to upper class schools.
• It led to rural-urban migration leading to overcrowding and
accommodation in towns.
• The fumes from industrial centres led to environmental degradation.
The industries produced bad smell leading to air pollution.
• It led to the increase in population in Europe. Population in many
European countries tripled due to better living conditions. There was
good shelter as well as improved medical care that reduced diseases
that previously killed people.
• Industrial revolution led to exploitation of workers by industrial owners.
People worked for long hours with low wages. Many factories or mills
had no sanitation facilities. They did not even have safety guards on
machines which led to frequent accidents. There were no provisions
for the care of the injured and the sick. There were cases of unfair
dismissals which contributed to the formation of trade unions. The
trade unions bargained for better working conditions.
• Under the Factory system there was large-scale production. This
resulted in a low cost of production per unit. There was also uniformity
and a high quality in production
• It led to the development of capitalism, since the capitalists owned
the means of production like wealth, land and machinery. Hence the
capitalists became the supreme masters of industry. Two classes, the
capitalist and the laboring classes were created by the Revolution. The
capitalists were the masters of industries, the managers of mills and the
proprietors of workshops, who amassed great wealth, owing to a high
profit margin. The laboring class, was a mere tool in the factories. Thus,
the gap between the rich and the poor went on widening.
• England grew very wealthy on account of industrialization. It became a
leading country, in the field of industry, trade, commerce and finance.
• The cities were overcrowded, owing to migration from villages and also
because of high birth rates. The housing shortage in the city forced
people to live in dull and dingy rooms. It also led to the creation of
slums, which caused various diseases and premature deaths.
• It also led to the creation of slums, which caused various diseases and
premature deaths.
• The factories produced large amounts of air pollution from the burning
of coal. Coal was easily the most used fuel during the Industrial
Revolution, since it was needed to power the newly developed steam
engines.
• Finally, the comforts and luxuries in people’s lives increased, owing to
the inventions in the various fields. The new means of transport and
communications and the new methods of production served to be aboon to mankind in an important way
The spread of industrial revolution was aided by the following factors:
• The development of international trade.
• Education because many students went to study in Britain went back
to their home countries with the knowledge of industries.
• Migration of engineers and craftsmen from Britain to other parts of the
World helped the industrial revolution to spread.
• The improvement of transport and communication in the other parts ofthe world also enabled the industrial revolution to spread.
As a conclusion, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and then
spread across the United States and the rest of the world. The revolution in
Britain is often called the first Industrial Revolution while the later worldwide
revolution is referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution. There is a debate
among historians about the precise dates of the beginning and end of the first
Industrial Revolution. It is generally believed to have taken place in the time
between 1760 and 1840 in Britain primarily due to innovations in machine
technologies that led to higher productivity. The Industrial Revolution marks a
major turning point in history as it hugely impacted the way societies in the
world would function in the years to come.
Many factors contributed in the development of industrial revolution in Great
Britain but the most prominent comprise political and economic competition in
Europe which led to the rising colonial powers, scientific revolution in Europe,
agricultural revolution in Britain which was characterized by unprecedented rise in
agricultural production in Britain from the 17th to mid-19th century. Government
policies which were characterized by long time of political stability, availability
of coal and iron, financial innovations – capitalism and entrepreneurship (Britain
had financial institutions in place since the early 18th century; such as a central
bank, county banks and a stock exchange to finance new ventures and well
developed), transport system well developed in Britain, innovation and new
technology were obviously the key factor to explain the reasons why industrialrevolution started in Great Britain.
Application activity 3.1
1. Examine the factors that led to industrial revolution in Britain.2. Discuss the consequences of industrial revolution.
3.2. Causes and consequences of the American Revolution
Learning activity 3.2
Read relevant materials and use internet to explain the causes and impactof American Revolution and make a presentation in class.
American Revolution (1775-1783) was a war or conflict between 13 British
colonies in North America and Great Britain. Thirteen American colonies rejected
the British monarchy and dictatorship. They overthrew the authority of Great
Britain and founded the United States of America. The American Revolution isalso known as the American war of independence.
The thirteen former British American colonies were Virginia, New York,
Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire,
Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania andGeorgia.
These American colonies had been under British control for a long period oftime. They wanted to be independent.
American Revolution was made up of two related events: The American War of
Independence (1775-1783) and the formation of the American government as
laid out by the Constitution of the United States in 1787. first, the war achieved
independence from Great Britain. Second, the newly created United States of
America established a republican form of government, in which power residedwith the people.
The map of 13 colonies of America
3.2.1. Causes of the American Revolution
• The colonies were populated by hard-working, freedom-loving,
intelligent farmers, adventurous sailors and enterprising
producers. Since they could think and act for themselves in every field
they did not feel there was any need for them to be guided by the
mother country. Their desire to be free from England grew stronger
with time.
• A spirit of self-reliance and enterprise was shown by the
English colonies, which had established their own political institutions.
However, George III and the British Parliament did not give any political
rights to the colonies which in turn felt like slaves in the political field.
Each colony had a legislative assembly and a governor appointed by
England. They gained great political experience by running their political
institutions. Thus they resented the political control of England and had
a strong desire for self-government. They did not consider it necessary
to be under the control of England, their mother country.
• The rise and growth of nationalism among the Americans and
need for independence: This was promoted by nationalists such as
Samuel Adams, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas
Jefferson. They argued that if the British governed themselves, why not
Americans? This awakened the need for self-rule among the Americans
hence leading to the revolution.
• The effects of Anglo-French war of 1756-63: During this war,
France was fighting with Britain over profitable colony of Canada.
The war ended with the defeat of France by Britain, and taking over
Canada. The effect of this was that it weakened Britain financially and
encouraged the Americans to revolt against her. Britain also raised
taxes to solve financial crisis at home. Americans protested against the
tax increment.
• The passing of intolerable acts: These included the Stamp Act
whereby revenue stamps were put on printed materials and commercial
documents like newspapers. It was replaced by Townshend Act whereby
the British chancellor levied taxes on lead paper, paint, glasses and
tea. These were received with negativity by Americans making them to
begin a war of independence.
• The character of King George III of England: He came to power
in 1760. Unlike the former kings, he wanted to bring American colonies
to closer control. In order to achieve this, he introduced a number of
harsh laws. He was also so rigid that he refused to change the taxation
system.
• The oppressive rule of the British government: The British
leaders such as Greenville, Townshend and Rocking were harsh to the
Americans. They did not allow freedoms such as of speech, press and
worship. There were no fair trials in courts of law. All these annoyed the
Americans.
• The Boston massacres of 1770: After the Townshend Act, the
Americans started shouting and throwing snow and ice to the English
troops. The troops responded by firing and killing them at Boston.
This is what came to be known as the Boston massacres. It drove the
Americans into a war of independence against the British.• Undemocratic nature of the British leadership: The Americans
were not given chance to participate in the politics of their country.
This made them inferior. Only the rich were elected to the colonial
assemblies as opposed to the poor. This was opposed by the majority
hence leading to the revolution.
• Inter-colonial congress at Philadelphia: In 1774, representatives
from all colonies met at Philadelphia. It was there where they started
preparing for war. They chose George Washington as the leader of
the revolution. They trained soldiers known as minutemen and started
seeking for assistance from other countries.
• Unfair judicial system of Britain and the restriction for colonies to occupy
new lands of Ohio and Louisiana.
• Poor economic policy of the British: The Americans were not
allowed to set up their own industries in America. This was intended to
force them to continue buying expensive British manufactured goods.
This was viewed as a move to subject them to endless poverty. They
opposed the policy.
• The Boston Tea Party in 1773: This was when the Americans
dropped boxes of tea from Britain into water at Port Boston at night.
This made the British government furious. The government decided to
close the Boston harbour. It also punished Americans so as to payback the tea. This also led to American Revolution.
Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor
• Trade monopoly by the British: In America, trade was exclusively
done by the British. All European goods imported to the colonies
had to pass through England for taxation. The British benefitted while
the Americans did not. On top of that, the imports were expensive
compared to exports. This exploitation made the Americans to revolt for
their independence.
• The unfair taxation system: In North America, Britain raised taxes in
order to meet her debt expenses and to solve financial crisis at home.
Both direct and indirect taxes such as like stamp tax and sugar tax were
introduced.
• The role of political philosophers: These were intellectuals and
great thinkers who exposed the wrongs of the British government to
the Americans. Philosophers such as Thomas Penn and Patrick Henry
inspired and awakened Americans to fight for their independence. They
used newspapers such as New York gazette, American Mercury and
The Boston News-Letter.
• Foreign support: The Americans got foreign support from other
countries such as France, Germany and Spain. These countries gave
Americans military, moral and financial support. This increased the
determination of Americans to fight for their independence.
• Religious intolerance and the domination of the Anglican
Church: There were religious differences between the Americans and
the British. Americans had many religions which were different from the
British Anglicans. The British forced Americans to adopt their religion
against their will. The protestant religions practiced by the Americans
included Lutherans, Puritans, Huguenots and Presbyterians. Americans
strongly opposed it thus leading to the revolution.
• Lack of the colonists ’political representation in the British
parliament also infuriated them. No American was elected to
represent the interests of his fellow Americans in parliament.
• Distance between England and America was also an obstacle to
king Georges III of England to send more soldiers to stop AmericanRevolution.
American Revolution time line (Main events in the course of AmericanRevolution)
• 1763: The French and Indian War ends. The British defeat France
and acquire the French empire in North America.
• 1765: Britain passes the Stamp Act to directly tax the colonists. The
act requires that revenue stamps be put on all legal documents, deeds,newspapers, pamphlets, dice, and playing cards.
• 1773: During the Boston Tea Party, colonists disguised as Native
Americans throw tea from British ships into the ocean to protest the
Tea Act (December). The act was passed to allow the British East India
Company to sell tea to the colonists, but the tea included a British tax.
• 1774: Intolerable Acts are passed. They close the port of
Boston,
• 1775: American militias defeat British troops in the battles of Lexington
and Concord, the first battles of the war (April). 1775 American troops
capture Fort Ticonderoga, beginning the war in New York (May).
• 1775: The British defeat the Americans at the Battle of Bunker Hill.
The Continental Congress commissions George Washington to lead
the Continental Army
• 1776: The Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of
Independence (July).
• 1776: The British defeat American troops at the Battle of Long Island,
seizing the city of New York (August). 1776 Washington and his troops
cross the Delaware River to launch a surprise attack; they defeat the
British at the battles of Trenton and Princeton (December).
• 1777: British troops capture Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, home of
the Continental Congress (September). 1777 British troops are
defeated at Saratoga, New York, failing to cut New England off from
the rest of the colonies (October).
• 1778: The Continental Congress enters a formal alliance with
France, which provides money, weapons, and soldiers (February).
• 1778: The British capture Savannah, Georgia, in an effort to
implement their Southern strategy, an attempt to capture Southern
colonies with support of Southern Loyalists (December).
• 1779: Colonial troops seize a British fort at Vincennes, taking
control of the war in the west (February).
• 1779: The colonial vessel, Bonhomme Richard, forces the surrender
of the British warship, Serapis (September).
• 1780: British forces capture Charleston, South Carolina, as part of
the Southern strategy (May). 1781: The British are defeated at Guilford
Courthouse, North Carolina and realize that their Southern strategy is
unlikely to succeed (March).
• 1781: The British surrender at Yorktown, ending most of the
fighting in North America (October).
• 1783: The Treaty of Paris is signed, recognizing the independence
of the United States (September).
• 1787: The Constitution of the United States is signed by the
delegates of the Constitutional Convention (September).• 1789 The Constitution becomes effective.
Declaration of independence of 13 Colonies
3.2.2. The consequences of the American Revolution
The American Revolution had a great impact on today’s world political, socialand economic systems. The following are the consequences of American Revolution.
• It gave birth to a new nation, that is, the United States of America. Under
the Treaty of Paris (1783) England acknowledged the independence of
her American colonies.
• France regained two small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and
Senegal in West Africa. Spain recovered Minorca and Florida.
• England lost her colonies in America and her national debt increased to
a great extent. However, England could defeat and destroy the Spanish
and French fleets, and thus retain her naval supremacy.
• The revolution led to loss of lives. Many people including soldiers,
civilians, Americans, the French and the British died in the war.
• It led to destruction of property such as buildings, roads, bridges and
communication lines.
• It led to the inclusion of blacks into Americans citizenship, a privilegewhich had earlier been denied to them by the British.
• The monopoly of the protestant church was removed and after the
revolution. There was freedom of worship among the Americans. It
increased religious freedom in all states of America. The citizens were
no longer forced to join Protestantism. Many churches came up. Other
Americans became Muslims.
• It led to French Revolution due to the effects it had on the French
government. France lost heavily during the American Revolution.
Owing to her heavy naval and military expenditures the royal treasury
in France grew bankrupt. Further bankruptcy soon led to the fall of the
French monarchy, since the Frenchmen had helped the Americans in
their revolt against a King. They were now prepared to revolt against
their own king. Apart from financial crisis in France, there was also
the spread of revolutionary ideas by the ex-soldiers of the American
Revolution such as General Lafayette.
• It led to the granting of independence to the American colonies. At Paris
treaty of 1783, the British king recognised the colonies of America to
be free, sovereign and independent. The 13 states were now free to
join together and become the United States of America.
• There was liberalization of trade after the American Revolution. The
Americans were free to carry out trade without the British monopoly.
The British limitations on American trade were removed, allowing the
marine merchants to trade freely.
• It created good diplomatic relationship between France and America.
This was due to the assistance rendered by the French to the Americans
against the British imperialists. France provided Americans with arms
and a combat army to serve under George Washington. They also
sent a navy that prevented the second British army from escaping from
Yorktown in 1871.
• It increased the status of women and subsequent women emancipation.
Women now took control of the families and catered for school going
children. Men were away fighting for independence. The revolutionary
war affected women by placing them in non-traditional roles. As men
went off to war, women were left to fill jobs typically fulfilled by men.
• American Revolution increased the status of George Washington for
his role in gearing the struggle for independence. During the American
Revolution, he led the colonial forces to victory over the British and
became a national hero. Its success was attributed to him. He laterbecame the first president of America.
Reasons for the defeat of the British army in the American war of
independence
• The British fought in foreign country not well known.
• Availability of forest in America which helped warriors to hide themselves.
• The determination of American fighters.
• The rebellion in oppressed Ireland caused the British to lose the war.
The British were sent to stop Irish rebellion which weakened them in
America, hence the defeat.
• The French support with army and machinery to Americans contributed
to the British defeat. This support boosted American resources and the
balance of the war.
• Low morale of the British who were fighting their American cousins.
Notes that the British were fighting British migrants.
• The long distance from home led to the British defeat. The source of
orders, provision and supply, Britain, was very far from America.
• The support of the African Americans for the colonists impaired the
British ability in the war. The African Americans gave the colonists
numerical advantage over the British.
• Good leadership and military command of the American fighters
surpassed that of the British. The American leaders like General
George Washington were distinguished by their foresight, courage and
determination.
• The American enjoyed the moral advantage that came from theconviction that they were fighting a just war.
To conclude, The American Revolution was a time when the British colonists
in America rebelled against the rule of Great Britain. There were many battles
fought and the colonies gained their freedom and became the independent
country of the United States. The American Revolutionary War lasted from
1775 until 1783. Before the American Revolution, there were several British
Colonies in the Americas. Not all of them participated in the revolution. There
were 13 colonies which ended up rebelling. These were Delaware, Virginia,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland,
North Carolina, South Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, and Rhode Island.
One of the main reasons that the colonists rebelled against Great Britain is
that they felt they were not represented in the British government. The British
government was making new laws and taxes on the colonies, but the colonies
had no say. They wanted to have some say in the British government if they
were going to pay high taxes and have to live by British law. War didn’t happen
right away. first there were protests and arguments. Then some small skirmishes
between the colonists and the local British army. Things just got worse and
worse over the course of years until the colonies and Great Britain were at war.
Each colony had its own local government. In 1774 they each elected officials
to represent them at the first Continental Congress. This was the first effort
of the colonies to unite and make a single government. In 1776 the Second
Continental Congress declared the independence of the United States from
Great Britain. The new government of the United States was different than the
government of the colonist’s homeland, Great Britain. They decided that they
didn’t want to be ruled by a king anymore. They wanted a government that was
ruled by the people. The new government would be a democratic government
with leaders elected by the people and balances of power to make sure that noone could become king.
Application activity 3.2
1. Account for the outbreak of the American revolution.
2. Assess the effects of the American war of independence on theAmericans.
3.3. Causes and consequences of the French Revolution
Learning activity 3.3
Read textbooks, internet and other materials to get the information about
the causes and consequences of the French Revolution and make apresentation in class.
A revolution is a fundamental change that takes place in the society’s social,
political and economic set up of a given society. It takes place not because
people are interested in change but rather, because of unbearable conditions
of living in that given society.
Before the outbreak of the French revolution of 1789, France was ruled by the
Bourbon Monarchy. The Bourbon Monarchy had ruled France for a period of
over 400 years, beginning from the administration of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and
Louis XVI. The French had a glorious foreign policy, the French language was
used in many countries. The Catholic religion was a religion of the majority. But
surprisingly enough, by 1789 France experienced a revolution. This revolution
transformed the lives of the French men.
Thus, the French Revolution of 1789 refers to social, economic, political
and religious changes that took place in France. The changes included theoverthrow of the ancient regime and the establishment of a new social order
that was based on liberty, (freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom
of expression and other fundamental freedoms of man) equality, (having equal
rights by all citizens) and fraternity (meaning brotherhood, that is to say seeing a
person as your relative). The effects of the French revolution were widespread,
both inside and outside of France, and the revolution ranks as one of the mostimportant events in the history of Europe.
The conditions of Europe on the eve of French revolution
Politically, many states, except Britain, were ruled by despotic king or
monarchs, who based their authority on the principle of divine rights, i.e. they
were answerable to God rather than the people they ruled.
i) England was ruled by George II and William Pitt as prime minister. She
was the most peaceful, stable government in 17th century in Europe.
England was considered as the super power of the time and had a
constitutional monarchy. George III allowed freedom of worship.
ii) Austria was under the Hapsburg family and was ruled by Maria Theresa
(1740-178). She was later succeeded by her son Joseph II (1780-1790).
Austria lacked constitutional democracy and parliamentary leadership;
there was religious intolerance where Catholics was state religion. Austria
was a class society with aristocrats (nobles) who enjoyed high privileges
in government, the Middle class and the serfs.
iii) Prussia was ruled by the hotentollem ruling family. She was ruled by
Frederic the Great from 1770-1786. Later he was succeeded by
Frederic William. Prussia had class division of Nobles, bourgeoisie, and
Feudal Lords, it had no proper constitution, no parliamentary democracy
and Prussia had no religious freedom. There was protestant monopoly
government.
iv) Russia: On the eve of French revolution Russia was ruled by Catherine
II who succeeded Peter the Great in 1762. There was no freedom of
religion worship in Russia (orthodox). Selfdom also existed. Russia was
an imperialist country that had acquired Azov, Ukraine ad Crimea as her
colonies. There was also a class society: aristocrats, merchants, serfs and
squatters.
v) Turkey (Ottoman Empire) was the largest empire in Europe. It extended
to parts of east Europe, Western Europe, the Balkans region, Asia Minor,
the Mediterranean region, North Africa and the Red Sea cost. On the eve
of French revolution, the Ottoman Empire was under sultan Mahmoud
II. However, turkey was multiracial, multilingual, multi-religious, and
multicultural empire.
vi) France was under Bourbon rulers who had ruled France for over 400
years. By 1789, France was ruled by King Louis XVI (1774-1793). During
his rule France had no constitution, no functional parliament and nouniform laws. Louis XVI was despotic and absolutists.
Socially many states in Europe had social classes. Each state basically had
three classes:
a. The clergy, who included bishops, cardinals and priests. They had plenty
of land, they were exempted from taxes and they monopolized the political,
military and civil service offices.
b. The nobles (the nobility), there were ruling classes in many states. Their
privileges were higher than those of clergy.
c. The peasantry was the third class. It was a group of people without a
political influence. Under this class there were many other small classes
like bourgeoisie for the sake of France, workers, serfs or tenants.
Each state had a state religion. For example, in France, and Austria, Catholicism
was the state religion; in England and Prussia, Protestantism was the official
religion while Russia had the orthodox faith. For the Ottoman Empire Islam wasthe empire religion. Therefore, religious persecution existed in many states.
Economically, most of European state mainly depended on agriculture;
industrialization had not yet taken place. However, Britain was the richest state.
Having workshop and crafts, Britain was regarded as a workshop of Europe.
Trade was also at low level. Land ownership i.e. in all states, land was owned by
the nobles and the clergy (the church) while peasants were a landless group.
Peasants only rented land from absentee landlords.
Taxation was another burden to the peasants. In France there were many types
of taxes: land taxes, corvee, salt tax, capitation etc. about 80% of the peasant’sannual income went to the taxes.
3.0 Conditions of france on the eve of french revolution
A summary of the political conditions
i) France was under the despotic rule of King Louis XVI who practiced
nepotism, arbitrary imprisonment or imprisonment without trial (lettres
de cachet).
ii) France had no functional parliament. Therefore, Frenchmen lacked
where to address their problems
iii) France had no uniform codes of law. There were about 360 feudal codes
that contradicted each other. Each region had its own laws.
iv) In the army, promotions were unfair, only sons of the nobles were
promoted. There was low pay, poor feeding, poor dressing and poor
accommodation and mistreatment of junior guards or soldiers.
v) France had no constitution that could guarantee the freedom, right and
liberties of the people. The king was the law and the law was himself as
Louis XVI said “I am the state and the state is me something is
legal because I wish it”.
vi) The administration only favoured the nobles and the clergy who
dominated administrative posts in the army, police, education, etc., at
the expense of the middle class and peasants who had no role in the
administration of their society.
vii) The palace was extravagant: a lot of money was wasted on parties,
functions, luxury and senseless wars. The king and the queen had a
large number of slaves and servants, camels and donkeys all of whichrequired a lot of cash for maintenance.
1. Condition of French people1.1 Peasants
i) This was the largest section of French population. They were about 23
million people out of 25 million, the total population of France. About 1
million peasants were slaves. They could be sold or bought with land.
ii) Another section of peasants were tenants. They had rented plots of land
from landlords.iii) There were also peasants who completely lacked land.
Burdens or the problems of the peasants.
1. Direct taxes
a) Taille: This form of tax was charged on land but in some district it was
charged on a person’s estimated income.
b) Capitation tax: this was charged on all adult males.
c) Property tax (vingtième): The peasants also paid this tax.
2. Indirect taxes
a) Salt tax: In order to pay this tax everybody above 7 years of age was
forced to buy 4 kg of salt annually. (Gabelle).
b) Peasants were also forced to pay feudal dues for using the mills and wine
press machine of their landlords.
c) Corvee (forced labour), a tax for road maintenance. It could be paid in
exchange for one’s labour.
d) Tolls: these were other feudal dues which peasants paid for using local
roads and bridges.
e) There were also taxes on inherited property.
f) There was tithe (church tax) which was not actually 1/10 as the name
suggests but 15/100.
g) Peasants also paid taxes, which allowed them to take their cattle or sheep
through the estates of their landlords.
3. The problem of taxation was worsened by the way taxes were
collected
1) The tax farmers or tax collectors were given authority to enter the houses
of peasants or tax defaulters at any time (day and night).
2) The tax collectors were also harsh, brutal and cruel and aggressive
in treating tax defaulters or to those who denied them access to their
houses to value their property. For example, one day a tax collector cut off
a hand of a woman who refused to surrender her cooking utensils which
he was trying to confiscate for tax evasion.
3) In 1783, there were 11 arrests for peasants who had not paid the salt
tax: about 6,600 of those arrested were children.
4) About 30000 peasants were hanged each year for evading taxes.
5) Peasants were not allowed to use seawater, to feed their cattle in salt
marshes and salty springs but they had to buy salt.
6) The conditions in the army were harsh due to poor payment, lack ofpromotion and lack of descent accommodation.
1.2. Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie was a section of the peasantry class. However, they were an
educated and a professionally trained group of people. They included: traders,
bankers, doctors, teachers, industrialists, moneylenders, lawyers and controllers
of government corporations in towns.
The grievances of bourgeoisie were
a) They were excluded from top government office like army, diplomatic
missions, etc.
b) The merchants complained of lack of good policies for their trade. For
example: Louis XVI allowed free trade with Britain.
c) Bourgeoisie complained of the way government finances were being
misused through extravagant spending.
d) They also complained of lack of promotion in the army for themselves or
their children.
e) They were not allowed to criticize the government openly.
f) From 1776-1783, they lent their money to the government during the
American war of independence but the government failed to pay back that
money.
g) They were forced to be Catholics.
1.3. The Nobility
The Nobility was divided into three groups:
– The great nobility.
– The lesser nobility.– The nobility of the robe.
i) The great nobility: they were composed of 1000 families. They owned
the largest amount of land; they were the wealthiest people in France,
the most privileged group of people in French politic. They dominated
top jobs in the army, navy and government. They were exempted from
taxation, they were absentee landlords, and they lived in luxury cities.
However, they were very corrupt.
ii) The lesser nobility: There also exempted from taxation and they too
owned large plots of land. However, they had little political powers, they
always complained due to unequal privileges with the great nobility.
iii) The nobility of the Robe: this group became noble due to their
services to the state. They became nobles as a merit. However, they didnot enjoy the privileges which the greater and lesser nobility enjoyed.
1.4 The clergy and the church
The clergy were divided into two sections: the upper and lower clergy:
i) The upper clergy: consisted of bishops, cardinals, etc. they had plenty
of land and earned the highest pay from the government. However, they
did a little work. They were also exempted from taxation and they shared
the 500 million francs, which the church received from the government
annually. They also advised the king on many political and religious
issues. However, their advice was poisonous, because they encouraged
religious intolerance in France.
ii) Lower clergy: they were composed of the parish priests; and they did a
lot of work in the church and schools. They were paid less and had little
or no land at all. This forced them to join the peasant to start a revolutionby 1789.
1.5 The French thinkers or philosophers
These were intellectuals and great thinkers. They included people like Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau and encyclopedists like Diderot Denis
and D’Alembert. The philosophers wrote books and circulate them across
Europe. In their writings, they criticized despotic rule, unfair land distribution,
unfair taxes, lack of political liberties, letters de cachet (warrants of arrest), the
power of the church, lack of religious freedom as well as lack of a constitutionand functional parliament in France.
3.3.1. The Causes of the French Revolution
The French revolution had both long term and short-term causes. Its origins are
said to have stretched back into the 17th and 18th Centuries. The outstanding
causes were as follows.
Unfair political system of ancient regime: The ancient regime in France
was led by despotic kings. The administration was characterised by dictatorship,
nepotism and abuse of human rights. The King’s powers were absolute and could
not be questioned. He was the law and the law was himself, and that is why he
once boasted “the thing is legal because I wish it to be”, “the state is myself!”
There was no written constitution, no democracy, and no fair representation in
the parliament. Even the King’s ministers had unlimited powers through “lettrede-
cachet” (arrest warrant with imprisonment without trial), which caused a
lot of suffering to the French people, forcing them to think of change and worktowards it.
Religious intolerance: In France, Protestants and Muslims were not allowed
freedom of worship and were always subjected to intimidation, torture and
imprisonment and the need for freedom of worship made the French to join therevolution. Catholicism was the state religion and had owned 1/5 (fifth) of all
land in France, controlled education, church forced peasants to pay tithe andpromoted class discrimination.
Social class struggle: French society was divided into three social classes or
Estates. Those were clergy, the nobles and middle class with the peasants. The
clergy and nobles enjoyed a lot of privileges. They owned large tracts of land,
dominated the key government posts, and were exempted from taxes. They
could collect tributes from the peasants; they had the right to get pensions; the
right to enjoy all forms of freedom; to stay in the King’s palace and the right tomove with weapons in public.
The peasants and the middle class were 23 million out of 25 million, but were
denied all sorts of freedom, subjected to forced labour, to unfair taxation,
were imprisoned without trial, were denied promotion in the army and higher
education.
The middle class (bourgeoisie) was composed of teachers, lawyers, doctors,
scientists and industrialists. Despite their education, they were excluded from
top posts in the government and in the army. They also had to end money to
the government and were not sure of recovering that money. By 1789, they
had read and interpreted the work of philosophers, which opened the eyes ofFrench people and forced them to fight against the ancient regime.
Role of the French philosophers: Philosophers were great thinkers who
were highly educated in world affairs, who put their ideas in writing condemning
the social, political, and economic situations in France, creating more awareness,
sharpening minds of the French and created in them a revolutionary spirit.
Philosophers revolutionized the thinking of the members of the Third Estate
with their new ideas and revolutionary solutions.
a) Voltaire: His original names were François-Marie Arouet, later changed
to Voltaire (historian, poet). He exposed the weaknesses and abuse of
power of the ancient regime and he said “I had rather be ruled by one
lion than a hundred rats” meaning that he preferred to be ruled by one
enlightened king than many ambitious schemers.
b) Charles Montesquieu (1689 - 1775), a lawyer and student of
constitutional government summed up his ideas in his book L’ Esprit
Des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws). Here he puts forward the theory of
the separation of powers. According to this theory, the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary should be separate and independent of each
other. If not, there would be dictatorship and tyranny. Through his writings,
Montesquieu exposed grand monarchy in France, in its true colors anddeeply influenced the minds of the people.
c) Jean Jacques Rousseau: He was a poet and musician; he wrote
his ideas in the book called “the social contract”. He explained that
a government is a social contract between rulers and ruled, but if the
government fails to protect the rights of its people, then the people have
the right to overthrow the government. Here he made people aware of
their rights. This was the case of bourbon monarchy.
d) The encyclopedists: They condemned the unfair system of taxation and
recommended the abolition of all taxes except land tax which was to bepaid by all.
Unfair land ownership: The land was unfairly distributed among the nobles
and the clergy at the expense of the majority peasants. The Church also owned
20 per cent of the land that it rented to the peasants. The peasants lived as
tenants on the estates of landlords who also exploited them. This is why theydemanded for reforms in the revolution of 1789.
Unfair taxation system: Before 1789, the taxation system of France was
unfair. The clergymen and noblemen owned about three-fifths of the entire land.
However, they paid less than one-fifth of the total direct taxes in the country.
On the other hand, a member of the Third Estate paid 152 francs as income
tax, whereas he should have paid only 14 francs, if the distribution were equal.
Further the nobles and clergy were totally exempted from direct taxes levied on
personal property and land. While the rich nobles and the clergy were exempted
from taxation, the poor peasants were forced to pay a lot of taxes like salt tax,
property tax, road tax, tithe and customs duty. The peasants were tired of thisunfair taxation system and rose up against the regime of the time.
Bankruptcy of the ancient regime: By 1788, the French treasury was
alarmingly empty. This financial crisis was caused by the luxurious lifestyle of
the kings and members of the royal family, the exemption of the nobility, higher
clergy and the church from taxation, corruption, and embezzlement of funds. The
financial crisis forced the government to borrow money from the middle class
and at the end they failed to pay back. In an attempt to recover their money, the
middle class advocated for the overthrow of the government. This financial crisisled to the French revolution in the following ways:
People lost confidence in the government and wished that it could be removed.
When the government failed to pay back the money to the middle class, the
people decided to remove the government. That crisis led to inflation and
unemployment which forced people into the revolution. It forced the King to callthe Estates General meeting in which the revolution started.
Dismissal of the financial reformers: Capable financial controllers, Turgotand Necker, were dismissed. This worsened the financial crisis in France. They
had suggested reforms such as taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy,
but the Queen advised the King to expel them because they criticized the
financial mismanagement at the royal palace. This led to the revolution againstLouis XIV in 1789.
The financial crisis was also caused by involvement in endless wars, notably
the American war of independence and the 7 years’ war (1756-1763) over thecolonies of India and Canada between Britain and France.
Character of Louis XVI: He was the last King who ruled France from 1774 to
1793. He contributed to the occurrence of the French revolution in the followingways:
Louis was responsible for the financial crisis that hit France due to corruption,
embezzlement and extravagance that characterized his reign. This created arevolutionary mood among the masses.
He confined himself in the royal palace, which made him unpopular and he wasalways asleep or hunting during crucial meetings.
He married a beautiful but less intelligent, arrogant and proud Marie Antoinette
from Austria, a traditional enemy of France. Besides, she poorly advised theKing hence committing blunders that resulted in the French revolution.
He signed a free trade treaty with Britain to allow her to sell her goods in France
untaxed. This led to the collapse of local industries and generated a lot of hatredfrom the middle class who also joined the revolution against him.
He lacked firmness and often shed tears during hot debates. He was inconsistent
and that is why he was ill-advised by the Queen. To Frenchmen, Louis XVI wasking in name but not in character.
He involved France in the American War of Independence which led to the
bankruptcy of his regime and he failed to pay back the money borrowed fromthe middle class.
Louis XVI (August 23, 1754–January 21, 1793) (Source: Google) Louis XVI of
France was the grandson of King Louis XV and was married to Marie- Antoinette.
Louis was considered a well-intentioned but weak king. A heavy tax burden and
court extravagance led eventually to a popular revolt against him and paved the
way for the French revolution. Louis was guillotined by the revolutionary regimein 1793.
Influence of Marie Antoinette: Marie Antoinette was a daughter of an
Austrian Empress called Marie II Thérèse. She was hated by Frenchmen, moreespecially among the middle class, because she represented Austria which had
supported Britain in the “Seven Years War” which led to the loss of Frenchcolonies in Canada and India.
She was very insensitive to the problems of the French and that was why she,
at one time, arrogantly told the peasants that: “let them eat cakes if bread isexpensive” which angered the peasants during the French revolution.
She was also busy wasting taxpayer’s money on luxurious parties, giving a lot of
gifts, employing about 500 servants and buying four pairs of shoes per week.This contributed to the financial crisis and led to the outbreak of the revolution.
Marie Antoine (November 2, 1755–October 16, 1793) Marie Antoinette was the
Queen of France who died on the guillotine in 1793 during the French revolution.
Her lavish life-style made her unpopular. Paying no attention to her country’s financial
crisis, she refused to make any concessions to hungry mobs who marched
on the palace in Versailles. Instead, she called out troops.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Marie_Antoinette
Influence of England: England provided an example to French society. By
1750, she had modernized and had the best parliament, a good constitution and
an independent judiciary as well as freedom of religion. In addition to a better
political environment, England became a reference for political philosophers
who based their arguments on Britain. Many Frenchmen desired the life ofEngland and this fueled the 1789 French revolution.
Effects of American Revolution: France participated in the American War
of Independence to revenge against Britain. The French government, therefore,
sent troops to America to fight the British. In 1776, the Americans defeated
Britain. However, the war worsened the already alarming financial crisis in France
and also provided a practical example to the French that “if success could beobtained by the Americans, it could be obtained by the French as well”.
Politically, the French soldiers who fought on the side of America came back
with new revolutionary ideas and they were shocked to find out that the very
conditions that America was fighting were present in France. General Marquis
de Lafayette who was the commander of the French troops in America took thecommanding role in the French revolution.
Natural calamities: To make matters worse, from 1788 France experiencednatural calamities which led to the untold misery. In 1788 there was famine
caused by poor harvests, and the poor taxation system which prevented
easy transportation of food. In early 1789 severe winter hit Europe leading
to the freezing of many rivers in Europe; hence no fishing, transportation and
employment. On top of that, in 1786 France had signed a free trade treaty with
Britain which caused suffocation of French industries as cheap goods from
Britain flooded the French market. As a solution to the problems faced by theFrench, a revolution was looked at as an alternative.
The estates General meeting of May 5th, 1789: The above factors created
a fertile environment for the revolution. It only needed an incident to spark off a
great revolution. King Louis XVI decided to call a meeting for all the three classes
on Sunday May 5th, 1789 in order to resolve the economic crisis. In attendance
were 1,224 delegates, including 308 clergy, and 295 nobles. Jacques Necker
advised the King that the number of the third class members should be double
because they represented the majority. That was why the third class memberswere 621.
Trouble came when they failed to agree on the voting procedures where the
King wanted the voting to be on class basis and their opinion was for one man
one vote. The king being very weak, failed to control the situation and the third
class members declared themselves the National Assembly. This marked thebeginning of the French revolution.
The main events in the course of French Revolution
Calling of estates general meeting (5 May 1789): King Louis XVI called the
meeting on advice of Necker, his Finance expert. It aimed at solving the financial
crisis in France and other problems affecting the French society. However,
King Louis VXI wanted each state to seat and vote alone over the “cahiers”
(grievances) to be solved. But the representatives of the third states rejected the
king idea of separate sitting and voting because the first and the second estates
would outvote the third estate by the ration of 1:2 since they had similar interest.
In this meeting the nobles were represented by 285 representatives, 308
represented the clergy, and the third Estate was given double representation,621 representatives because they represented the majority of population.
The third estate wanted a joint meeting where every member would vote basing
on “one man one vote” but the king ruled against this. The third estate was set to
attain liberty, equality and fraternity. Failure to agree on the sitting arrangement
and voting procedure, members of the third estate lead by Mirabeau declared
them a national assembly and invited the members of underprivileged lessernobility and the parish priest to join them.
This marked the beginning of 1789 French revolution. Possibly without calling
the estate general meeting, the Frenchmen would have kept their grievances at
a local level and the revolution would not have broken out, it marked the revival
of the French parliament, peasants began to demand for their rights, it showed
the weaknesses of the bourbon monarchy for it had no any means of disciplining
the third class, it marked the beginning of the constitutional rule in France, it
exposed the weaknesses of the king in that he failed to handle the matter of the
sitting and voting procedure, it showed the unity and determination of peasants
against the king, the nobility and the clergy and it lead to the end of absolutemonarchy in France
The tennis court oath 20th June 1789: Since the third estate had become
stubborn after the failure of the estate general meeting, the king decided to hold
a special royal session (meeting) in which he planned to give his last order. But
the representatives of the third estate were not informed of the royal session.
So, when the third estate came, they found the hall locked and the soldiers
told them that the hall had been locked for necessary preparation (a counter
revolution). So, the third estate moved to a neighbouring indoor tennis court
where they swore that “they would never dissolve until the constitution
of the French society is established. In the course of the Frenchrevolution, this event was referred as “tennis court oath”.
This increased the determination among members of National Assembly and
marked the beginning of debates about the national constitution of France. The
members of National Assembly thereafter started debating about the national
constitution assembly separating it from the first and second estates. This wastheir first independent meeting.
The royal session on 23rd June 1789: In June 1789 another royal meeting
was called in which the king announced reforms. But in this meeting the king
declared the national assembly of the 3rd estate illegal and unconstitutional.
He also ordered that the 3rd estates should always meet separately. After the
meeting, the king and other two estates left the hall. The third estate remained
seated in the hall. The king’s master of ceremony ordered them to quit the hall
and the soldiers were seen at the gate coming to drive them out of the hall.
Mirabeau reacted by replying the M.C. that “go and tell your master that we
are here by the will of people and that, we shall not leave except at thepoint of the bayonet”.
Challenged by the tough stand of the 3rd estates, Louis XVI ordered 1st and
2nd to join the third estates in the National Assembly. This was marked as a
victory of the 3rd estate (class). This assembly of 3 estates became known asthe “constituent assembly”.
This event showed that violence would be used during the revolution (bayonet)
and It showed the future victory of the third estate. It showed the weakness ofthe clergy and nobility some of whom joined the 3rd estate.
The storming of the Bastille on 14th July, 1789: The Bastille was a royal
state prison of the ancient regime. Many innocent French peasants and some of
the members of the middle class were detained here without trial. This became
to be known as the “lettre de cachet”. Bastille was also where the state arms
were kept. It marked the birth of freedom, the end of “lettre de cachet” and
the fall of despotism, it marked the release of prisoners who actively joined
the revolution, the fall of Bastille (14th july1789) is still cerebrated as a public
holiday in France. The revolutionaries got fire arms and brought violence in
the revolution. It led to the introduction of tricolour flag (revolutionary flag) and
withdrawal of white flag (monarchy flag). The tricolour flag was made of: red,white, blue which symbolized a revolution.
The session of 4th august 1789: This meeting was called after the storming
of Bastille. It was called because the peasants had rowdy destroying properties
and residences of the clergy and the nobles. By August, the National Assembly
had expanded following the joining of nobles and clergy who had remained in
France realizes that the only way to save their lives was to painfully surrender
their privileges and therefore on the day when the National Assembly was in
a night session the nobles, one after the other announced the surrender of
their privileges. Two members of the nobility proposed equality in taxation, the
bishop proposed the sharing of the church land, and an archbishop proposed
abolition of salt tax. The assembly also destroyed class discrimination and made
promotion to public offices to be based on merit. This event forced therefore
many nobles and clergy into exile. The meeting marked the removal of someproblems of the third class and It destroyed the order of the ancient regime.
The declaration of rights of man and citizenship 26th August 1789:
The national assembly changed its name to the Constituent Assembly
because it had the role of making constitution for France. Therefore, in August
the Constituent Assembly met to discuss the rights of the people. The French
constitution was formulated on the model of USA. At the end of the meeting, the
rights of self-rule and equality freedom of speech, press, worship, association
and protection, right to vote and elect their leaders were declared.
But they made a mistake of leaving the king with too much power to veto which
he used to refuse to sign the declaration of the rights of man and the decree
(official order of decision) of 4th August 1789 which led to the march of women.
The rights of the French became the foundation of the human rights for all men.USA and UNO copied them and they have become the basis of the right of the
man today. It lead to the destruction of all forms of class discrimination in Franceand hence equality of people.
The march of women on 5th October 1789: The march of women referred to
the demonstration in which woman (6500), children and men dressed in women
clothes moved from Paris to Versailles. The march of women was caused by the
king’s refusal to sign the decree of 4th August 1789 and declaration of rights
of man, increased price of bread and the mobilization of troops from Germanyagainst revolutionaries.
On 5th October 1789, a huge group of woman followed by men dressed as
women began their move from Paris to Versailles aiming at the king reducing the
prices of bread. And when the king was called from his daily game (hunting), he
was surprised and promised special food for the people of Paris and agreed to
sign the declaration of rights of man as well as the decree of 4th August 1789.
Note that the people wanted to bring the king to Paris so as to separate himfrom the influence of the Nobles who used to ill-advise him.
This had a great significance as it showed the contribution of women in the
French revolution, the king agreed to sign the declarations of rights of man
and the decree of 4th August 1789 and it was a great humiliation to the royal
family as they were moved from Versailles to Paris the following day (6th October1789).
The civil constitution of the clergy July 1790: The Assembly went on in its
determination to change the position of the church in France. The Pope in Rome
was not to have any power in church affairs in France. All bishops and priests
became servants of the state, and salaries of the higher clergy were reduced,
while those of lower clergy were increased. This ended the privileges of the
church, reduced the powers of the pope in France, abolished the church tax, the
nationalization of the church land which was later sold to the peasants at lower
prices, the salaries of lower clergy were increased while those of upper clergy
were to be reduced, the beginning of the freedom of worship in France, it forcedthe king to plan an escape to exile and others.
The abortive (failed) flight (escape) of the king from Paris to Varennes22 June 1791
Louis XVI having been forced to sign the civil constitution of the clergy
became humiliated. So, the pope, some nobles and his wife advised him to
escape to Austria, join the émigrés and raise an army to come back and fight
the revolutionaries. So, at right, Louis XVI, his wife and their children escaped
heading to Varennes. Unfortunately, he was seen and arrested at the borders ofFrance and Austria. He was brought back to France in a very a shaming manner.
This showed that the king had become an enemy of the revolution because he
was planning to destroy it using foreign troops, it proved the weaknesses of
Louis XVI (he accepted wrong advice of escaping).This event disgraced the
royal family of France and It appointed the death of the French monarchy. One
historian said “at Varennes the monarchy had died, a year later Paris had
burry it. It increased the demand for a republican government. This demand
was led by Robespierre and Danton and in 1792 the first republic was called
“Conventional Government” and it led to formation of political clubs in France.Some wanted republic while others wanted a constitutional monarchy.
The new constitution of September 1791: The national assembly finished
writing the constitution of France in September 1791. The constitutions had thefollowing provisions:
France was to be governed by a constitution with a king having executivepowers.
The king was given the suspensive veto for six years.
The chamber was to have 745 deputies.
The chamber was to be elected by only tax-payers. (Tax equivalent to a threedaywork pay.
Members of the former constituent assembly were excluded from the new
parliament. However, this constitution was rejected by the republicans whoformed a number of political clubs demanding for a republican government.
The formation of political clubs: After the establishment of the September
constitution, many republicans rejected it. As a result, they formed many political
clubs (parties) demanding for a republican government. For ex: Montagnards,
the Jacobins, the Girondins, Cordeliers and Feuillants. These groups competed
for political leadership in France and as a result they created violence and thereign of terror.
The reign of terror 1792 and the guillotine of the king (21st Sunday,
January 1793)
The reign of terror was the second stage of the French revolution. It was
characterized by notorious violence. During this stage the republicans resorted
to war. Under the Jacobins’ republican government of Robespierre, violence
increased at this stage due to the formation of the committee of public safety
and the committee of general security whose work was to arrest suspects forguillotine.
On the 2nd and the 6th September 1792 these committees led to the guillotine of
1200 Frenchmen in Paris alone, an event known as the September massacres.
Majority of the people killed were royalists who were suspected to be supporters
of the king. On Sunday 21st January 1793 Louis XVI was guillotined or hanged(executed).
3.3.2. Consequences of the French Revolution
The French Revolution had many permanent results, which proved to be of great
value. This Revolution affected not only the people of France, but also changedthe course of human history.
Effects of French revolution on France
• The revolution led to the loss of lives: Many lives were lost in the
confusion that characterized the revolution. At first it targeted the
privileged sections of the society. Mobs killed those they felt had in one
way or another been responsible for their suffering during the ancient
regime. With time, the introduction of the guillotine saw many perceived
to be against the revolution being killed. The guillotine even consumed
some of the revolutionaries as rivalry and suspicion hit their camp.
• The revolution destroyed Bourbon Monarchy in France: There was
a complete collapse of the ancient regime. The French Revolution
abolished all elements of feudalism including serfdom. The privileges of
the clergy and the nobility also came to an end.
• The revolution forced many Nobles and Clergy to Austria as émigrés
on exiles.
• The revolution brought conflicts between France and European powers.
• The revolution led to the destruction of property in France.
• It weakened the French economy. Unemployment problem was high
especially among the people in towns since the lost their jobs and
businesses stopped.
• It damaged the diplomatic relations between France and her neighbors
like Prussia, Austria, Russia and Britain due to the mistreatment of
Louis XVI.
• It led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the citizenship on
August 27th, 1789. The document abolished the social class divisionism
which had existed in France during the Bourbon monarchy (ancient
regime). This led to equality among French citizens, as it declared that
all men were equal before the law.
• The revolution encouraged multiparty democracy in France and this led
to the rise of the Directory government. New men were appointed into
high offices basing on their ability to perform.
• It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or General meeting
on May 5th, 1789) which had last sat 175 years before in 1614.
• The revolution led to the outbreak of the reign of terror in France. This
was characterised by bloodshed hence increasing the number of
refugee problem.
• The revolution ended feudalism and selfdom in France: The French
revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th, 1789 in the assembly
at Versailles. Land that belonged to the Catholic Church and the nobles
was nationalized and given to the landless peasants at cheaper prices.
• The revolution improved the education sector: The revolutionaries
introduced reforms in the education system. Polytechnic schools were
built to train and produce skilled labour; secondary schools were built
and old ones rehabilitated. This promoted efficiency in the educationsector.
Effects of French revolution on the Catholic Church
1. It abolished church control over land; land was nationalized and sold to
the peasant citizens.
2. It abolished church’s control over education and Pope had no influence
in French affairs. The clergy had to be elected and paid by the state. This
spoiled the relationship between France and the rest of the world.
3. It abolished the church tax (tithe) which was seen as a sign of feudalism
and exploitation.
4. It reduced salaries of upper clergy and increased those of the lower
clergy.
5. Privileges of the church were abolished: The revolution denied the
Catholic Church of its privileges in France. The church clergy had to
pay taxes and the clergy were turned into ordinary men and the church
became a poor institution.
6. It abolished religious intolerance and freedom of worship declared. The
civil constitution of the clergy brought freedom of worship by making
Catholic Church merely one of the religions in France.
7. Abolition of Catholicism and replace it by the religion of reason, abolish
Christian calendar, remove names of saints from calendar, Sundays
become working day.
8. It divided the clergy into two groups. The juror priests and the non-juror
priests (refractory).
9. In French history, non-jurors or Refractory clergy were clergy members
who refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the state under the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy; also known as refractory clergy, priests and
bishops.
10. It spoilt relationship between France and other catholic countries (Spain,Sardinia, Austria).
Effects of French revolution on Europe
• Rise of revolutionary political parties: The rise of political clubs in
France influenced radical reformers to organize similar political parties
to pressurize the existing government for reforms. By 1792 political
clubs were established in England and Scotland.
• It led to the 1820, 1830 and 1848 revolutions: in America, Italy,
Germany, Greece, due to the spread of French revolutionary ideas
which inspired them.
• It spoilt the relationship between France and other catholic powers in
Europe.
• It led the abolition of feudalism in other parts of Europe, for example
Prussia, Hungary, Italian; land was nationalized and sold to peasants.
This ended monopolization of land by the church and the nobles.
• It increased constitutionalism in Europe. Revolutionary ideas led to
the rise of constitutionalism as a check and a balance to despotism
in Europe. Indeed, the UN charter on Human rights and American
constitution has borrowed from the declaration of the right of man and
citizen in France.
• Abolition of social classes system: The French revolution also
influenced the abolition of the discriminative social class system that
existed in Europe. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity influenced
conservative states like Russia, Spain, and Prussia to abandon social
class division and grant equality between the nobles, clergy, middle
class and peasants.
• The rise of nationalism in Europe and the world. The French revolution
led to the rise of new forces of change. I.e. Liberalism, nationalism and
socialism in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and
fraternity undermined the old order of Europe that was characterized
by conservatism and despotism. Nationalism influences the world
up today while socialism brought antagonism and tension that led to
cold war in the 20th century. Socialism dominated Eastern Europe and
Western Europe was dominated by capitalism.
• The French revolution influenced the rise of new States men in Politics
of Europe. The destruction of segregative social classes system and
revolutionary ideas of equality offered opportunity for talented men like
Napoleon in France, Mazzini and Cavour in Italian states and Bismarck
in German States to rise to positions of importance in their states.
• Unification of Italy and Germany: The French revolution contributed
to the unification of Italy and Germany. France conquered and
re-organized the Italian and Germany states in 1796 and 1807
respectively. The French soldiers who liberated Italians and Germans
preached the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity and
nationalism. This inspired Italians and Germans with a high spirit of
unity and independence against foreign domination. This foundation
was combined with other factors which led to the unification of Italy in
1870 and Germany in 1871.
• French revolution increased the enmity between Catholic Church and
the states because of the civil constitution of the clergy which nullified
the privileges and influence of Pope and Catholic Church in France.
This contributed to the outbreak of war between France and other
catholic States in Europe e.g. Austria, Prussia, Russia etc.
• Diplomatic alliances: The French revolution initiated the idea of
diplomatic cooperation in handling world affairs. The alliances
against Revolutionary France that started in 1793 inspired the rise of
international organizations like congress system, the League of Nationsand the UNO.
Application activity 3.3
1. Examine the causes of the 1789 French Revolution.2. Assess the consequences of the 1789 French Revolution.
3.4. Factors for the rise, performance and downfall ofNapoleon I.
Learning activity 34
Read textbooks, internet and other history documents to discuss about therise and the decline of Napoleon and make a presentation in class.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in the Italian Island of Corsica in the province of
Genoa. He was born on 15 august 1769. His father was Charles Bonaparte
and the mother was Letizia Romalino Bonaparte. A year before his birth, Corsica
Island was annexed by France. Napoleon I was born in a very poor family. He
was one of eight children out of 13 who survived early childhood death. He got
his education at Breinne military academy in Paris from May 1779 to October
1784. At 16 years he had graduated as artillery officer with the rank of 2nd
Lieutenant.
Napoleon in 1795 saved the directory government from Royalists uprising,
where he was rewarded Josephine Beauharnais, the daughter of Barras who
was the first director of the directory government which earned him a rank
of general. After a two-day honeymoon with Josephine, Napoleon led an illequipped
army in Italian campaign of 1796 when he defeated Austria in Italy
and signed Compo Formio treaty with Austria which agreed to withdraw from
the coalition against France and northern part of Italy was taken by France.
By1797, the Directory Government was threatened by Napoleon’s popularity yet
they had Britain as another external enemy and they sent Napoleon in Egyptian
campaign such that he may die there, but as he was defeated by the British in
Egypt, he learnt from the British newspapers that: The directory government
was about to collapse, the Campo-Formio treaty had been rejected by Austriaand the wife Josephine had become unfaithful.
And Napoleon escaped for Paris and organized a successful coup d’état against
the directory government with the assistance of Abbey Sieyes, Pierre Roger
Ducos and Barras he became the leader of France on 9th November 1799. In
1804 he confirmed himself the life emperor of France. However, Napoleon
was defeated by the troops of wellington (British general) and Marshall Blucher
(Prussia) in the battle of Waterloo. Then on 17/061815, he was forced to
exile to Saint Helena, a rocky Island of South Atlantic Ocean where he died in1821 in a miserable life.
Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena Island
Source: https://www.google.com/search?biw=1365&bih=690&tbm=isch&sxsrf=ACYBGNSNNWwbPycm5YKsf-4y4
3.4.1. Factors for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power
The French revolution helped him to rise to power: There is a common
agreement that Napoleon was a product of the French revolution without which
he would have died a common man. This remains a historical fact because
Napoleon’s rise to power was greatly due to the changes and progressive
events of the French revolution. He exploited the opportunities provided by the
revolution to rise from a poor Corsica to an emperor of France. This is why he is
called the child of French revolution. The role of French revolution in Napoleon’s
rise to power was as follows:
• The revolution abolished classes and this helped peasants to rise to
positions of leadership.
• The French revolution also led to the exile and death of senior army
officers and politicians which created scarcity of senior army officers
and Napoleon was called in army in 1792.
• It is a French revolution that gave chance to Napoleon to display and
advertise his abilities which helped him to be quickly promoted.
• The need to export the French revolution generated foreign wars which
gave Napoleon more opportunities to display himself.
• Napoleon used revolutionary ideas within and outside France: this
made him popular.
• The revolution brought many wars in which Napoleon got involved.
These provided Napoleon with a platform to display his military talents
which helped him to be recognized. It made him popular and this helpedhim to win the support of the people.
The weakness of directory government helped Napoleon to rise to
power: By 1799, the directory government was unpopular and the French
people longed for good French leadership. The government was bankrupt,
officials were corrupt, there was insecurity, inflation, unemployment and there
was intrigue among directors. The second coalition was had been organized
against France and Austria had taken back the territories she had surrendered
to France by the treaty of Campo Formio. These desperate conditions made the
Frenchmen to be in high mood of change. This explains why Napoleon’s coup
received a blessing rather than opposition from the Frenchmen.
Luck helped Bonaparte to rise to power in France. Napoleon became
Frenchman by luck because Corsica was annexed to France one year before
his birth, by luck he survived the reign of terror because he was a friend ofRobespierre.
• It was also luck, that the coup d’état of 1799 was successful.
• It was luck that Napoleon survived death in campaigns, especially in
Egyptian and Italian campaign.
• He was lucky to be the only son-in-law of Barras. Therefore, Barras
supported his rise to power.
• He was dismissed from service for over delaying on leave but he was
so lucky to be called back due to shortage of artillery officers.
• He was also lucky to join the military academy of Brienne and Paris.
• He was lucky to survive early childhood diseases.
• He was lucky that he survived revolutionary event like the Reign ofTerror in France.
Napoleon character’s greatly contributed to his rise to power. He was
courageous man, brave and skillful. He was military genius and intelligent soldier
France had ever seen. Such character helped him to capture the attention ofpeople and rose to power.
Napoleon’s power of foresight: Napoleon had the abilities to assess
situations and know how he could manipulate them to his advantage. After the
French revolution, he abandoned the ambition to liberate Corsica and became
a loyal French citizen. He did this because he had rightly foreseen that the
revolution had come with opportunities that he would use to rise to power.
He also refused to command the Paris forces when he was commissioned by
Robespierre during the reign of terror. He refused to offer because he wasaware that Paris was not secured and anybody could be guillotined any time.
Napoleon’s family background and ambition also helped him to rise to
power. Napoleon was born from a poor family and this gave him a determination
to always work hard. He was an Italian by descent and he always longed to set
his mother land free from French occupation and this is why he tried to liberate
it three times but he failed. This ambition forced Napoleon to risk fighting Great
powers like Austria and England with a disorganized army which helped him
to capture the attention of the masses who supported him to rise to power inFrance.
Education was yet another factor which helped Napoleon 1 to rise to
power. The education Napoleon acquired gave him merit to get appointments
in the army. It also helped him to be able to read revolutionary literature and the
work of political philosophers and to be aware of political events. The knowledge
from the military academies helped him to be a great and successful soldier.These skills made him popular and helped him to rise to power.
Napoleon close association with great people and his marriage to
Josephine also helped him to rise to power. He associated with men like
Robespierre who was the leader of the Jacobins and Barras one of the Directors
of the Directory government. This helped him to gain political experience andinfluence which eased to rise to power.
Napoleon’s early military success and operations helped him to rise to
power. In 1793 he successfully expelled the British from Toulon which earned
him the rank of Brigadier, in 1795 he crushed a Paris insurrection, and after his
Italian campaign, he was promoted to the rank of general. These victories madehim popular to the masses and supported him to rise to power.
Annexation of Corsica Island from Genoa (Italy) to France in 1768
helped Napoleon to rise to power. The annexation of Corsica Island to
France in 1768 was a blessing in disguise for Napoleon. It made him to be
born a French man who was eligible to hold any public office in France. If it had
not been so, he would have born Italian and would not have benefited from the
military academies of Brienne and Paris. He would not have risen to power inFrance since he would have been a foreigner (Italian).
3.4.2. Napoleon’s performance/reforms/achievements
a) Military success: Leading the French army to military success against
the foreign armies: He led the French army in battles against the foreign
troops. He drove British forces out of the French port of Toulon, he won
several victories against Austrians, he captured most of northern Italy, he
forced the Hapsburg emperor to sue for peace, and he led an expedition
to Egypt in 1798 in the hope of disrupting British trade with India andothers.
b) Establishment of the Consulate in 1799: His military success
encouraged him to assume political responsibilities in 1799. He overthrew
the weak directory and set up a three-man governing board known as
The Consul. This body was now to lead the revolution. Napoleon was its
leader. He took up the title of first Consul. The Consulate drew a newconstitution.
c) Effected economic reforms: Napoleon developed economic reforms
to address the deteriorating economic conditions that faced France. He
controlled prices, encouraged industrialization, established the first bank
of France in 1801 and built roads and canals to improve transportation.
He even sold France’s vast Louisiana land territory across the Atlantic to
the American government in 1803. This action doubled the size of theUSA and ushered in an age of American expansion.
d) Strengthening of the central government: Under Napoleon, power
was consolidated in an effort to strengthen the central government in which
he was the supreme power. Through these measures, ‘order, security and
efficiency’ replaced ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ as the slogan of the newregime.
e) Establishment of schools to train military officials: The revolution
was characterized by ill-trained military personnel. This affected the
operations of the army. Napoleon addressed the problem by setting up a
system of public schools under strict government control. The military was
trained in these schools. Members of the public also benefitted from goodeducation.
f) Restoration of relations with the church: He made peace with the
Catholic Church in the Concordant of 1801. This law kept the church
under state control but recognized religious freedom for Catholics. It was
welcomed by Catholics but opposed by revolutionaries. Other religionswere also recognized.
g) Appeasing all classes in the society: Napoleon took measures to
appease all sections of the society. He encouraged Emigres to return so
long as they took an oath of loyalty. Emigres were members of the nobility
who had fled the country during the revolution. Peasant’s right to landownership was also made. He also made jobs open to all talent.
h) Development of a new law code (the Napoleonic code): He wrote
the French laws leading to the civil code of 1804. The code embodied
Enlightenment principles such as the equality of all citizens before the law,
religious toleration and advancement based on merit. It touched on rights
and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property, and a
statement of the general legal principles concerning them. However, the
code was weak in certain respects. Male heads of household were givencomplete authority over their wives and children.
i) Spread of the revolution to other parts of Europe: By 1810, his
empire had expanded greatly in Europe. As the empire grew, it took the
ideas of the revolution to the new territories. The areas he conquered
included the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Italy and Germany. All
these became part of the grand French empire. He also abolished the
Holy Roman Empire and created a 38-member confederation of the Rhineunder French protection.
j) Forceful diplomacy: Napoleon had another tactic. He used forceful
diplomacy to install his relatives to power in various European countries.
For example, after removing the Spanish king; he placed his own brother
Joseph Bonaparte, to the throne. He also forced alliances on European
powers from Madrid to Moscow. At various times, the rulers of Austria,
Prussia and Russia reluctantly signed treaties with Napoleon. He came
up with the Continental System which brought the whole of European
mainland into an alliance headed by France. He tried to use the alliance to
bring Britain to its knees but did not succeed. The French army spread theideas of the revolution and helped to install code Napoleon in the areas.
k) Boosting the spirit of Nationalism: The successes made by Napoleon
enhanced the spirit of nationalism in France. Great victory parades filled
the streets of Paris with cheering crowds. French citizens were proud of
their king’s successes. They celebrated the glory and success of theircountry.
l) Napoleon 1 also promoted agriculture in Franca. He introducednew seed varieties from Holland which increased output in France.
3.4.3. Reasons for the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte I
By 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte had been denied by nature never to rule France
again. He was defeated by the European 4th Coalition at the battle of Waterloo
and exiled on the rocky Island of St. Helena where he died from in 1821 in
a miserable life. The following were the factors responsible for Napoleon’sdownfall in 1814.
• The continental system of 1806 which had many negative effects such
as inflation, famine, unemployment, hatred between French traders andBonaparte also led to the downfall of Napoleon. The Continental system
were a series of economic measures which Napoleon 1 used in order
to weaken the British economy. He issued out economic blockades or
trade embargo on the British goods and stopped all the French allies
from buying the British goods. This he did in order to bring Britain to his
knees. But the Continental system turned into a boomerang and waslargely responsible to Napoleon’s down fall in 1814.
• Napoleon’s imprisonment of the Pope in 1808 who had rejected
continental system, led to the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte because
he lost the support of the Catholics. It should be remembered that when
the Pope refused to obey Napoleon’s Continental system, Napoleon
ended up imprisoning him in 1808. This made Napoleon to be hated
by the entire Catholic World and the Catholic French men hence hisdownfall.
• The peninsular war of 1809 or the Spanish war: This was caused by
the reject of continental system. When Napoleon attacked Spain and
Portugal, these two joined together and they defeated Napoleon. This
defeat in the Peninsular encouraged European powers to join together
and overthrow Napoleon. Note: The Peninsula wars refers to the wars
which Napoleon fought with the countries of the Western Peninsulaparticularly Portugal and Spain.
• Napoleon’s naval weakness led to his downfall. He had weak naval
compared to that of Britain. Napoleon was defeated by Britain in thebattle of Trafalgar due to the naval weakness of Bonaparte.
involved in a very aggressive foreign policy to conquer Europe and the
whole world. “I know limits of my legs, I know the limits of my eyes
but I have never known the limits of my work” Napoleon remarked in
expression of his ambition to conquer Europe. For this he got involvedin endless wars of conquest and bloodshed, this led to his downfall.
• The negative effects of the Moscow campaign of 1812 contributed to
Napoleon’s down fall in 1814. Because Tsar Nicolas I of Russia had
rejected Napoleon’s continental system of 1806, Napoleon ended up
attacking Russia in 1812 in what Historians call the Moscow campaign
of 1812. In this campaign, he lost many soldiers, his horses, some
generals detested him, and the defeat forced some of his colonies torebel against him.
• The growth of European nationalism led to downfall of napoleon because
he had spread revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. Onwhich Napoleon’s rule had been oppressive.
• Desertion by his military generals because they were tired and
corrupted, and they revealed military secrets to the enemies. Most of
generals deserted him and joined the enemy side. They revealed hisfighting tactics to his enemies making him to be defeated.
• Rise of liberation and patriotism in the lands which were under
Napoleon’s control. For example, the King of Prussia raised national
feelings in his people by using Napoleon’s own “ideological weapon”
to arouse national spirit in his country, thus setting his people against
Napoleon. Nationalism thus heavily played a role in Napoleon’s downfall.
• Napoleon’s excessive ambition and growing sense of self–importance
made him to have increasing pride and self-confidence in himself.
Napoleon wanted to remake Europe as a new Roman Empire. With this
ambition, he was engaged in endless wars which caused the downfall.
• Lack of an adequate naval power which could rival the British navy. This
made any chance of attacking Britain, her great rival, remote.
• Age in addition to exhaustion as a result of endless wars he fought
contributed to his downfall. By the time of his downfall, Napoleon 1
had become exhausted due to many wars he had fought. He could not
command his soldiers the way he used to do before. This made him tobe defeated in 1814.
• The formation of the 4th European Coalition finally hammered the last
nail on Napoleon’s rule leading to his downfall in 1814. By 1814,
European countries of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Britain organized a
coalition (combined force) to defeat Napoleon. Therefore, by 1814, he
was defeated by a combined force of these countries marking the end
of his rule.
• In the final analysis therefore, one can assert/ conclude that many
factors contributed to Napoleon’s down fall but the Continental systemof 1806 played an important role than other factors.
To sum up, Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 – 1821) is considered one of the greatest
military commanders in history. Starting as a second lieutenant in a French
regiment, he rose to prominence during the French Revolution as a general
of the Revolutionary government against the Royalist forces. He rapidly rose
through the ranks through his military genius ultimately becoming the Emperor
of the French in 1804. The army commanded by him is known as the Grande
Armée (Great Army) and he led it to a series of historic victories that gave the
French Empire an unprecedented grip on power over the European continent.
Hugely popular among the masses, Napoleon also carried out various influential
reforms including the implementation of Napoleonic Code, a legal code which
served as a model for many countries across the world. Countries in Europe
came together against Napoleon forming one coalition after another. He was
triumphant against them for years but was finally defeated in the War of the
Sixth Coalition. He was able to escape from exile and became an Emperor again
for a brief period but lost the famous Battle of Waterloo, ending his political
and military career. Though many aspects of his life are controversial, NapoleonBonaparte remains one of the most celebrated figures in history.
Application activity 3.4
From a very humble background, Napoleon rose to power and become
one of the most important world politicians and soldiers in the world. He
achieved a lot and finally declined.
1. What were the factors that led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to
power?
2. Discuss the achievements of Napoleon I.
3. Examine the factors responsible for the downfall of Napoleon I in1814.
Skills Lab
Use a combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values you have
acquired about great revolutions of 18th to 19th century and describe
the positive legacy of these revolutions to the modern world and make apresentation.
End unit assessment
1. Why did industrial revolution start in Britain and not elsewhere in the
world?
2. Examine the effects of industrial revolution which are still visible
today.
3. Explain the causes and effects of American Revolution.
4. To what extent did unfair political system of ancient regime cause
the French revolution of 1789?5. Describe the factors for the rise and downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte.
UNIT 4 FIRST WORLD WAR AND INTER-WARS
Key Unit competence:
The student-teacher should be able to analyze the political, economic and
social changes in the World between the two World Wars.
Introductory activity
The end of the 19th century was characterized by a period of intense tensions
and these led to the outbreak of the first World War at the beginning of 20th
century. The first World War ended in 1918. This World War led to negative
and positive effects such as Versailles treaty, League of Nations, World
economic depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes in what was called
inter-war period.
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to answer to the
following questions:
1. Explain the causes and effect of the first World War.
2. Examine the aims, achievements and failures of Versailles treaty.
3. Analyse the aims, achievements and failures of League of Nations.
4. Identify the causes and effects of World economic depression.
5. Explain the factors for the rise and downfall of Fascism in Italy andNazism in Germany.
4.1. Causes and consequences of the first World War
Learning activity 4.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on thefirst world war and examine its causes and effects.
The first World War was one of the most catastrophic conflicts ever fought in the
history of mankind. World War 1 occurred between July 1914 and November
11, 1918. It broke out in the Balkan states and spread to other parts of Europe
and later to the whole world. It was fought by the members of Triple Alliance
including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Rumania, and Bulgaria against
the members of the Triple entente including Britain, France, Russia, Italy, USA,Serbia, and Belgium.
The first World War did not only involve the countries above, but the whole
world where even African countries were involved fighting a long side theircolonial masters.
The war was fought on land, in the air, on the sea, under and above the sea by
both soldiers and civilians. The war was not due to one-day factor as Sarajevo
incident could suggest, but was a result of tension which had mounted over a
long period of time and made the World War I explosive by 1914. The first World
War was regarded as a world war because almost all countries of the world
participated, it either directly or indirectly. It was regarded as World war also
because the effects of the war were faced worldwide like economic depressionof 1929.
Causes of the first World War
i) Long term causes
Among the long term causes of the first World War include the following:
Lack of international peace keeping body: because the Congress System
which would have solved a local affair between Austria and Serbia had died in
1914.
Lack of peaceful statesmen in the world: like the Germany chancellor
Prince Otto von Bismarck who had abandoned his militarism after the German
reunification. He was replaced by Kaiser William II who was an aggressive
leader. In his foreign policy, he tried to intervene in each and every activity of
the world politics to make Germany a big power. He declared; ‘’Nothing must
go on anywhere in the world in which Germany does not play a part”. He is
therefore blamed for starting arms race and militarism as well as signing a blank
cheque to Austria- Hungary that increased Austria- Hungary’s recklessness
towards Serbia. He also openly promised Austria- Hungary that “(…) be rest
assured that his majesty will faithfully stand by Austria- Hungary as required bythe obligations of his alliance and by his ancient friendship”.
Aggressive nationalism also caused tensions:
Aggressive nationalism also caused tensions nationalism was strong in both
Germany and France. Germans were proud of their new empire’s military
power and industrial leadership. The French were bitter about their 1871
defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and yearned to recover the most lucrative
border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In Eastern Europe, Russia sponsored
a powerful form of nationalism called Pan-Slavism. It emphasized that all
Slavic peoples shared a common lead which should defend all Slavs. By
1914, it stood ready to support Serbia, a proud young nation that dreamed of
creating South Slave state. Germany supported a form of nationalism called
Pan-Germanism. Pan-Germanism was a Movement whose goal was the
political unification of all people speaking German or a Germanic language.
Some of its adherents favoured the unification of only the German-speaking
people of central and Eastern Europe and the Low Countries or Benelux
countries in a single nation-state. Benelux countries are coastal region of
northwestern Europe, consisting of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
Alliance System: Alliance System initiated by Bismarck in his foreign policy
in order to isolate France from European politics. This is because he had
defeated France in the famous Franco- Prussian war of 1870-1871. He started
the alliances such as Triple Alliance. This made other powers to also form
the Triple Entente which were formed for defensive purposes but thereafter
became hostile to each other leading to the first World War in 1914. There were
a number of smaller alliances between various countries such as the Treaty of
London (1839) between Britain and Belgium which dealt with Belgian neutrality
in war, the Dual Alliance (1879) between Germany and Austria which changed
into the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1982 and the Franco – Russian
Alliance in 1894 as well as the Entente Cordiale in 1904 between Britain andFrance.
The alliance system
Economic imperialism among European countries: mostly between
Germany, France and Britain like the Moroccan Crises of 1906 and 1911
when Germany lost Morocco to France. In 1912, naval competition between
Germany and Great Britain was very important. The British and the French
saw Germany turn up as colonial rivals in Africa, Middle East and Far East. In
addition, Germany had an ambitious project of constructing a railway joining the
Berlin and Bagdad that Great Britain could not support because it was a threatto its important colony, India.
Arms race: The arms race was a competition in the manufacture of deadly
weapons and ammunitions. Arms race was characterized by the growth of
militarism between Germany and Britain. Naval Challenge between Britain and
Germany paved way for the war. Britain, a European island, had a motive for
having a strong navy. Germany on the other hand was a continental nation with
little access to the sea and therefore has no need for a strong, extensive navy. In
1900, Germany began to crate her navy with the intention of making it as strong
as Britain who had the strongest in the world. This would obviously conjure up
thoughts on Britain’s part as to what Germany’s motive for this was. Was it for
status? Was it for rivalry? Or was it to claim Britain’s position and her monopoly
in trade? They (Britain) were not certain and in a bid to maintain their status
and protect themselves, they began strengthening their already powerful navy.
In 1906, Britain launched their HMS Dreadnought (a battleship). Germany
later launched her version in an effort to topple Britain’s. By 1914, Britain had
a total of twenty-nine (29) Dreadnoughts while Germany had seventeen (17).
This competition in the manufacture of weapons made countries to preparehence war in 1914.
British Warship, the HMS Dreadnought
(L) & the German Warship, the SMSKaiser
The European public opinion: after the arms race and the alliance system,
most of the Europeans wanted a war in order to know which camp had
manufactured strong arms. Even the European powers wanted a war in order to
test their newly manufactured weapons. Therefore, the European public opinioncaused World War I.
The role of press/mass media cannot be underrated as a cause of the
1914-1918 disastrous war. Radio presenters and journalists because of the
need to amass wealth over exaggerated the suspicion, fear and international
tension between the big powers. For instance, the London Times poisoned the
British public opinion against the Germans and radio presenters caused more
fear and panic after the Sarajevo double murder which created public outcry for
war. This forced European powers to strengthen alliances and mobilize for waras Russia did.
Moroccan Crisis of 1911. In 1911, another crisis over Morocco emerged.
It occurred at Agadir in Morocco where Germany felt it was unfair that France
got Morocco and she did not get anything. As a result, she sent a gunboat
called the Panther to a bay in Agadir. This left the French in a position whereby
they felt threatened that Germany would annex Morocco just like she annexed
Alsace – Lorraine in 1871. This also made Britain feel threatened as she felt
that if in fact Germany annexed Morocco, it could harm her as Germany might
end up challenging her monopoly in trade. In the end, the Germans however
removed the gunboat in exchange for two (2) stripes of land in French Congo.
This however raised more conceptions that Germany would always be a threatas she came back again into Morocco.
The German Gunboat, the Panther
The Balkan Crisis. This region was a rather unstable one which contained
a number of different nationalities. It was ruled by Turkey for quite some time
however in 1908, Turkish power began to decline. Conflict was always occurring
because the people wanted their independence. Russia as well as well as
Austria bordered the Balkan region and both nations desired to take control
of the region. After the 1908 Bosnian Crisis, Russia began to strengthen its
military. She was confident not to back down again in the future. Between1912 and 1913, there were many little wars in the Balkans. Serbia, Greece,
Bulgaria and Montenegro joined forces and created the Balkan League and
in October 1912 they successfully attacked the Turks (first Balkan War) and
drove them out resulting in a Peace Settlement were Serbia gained most of the
territory. In the region, Serbia was a powerful army and they were allied with
Russia which alarmed Austria. Austria was jealous and always desired to wage
war on Serbia to crush them but needed a legitimate reason (which came after
the Murders in Sarajevo).
The Balkan League was short lived though and a Second Balkan War emerged
as Bulgaria quarreled with Serbia and Greece and later attacked them but wasdefeated.
The Balkan Countries and their Allies
ii) Immediate cause: The Sarajevo assassination (Sarajevo double
murder) (June 28, 1914) and the start of the war
On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian terrorist Group,
killed Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. “The first bullet
struck the wife of Archduke, the Archduchess Sophia in the abdomen…she
died instantly. The Second bullet struck the Archduke close to the heart. He
uttered only one word, ‘Sophia’, a call to his stricken wife. Then his head fellback and he collapsed. He died almost instantly.”
Assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_
Ferdinand_of_Austria
(Assassination illustrated in the Italian
newspaper Domenica del Corriere,12 July 1914 by Achille Beltrame).
The first World War started after the Sarajevo double-murder of Austrian
Arch Duke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia on June 28, 1914 by Princip
Gavrilo, a Serbian student of the Black Hand Movement in Sarajevo, the capital
of Bosnia. This incident was followed by an ultimatum document from Austria-
Hungary to Belgrade, Serbia. The response to the ultimatum was to be issued
in a period of 48 hours (July 23, 1914).
The document had three harsh conditions that were supposed to be met or
satisfied by Serbia. Serbia was to destroy all anti Austrian activities and declare
that, she was ready to be a good neighbour; to dismiss all anti Austrian officials
from the Serbian administrative posts; and to allow the Austrians enter Serbia
to investigate the Serbian guilt in the double -murder at Sarajevo.
However, Serbia accepted the first two and referred the third condition to
the International Criminal Court at The Hague Tribunal. Austria was forced to
declare war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. This opened the gates for the outbreak
of the first World War.
Russia mobilized support for Serbia and Germany demanded that Russia should
demobilize and when Russia refused, Germany declared war on her. Germany
again demanded France to declare her neutrality and when France refused,
Germany declared war on her. Germany troops invaded Belgium, thus violating
the 1839 London treaty that had granted independence and neutrality to
Belgium, which forced Britain to enter war against Germany. The same day the1st world war was at gear.
As war progressed, USA was annoyed by Germany’s propaganda when Germany
destroyed the American ship that was carrying passengers and the Germans
thought that it was carrying weapons to the members of the Triple Entente and
again USA wanted to support the loans it had given to Triple Entente membersand in 1917, USA declared war on Germany.
At 11:00 am French time, on 11th November 1918, a treaty was signed
between Germany commanders and victorious powers and at the end, thecentral powers; that is the Triple alliance members were defeated.
The Balkans 1914
Source:
The course of the first World War
The first World War was characterised by two main fronts; namely the war inwestern front (1914-1917) and the war on the Eastern front.
War on Western front
Schlieffen Plan and troop movements
Source: Frank Robert, History the fronts of 1914 to 1917, 1982, pge 21.
By using Schlieffen plan, Germany planned to outflank the main French defences
by moving through Belgium and then through Northern France to encircle
France within six weeks. However, supply lines proved to be inadequate, and
communication between the two main armies was not better. In addition, the plan
ignored British intervention, relying on the likelihood of French immobilization as
the offensive progressed.
French success on the battle of Marne (September 5 to 12, 1914) ended
Germany’s hopes of a quick victory, and paved the way for the Trench Warfarethat lasted until spring 1918.
War on Eastern front
There was far more movement on the Eastern front than in the West, partly
because of the much greater distances involved. The Russian army was invariably
defeated by the forces of Germany and by the end of 1915, Russian had lost
most of Poland, with more than two million soldiers out of the first World War.
The Italian front
Italy entered the war in 1915 in an opportunistic manner engineered by its
leaders with the Allies to secure territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary
Front. Much of the fighting occurred in a series of battles close to the river. The
great battle of Caporetto in 1917 almost led to Italian defeat. Italy was more
successful in subsequent fighting but was disappointed by lack of territorialgains she had expected.
War in the Balkans
Serbia survived three invasion attempts in 1914, but succumbed in 1915 to
an Austro-German offensive supported by Bulgaria, which checked an Anglo-
French force attempting to support the Serbian army from Salonica. In 1916,
Bulgaria having successfully contained Allied forces at Salonica, she invaded
Romania; Bulgarian armies were joined by Austro-German forces that captured
Bucharest in December 1916. The Bulgarians were now able to defeat several
Allied offensives in Front of Salonica until September 1918. The withdrawal
of Russia from the war (1917)
The first victim of the first World War was the Russian Empire. Indeed, continuous
defeat by the Germans, lack of arms and supplies, problems of transport and
communication, and utterly incompetent leadership, caused two revolutions, in
1917, and the Bolsheviks who took over power in November 1917 were willing
to make peace.
The Bolsheviks stood for peace with Germany, partly to win popular favour in
Russia and partly because they regarded the war as a struggle among capitalist,
imperialist powers which should be left to exhaust and destroy each other for
the benefit of socialism. They thus signed with Germany the Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk on March 1918.
By this Treaty the Bolsheviks gave to Germany Poland, the Ukraine, and the
Baltic Provinces (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). As for the Germans, the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk represented their maximum territorial expansion during the first
World War. Not only had they neutralized Russia, they also now dominatedEastern Europe.
The entry of USA into the war (April 1917)
The Lusitania
Source: Ellis, EG. & Esler, A. (2008, p.830).
The USA entered the war on April 2, 1917 against the Central Powers. Germany
had waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom due to her naval
blockade of Germany. As retaliation German submarines were sinking British
ships. In this perspective the Lusitania, a British ship was sunk by Germans and
1,198 people including Americans died but 761 people survived. International
public opinion became hostile to Germany and this incident pushed Americans
to enter the war. In addition, the USA had discovered that Germany was trying
to persuade Mexico to declare war on the USA, promising her Texas, NewMexico and Arizona in return.
On April 2, 1917 American Congress declared war on Germany. Immediately
the American government set about mobilizing its military resources, its industry,
labour and agriculture. The USA thus made an important contribution to the
Allied victory, by supplying food, merchant ships, credit and military help, and bymid-1918 over half a million American men were involved in the war.
The end of the first World War and the defeat of Germany
After the entry of USA (led by president Woodrow Wilson) on the side of Triple
Entente, USA declared war on Germany and members of the Triple Alliance on
6th April, 1917.From June 1918, American troops started engaging Germans on
the western front.
In September, with the arrival of more American troops, the Allies launched
the final offensive which the Germans could not withstand. The German high
commander told their government that it was not possible for them to win the
war.
The German foreign office then asked President Woodrow Wilson to makearrangements for an armistice and on 11th November 1918 fighting ended.
Reasons why the central powers lost the war
• The entry of the USA in April 1917 brought vast resources that led to
defeat of central powers
• The Allied political leaders of the time like George Clemenceau in
France and Lloyd George of Britain were capable leaders than those
of central powers.
• Germany was badly let down by her allies who constantly withdrew like
Italy and Bulgaria.
• The continuous losses on the side of Germany as the best troops had
been killed and by 1918, the new troops were young lacked experience
and were quickly defeated.
• The Germany submarine campaign was a mistake because it brought
USA in World War I, which led to the defeat of Germany.
• The Allied sea powers enforced deadly blocking which led to food
shortage to members of Triple alliance, while the triple entente was fully
supplied.
• The Schlieffen plan had failed and German was forced to face war on
two fronts.
• The weakness of Germany allies (Bulgaria, hungry, Turkey) military and
economically.
• The small number of Germany soldiers especially in the colonies
compared to those of the Triple entente.
• The internal conflict which out broke in Germany and the abdication ofGermany emperor Kaiser William II.
Consequences of the first World War
The year 1914 witnessed the beginning of the bloodiest war which mankind had
never experienced before. This war led to profound changes that will continueto affect directly or indirectly the style of life.
1. The massive loss of lives: People who perished were estimated at
about 13 million on the front and about 10 were left disabled. It was
outrageous, regrettable and condemnable as far as human beings’ lives
were concerned. The first World War also had a lasting impact on the
European population structure. Many men died on war fronts which made
women to become more than men in the population pyramid. It led to the
rise of new class of people in Europe, that is, the refugees who ran away
from their homes and became a problem to European countries.
2. The war led to the destruction of property and infrastructure, like industries,
mines, hospitals, shops, etc.
3. The war led to the woman emancipation where women were employed
in factories, shops and public offices that were formerly for men. In
Britain, women were allowed to vote. They began putting on trousers
because they were now performing the duties of men most of whom had
died in World War I.
4. There was improvement in education because it was realized that Europe
needed educated labour force since technology improved after World
War I.
5. The war led to the defeat of Germany and her allies, which marked the
end of the war.
6. It led to the rise of new independent states like Poland, Romania,
Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia.
7. The war led to territorial readjustment for example France regained her
territories Alsace and Lorraine.
8. The war led to the formation of league of the Nations as a new international
peace keeping body.
9. World War I led to the rise of dictators like Benito Mussolini in Italy and
Adolph Hitler in Germany because they used the effects of the war to
come to power.
10. The war led to the rise of Japan and USA as super powers since they
were not much affected by the war.
11. The war led to the emergency of Weimar republic in Germany and this
was because Kaiser William II went into exile and a new constitution of
Germany was made in Weimar town because there was instability and
bloodshed in Berlin.
12. World War I led to the rise of a new class of people; that is refugees who
ran away from their home and became a problem to European countries.
13. World war led to Russian revolution of 1917 where Tsar Nicholas of
Russia had been defeated in World War I and the Russians decided to
fight against this government, hence the Russian revolution.
14. It led to the outbreak of World War II because of the rise of dictator who
became aggressive contribution to World War II.
15. The war led to the decline of European economy.
16. Germany was deprived of all her colonies in Africa, Middle East and Asia.
The other defeated powers like Turkey, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria all
lost their colonies to victor powers. These colonies altogether formed the
mandate territories that were supervised by the victor powers on behalf
of League of Nations.
17. The war led to the signing of Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 which
concluded the first World War. The Triple Entente called the conference
in which Germany and her allies were forced to end the war by signing
the treaty which created peace in Europe.
18. World War I led to the rise of African Nationalism: Africans supported
their colonial masters on the promise of independence after the war.
However, after the war they were not given independence, as result they
formed political parties. The white who were considered as powerful
people were killed during the war. Therefore, African fighters becamecourageous to overthrow colonial rule.
Application activity 4.1
1. To what extent was the Alliance system responsible for the outbreak
of the 1st WW?2. Examine the impacts of the 1st World war.
4.2. Inter-war period
4.2.1. Versailles peace treaty of 1919
Learning activity 4.2.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
Versailles peace treaty of 1919 and explain its aims, achievements andfailures.
However long or violent a war is, eventually the opposing sides must make peace.
But because war is destructive and leaves a bitter legacy, the peacemaking
after a long conflict can be the hardest job of all.
The people who had that role in 1919 had a particularly hard task. The first
World War involved more countries, using more powerful weapons, causing
greater casualties and physical destruction, than any war before it. The war had
bankrupted some countries. It led to revolutions in others. There was bitterness
and resentment. In this post-war atmosphere almost everyone agreed that part
of the job of the peacemakers was to avoid another war like it – but no one
agreed how to do that.
Any treaty is a balancing act. The peacemakers have to keep the victors happy
but ensure that the defeated country accepts the terms of the peace.
World War I ended in November 1918. And in January 1919 the victorious
powers met at Versailles in Paris from January to June 1919 to find ways of
maintaining peace and preventing re-occurrence of war. It was signed on June
28, 1919.
The Versailles treaty refers to the document containing the particular clauses
which applied to Germany and which were accepted and signed by Germany at
Versailles in the Hall of mirrors in June 1919. The big three of the Versailles peace
settlement were Woodrow Wilson the president of USA, Georges Clemenceau
prime minister of France and Lloyd Georges prime minister of Britain. Otherswho were invited include Emperor Orlando prime minister of Italy.
A cartoon published in 1919 in an Australian newspaper.
The Fourteen Points of President Woodrow Wilson of USA
At the conference, President Woodrow Wilson suggested 14 points to guide
the peace makers at Versailles. The Fourteen Points in a summary.
1. No secret treaties.
2. Free access to the seas in peacetime or wartime.
3. Free trade between countries.
4. All countries to work towards disarmament.
5. Colonies to have a say in their own future.
6. German troops to leave Russia.
7. Independence for Belgium.
8. France to regain Alsace–Lorraine.
9. Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted.
10. Self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe (they should rule
themselves and not be ruled by empires).
11. Serbia to have access to the sea.
12. Self-determination for the people in the Turkish Empire.
13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea.14. League of Nations to be set up.
What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau was a realist, wanted punitive
peace and compensation, aimed to weaken Germany as much as possible
and blame them alone, wanted reparations (compensations for infrastructural
damage - France been invaded twice since 1870), wanted military restrictions,
Germany broken into smaller confederations, independent Rhineland and
permanent control of Saarland.
American President Woodrow Wilson was an idealist, wanted to punish
Germany but not too harshly, worried about spread of communism if too weak
and revenge from Germans, wanted to strengthen democracy based on ’14
points’; disarmament, League of Nations, self- determination. He also wanted
to build more peaceful world but there were problems with some of the main
ideas: For example Problems with self-determination: people of Eastern
Europe scattered across many countries e.g.: 25% of the people who lived
in Czechoslovakia were not Czechs or Slovaks. 30% of Poland not polish. 3
million Hungarians being ruled by foreigners. Some people were bound to end
up being ruled by another group with different customs and language because
borders were artificially imposed. Problems with LON: ‘toothless’ without military,
structurally insufficient & confusing, unanimous vote required, ’mandates’ seen
as colonialist, membership problems: US, Germany, USSR absent, org seemed
euro- centric and imperialist, supported TOV seen as unfair
British Prime Minister Lloyd George was a mediator, wanted a punitive
but just peace, wanted Germany to lose colonies and navy as they threatened
hegemony of British Empire but did not want Germany to seek revenge under
pressure to ‘make Germany pay’, wanted to recover as trade partners as it
created British jobs.
Terms of the 1919 Versailles Treaty
None of the Big Three was happy with the eventual terms of the Treaty. After
months of negotiation, each of them had to compromise on some of their aims,
otherwise there would never have been a treaty. The main terms can be divided
into five areas.
War guilt. This clause was simple but was seen by the Germans as extremely
harsh. Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war. Article 231
appointed blame, called ‘diktat’.
– Reparations. The major powers agreed, without consulting Germany,
that Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for the damage
caused by the war. The exact figure was not agreed until 1921 when
was set at £6,600 million – an enormous figure. If the terms of the
payments had not later been changed under the Young Plan in 1929.Germany would not have finished paying this bill until 1984.
German territories and colonies. Germany’s European borders were
very extensive, and the section dealing with German territory in Europe was
a complicated part of the Treaty. In addition to these changes, the Treaty
also forbade Germany to join together with its former ally Austria Germany’s
overseas empire was taken away. It had been one of the causes of bad relations
between Britain and Germany before the war. Former German colonies, such
as Cameroon, became mandates controlled by the League of Nations, whicheffectively meant that France and Britain controlled them.
Germany’s armed forces. The size and power of the German army was a
major concern, especially for France. The Treaty therefore restricted German
armed forces to a level well below what they had been before the war. The
army was limited to 100,000 men, conscription was banned – soldiers had
to be volunteers, Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines
or aircraft. The navy could have only six battleships, The Rhineland became a
demilitarised zone. This meant that no German troops were allowed into that
area. The Rhineland was important because it was the border area betweenGermany and France.
League of Nations. Previous methods of keeping peace had failed and so
the League of Nations was set up as an international ‘police force’. Germany
was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it was a peace-lovingcountry.
Aims of the Versailles treaty
1. To re-organize Europe for the purpose of maintaining world peace,
security and stability.
2. To redraw the map of Europe and restore balance of power. This was
because Germany aggression had destroyed the balance of power to
her advantage.
3. To map out strategies that would preserve the territorial integrity and
independence of countries in Europe. This was because violation of
territorial integrity and independence of states partly led to the outbreak
of the first World War.
4. To reconcile the warring powers of the world most especially Germany
although her aggression was checked for some time.
5. To free the different races dominated by the central powers (Germany
and her allies).
6. To disarm both victor and defeated powers since arms race had partly
caused the 1914 to 1918 disastrous war.
7. To recognize the principle of nationality and self-determination by giving
independence to the oppressed nations. This was partly responsible for
the outbreak of the first World War.
8. Victorious powers especially France wanted to permanently weaken
Germany plus her allies in order to safeguard themselves from Germany
aggression that caused the Franco-Prussian war and the first World War.9. To establish a peace keeping body in Europe.
The signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919.
Source: Herbert Peacock, A history of modern Europe 1789-1981, HeinemannEducational, Seventh Edition, 1982, page 295.
The achievements of the Versailles treaty
The treaty concluded the first World War and created some peace in Europe. At
Versailles Germany and her allies were forced to denounce the war and accept
defeat. Collective decisions were made on international issues as opposed to
the pre-1914 idea of every nation for itself and God for us all.
The neutrality of important water bodies was granted. For instance, Dardanelles
the mouth of the Baltic Sea which was the centre of economic conflicts was
open to all ships of all nations.
The treaty restored balance of power that had favoured Germany and Turkey
before. The size of Germany and Turkey were reduced by giving independence
to some states that were under them.
The Versailles settlement made some territorial re-adjustment. France regained
Alsace and Lorraine that had been annexed by Germany. Independence was
given to some states that were mainly under the Turkish and Austrian empire.
These included Poland, Kuwait, Iraq, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.
The treaty was fair to some landlocked countries of Serbia and Poland. Serbia
was given free access to the sea which made her to profitably engage in trade.
Poland was also given the Polish Corridor through Germany to port Danzig.
The Versailles peace makers adopted Professor Wilson’s 14th point of
establishing an international body to maintain world peace. This gave rise to the
League of Nations in 1920.
The settlement made arrangements for exchange of prisoners of war and
resettlement of displaced persons. Consequently, Germany released the allied
war prisoners and likewise the super powers.
The Versailles settlement came up with the disarmament policy which althoughapplied only to the defeated powers, helped in maintaining world peace.
Failure of Versailles peace treaty of 1919
1. The treaty was too dictatorial, too harsh on Germany in terms of
disarmament, where Germany was not allowed to discuss it. This treatywas unfair and unrealistic.
2. The treaty blamed Germany alone for the outbreak of the war. Theresponsibilities of other countries (Serbia, Russia, etc.) were ignored.
3. The treaty disarmed Germany alone and failed to disarm other powers.
4. The treaty forced Germany to pay an abnormal and an expensive war
indemnity for the damages she did not cause alone. 6.5 billion pounds tobe paid by Germany was Unfair.
5. The treaty initially excluded Germany and defeated powers from the
League of Nations. It also excluded Russia because she had becomecommunist state after 1917 Russian revolution.
6. The treaty was full of revenge policies against Germany. France wanted
to have Germany destroyed because of the 1871 Franco-Prussian war;Britain wanted to revenge because of Kaiser William’s character.
7. The treaty led to rise of dictators in Europe: For example, Hitler of Germany
and Mussolini of Italy. Hitler came to power with the spirit of revengeagainst Allied powers.
8. The treaty failed to respect the principle of Nationalism. It handed over 10
million Germans to other countries. This was partly responsible for the
outbreak of the Second World War
9. The treaty was unfair because the Triple alliance members were not
invited.
10. The confiscation of Germany territories in Africa was seen as a way of
making victorious powers rich which made Germany aggressive leading
to World War II.
11. The treaty led to the formation of League of Nations but it failed to protect
it because League of Nations had no army to implement its policies.
12. The chairmanship and place of the conference was unfair. France being
the host and George Clemenceau who hated Germany made the treatyunfair.
Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
Why was (any of three leaders) dissatisfied with TOV?
They all made compromises.
1. Clemenceau wanted harsh peace: a broken-up Germany and an
independent Rhineland and disarmed German along with compensation.
He got limited compensation and military restrictions, a unified Germany
and demilitarized Rhineland. He felt this was not harsh enough, didn’t get
independent Rhineland or control of Saarland,
2. Wilson wanted a just peace based on 14 points: he did not want
Germany blamed (article 231 & reparations) in TOV but they were. He
successfully established self- determination in Eastern Europe and
League of the Nations. Demilitarization was not achieved except by force
in Germany and TOV/LON ultimately not ratified.
3. Britain wanted a compromise peace; was happy that German armed
and naval forces were restricted, Lloyd received hero’s welcome, although
the spread of communism still worrying him. There were disagreements
over self-determination & ‘access to sea’ clause, the harshness of the
treaty and LON (Wilson wanted world parliament, Lloyd wanted to get
together in emergencies only.) Clemenceau resented Wilson’s generosity,
wanted strong League with army.
4. Clemenceau felt that Britain was happy to treat Germany fairly in Europe
which threatened France yet were less happy to treat them fairly when itcame to concessions of colonies and military which threatened Britain.
The Other WW 1 Peace Treaties
While the Treaty of Versailles often receives the most focus in terms of the post-
WW1 peace treaties, there were another four treaties that dealt with Germany’s
allies. These changed the shape of Europe and the Middle East, and their effect
still resonates strongly today.
The Treaty of St Germain in 1919.
The first of these settlements to be signed was the Treaty of St Germain in 1919.
Dealing with Austria, the treaty formally broke up the Habsburg Empire and
dramatically changed the shape of central and Eastern Europe. Partly as a result
of separating Austria from Hungary, the Treaty of St Germain reduced Austria to
just 25% of its pre-war land surface and turned it into a land-locked state. The
wealthy industrial regions of Bohemia and Moravia were lost to the new state
of Czechoslovakia while Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina were joined to form
the new Yugoslavia. In the north, Poland gained the region of Galicia while the
western areas of South Tyrol, Trentino and Istria were ceded to Italy.
In terms of the military, the Austrian armed forces were limited to 30,000 soldiers.
Union with Germany – Anschluss – was expressly forbidden, and Austria was
also forced to pay reparations (although in reality no money was ever actuallypaid).
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 1919. Because it was a minor player in the war,
gained territory from Turkey It was forced to hand its Aegean coastline to Greece,
while other territory was given to the newly-formed Yugoslavia. Approximately
300,000 Bulgarians therefore found themselves in new countries. Bulgaria wasalso required to reduce its army to 20,000 men and pay reparations.
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 1920
The following year Austria’s neighbour Hungary also had to recognise the
independence of the new states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia and
Hungary in the Treaty of Trianon. Hungary lost Slovakia, Ruthenia and Bratislava to
Czechoslovakia while Croatia and Slovenia joined the newly-formed Yugoslavia.
One of the most devastating territorial losses was that of Transylvania, which
was given to Romania along part of the Banat. Similarly to Austria, Hungary wasforced to pay reparations while its military was reduced to 35,000 men.
Treaty of Sevres with Ottoman Empire, 1920:
Arguably the most complicated settlement was the Treaty of Sèvres that was
signed with Turkey in 1920. Negation on territorial terms led by Mustafa Kemalwhich led to war between Greeks and Turks - unsuccessful treaty, Arabs
were promised Arab state for siding with Britain & France to defeat Germany,
Palestine problem till date. The Ottoman Empire was already ‘the sick man of
Europe’, and Britain, France and Italy sought to benefit from its disintegration.
They each wished to use the treaty to benefit their own national interests in the
region, but the necessary compromise resulted in a final treaty that was seen
as both harsh and humiliating. Italy felt justified in demanding Turkish territory
in return for joining with the Entente powers, while Britain hoped to expand its
control over the merging oilfields in Iraq and Iran. President Wilson of the USA,meanwhile, hoped for Armenian independence.
The final terms of the treaty stated that Turkey was required to abandon all
its claims all claims to its Arab and North African territory and, although
Constantinople remained Turkish, it lost control of large areas of its previous
empire. Greece gained Eastern Thrace and the area around the Dardanelles
as well as being allowed to occupy and administer Smyrna for five years.
Armenia and Kurdistan were to become independent states while Palestine,
Iraq, Transjordan and Cyprus became British mandates. Syria was put under thecontrol of France. Turkey’s finances, meanwhile, were put under Allied control.
The Turkish ruler, Sultan Muhammad VI, was ready to accept the treaty but it
was met with significant opposition by the Turkish people who were offended
by the loss of the empire to the same foreign forces that were now controlling
areas their sovereign country. The treaty was also rejected by the emerging
nationalist movement under Mustapha Kemal Pasha who established a new
National Assembly at Ankara. The Turkish War of Independence soon followed,
which saw the nationalists force Greece out of Smyrna and negotiate both a
French withdrawal from Turkish territory and a compromise agreement withBritain.
Rather than becoming an independent state, Armenia opted to join the Soviet
Union after years of fighting against Turkey. The war in Armenia is a highly
contentious period of history, with Turkey fiercely rejecting claims by Armenians
and many historians of forced movement and mass killing that amounted togenocide.
An armistice was eventually agreed between Turkey and its enemies in 1922,
and this was followed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 which recognised
Smyrna, Anatolia and Thrace as Turkish territory. This replaced the Treaty ofSèvres, and essentially established the modern Turkey that we know today.
Application activity 4.2.1
Examine the merits and demerits of the Versailles peace treaty of 1919.
4.2.2. League of Nations
Learning activity 4.2.2
Observe the following symbol and use internet, textbooks, and media toanswer the questions that follow:
1) What do you understand by the above organisation?
2) Identify the objectives, achievements and failures of the organisationshown by the symbol above.
The League of Nations was an international peace keeping body formed after
the first World War. It formally came into existence on January 10, 1920. It
began with 42 member states but the number increased to 55 by 1926 when
Germany was admitted. The Headquarters of the League of Nations were
located in Geneva, Switzerland a neutral State. When the League of Nations
was set up, point No.14 of the Woodrow Wilson statement was carried out, and
for the first time in human history an international organisation was deliberatelycreated to maintain peace and security in the world.
The League of Nations was an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles. It is often
spoken of as being the brainchild of the US President W. Wilson. However,
although Wilson was certainly a great supporter of the idea of an international
organisation for peace, the League was the result of a coming together of similarsuggestions made during the first World War by a number of world statesmen.
Organs/structures of League of Nations
The main organs of the League of Nations were the General Assembly; its
main function was to decide general policy; the Council, its main task was
to deal with specific political disputes as they arose; the Permanent Court
of International Justice; its main task was to deal with legal disputes
between states; the Secretariat, had to look after all the paperwork, preparing
agendas, and writing resolutions and reports related to the decisions of the
League; Commissions and Committees were in charge of dealing with
specific problems. The main commissions were those which handled themandates, military affairs and disarmament.
Aims of League of Nations
• Maintain peace through collective security.
• Encourage international co-operation.
• Solve economic and social problems.
• Defend and promote territorial integrity and sovereignty of member
nations against aggression of any kind.
• Limit production of the disastrous military weapons.
• Implement the terms and conditions of the 1919 Versailles Peace
settlement.
• Preserve its achievements.
• Promote diplomacy in settling disputes since the first World War was
partly caused by lack of international organization and collapse of
international diplomacy (the congress system).
• Suppress Sea pirates who were a threat to international trade on big
waters like the Mediterranean Sea, black sea and the Pacific Ocean.
• Control drug trafficking and consumption of dangerous drugs like
marijuana, cocaine and opium.
• Improve the conditions of workers and stop exploitation of workers by
employers.
• Work out a plan for repatriating and resettling refugees or people
displaced by the first World war.
Achievements of League of Nations
a) The League of Nations achieved success in dealing with matters of human
welfare, for example, the international Labour organization (ILO) was
formed to improve general conditions of workers.
b) The League of Nations recorded success in looking after refugees.
c) League of Nations recorded success in health organization which was
concerned with the control of diseases where it helped in reporting
epidemic diseases, their spread and finding ways of controlling them. It
also organized campaigns against Malaria, leprosy, rabies and syphilis.
d) The League of Nations recorded success in maintaining peace by solving
political conflicts that involved smaller powers. For example, in 1921, the
League of Nations solved the conflict between Sweden and Finland about
an Island and League of Nations ruled that the Island belonged to Finland.
e) The League of Nations monitored and controlled mandated states by
sending questionnaires to mandates states asking them how they are
controlled by the new colonial masters.
f) The League of Nations made an achievement in disarming Germany which
helped in reducing Germany’s supremacy.
g) The League of Nations effectively solved the problem of slavery and Drug
trafficking by setting up anti-slavery commission.
h) The financial commission of League of Nations succeeded in negotiating
for loans for the construction of the economy of Austria after World War I.
i) The League of Nations solved the international disputes through the
international court of justice.
j) It maintained international peace for about 20 years.
k) It also reconciled defeated Germany with the victorious powers because
Germany was also admitted in League of Nations in 1926.
l) It promoted human rights. It advocated for emancipation of women. It
protected rights of refuges.
Failures of League of Nations
a) The League of Nations failed to disarm victorious powers which forced
Hitler to revive Germany’s militarism, thus leading to World War II.
b) The League of Nations failed to form a joint international army that would
be used in checking the activities of dictators.
c) It failed to check and control the activities of Dictators: Adolph Hitler of
Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy which led to World War II.
d) It failed to handle conflicts between Japan and China or Italy and Ethiopia.
e) League of Nations failed to win the membership of USA whose military
and economic strength would have helped the League of Nations in
controlling the dictators.
f) It failed to put in place precautions against membership. Countries were
free to enter and withdraw without any penalty and in 1935 many countrieshad withdrawn, which made the League of Nations very weak.
Application activity 4.2.2
1. Account for the formation of League of Nations by 1920.
2. Assess the achievements of the League of Nations in the inter-warperiod.
4.2.3. World economic depression
Learning activity 4.2.3
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
world’s great economic depression and explain its causes and effects.
The economic depression was a general economic decline in economic
activities after World War I. It started in 1929-1935. It was characterized by
unemployment, low income, low aggregate demand (low purchasing power),
low prices, low investment and low economic activities. Economic depression
began in the Canadian agriculture sector and by 1929 it had spread to other
parts of Europe and the world at large.
Economic depression begun on Thursday, 24th October 1929, black Thursday.
Many people who had saved their money in banks had to go and withdraw their
savings. This was followed by the closure of many financial institutions leading
to unemployment, closure of factories, and low demand for available goods. The
prices fell dramatically.The beginning of the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929
Source: https:i.pinmg.com/563x/06/2f9ca21d063265aad81cd8do3.jpg.
The causes of the Great World Economic Depression
The causes of the great World economic depression of 1929-1933 were many
and none of them can stand alone in isolation of other factors to explain this
phenomenon but a combination of many factors as seen below.
• Negative impacts of the first World war
– The war destroyed industries, farms, ships, trading centers and factories
which resulted into a low production.
– The war also brought the problem of debts in which USA demanded
high interest rates from European powers.
– The war led to the collapse of international relations and trade.
– More to this the war indemnity charged on defeated powers led toeconomic.
All these consequences had a negative effect on production and the ability to
purchase goods, hence leading to the economic depression.
• Domestic overproduction
Because of high profits and mechanization, American industries produced many
goods which could not be absorbed by domestic markets.
– Overproduction forced many industries to close down and workers
were sent out.
– The problem of unemployment increased.
– The prices of agricultural and industrial products became low.
– The producers and manufacturers lacked the finances to producegoods. All these led to economic depression.
• The American policy of economic nationalization and isolation
(trade protection)
After the World War I, USA closed her markets from other European exporters
so as to protect her industries. In response, other countries also protected their
markets from external exporters. This led to the collapse of international tradeand the accumulation of unsold surplus. Hence the world economies collapsed.
• The negative economic implications of the Versailles treaty
This forced Germany and her allies to pay a heavy war indemnity, which affected
their economies.
– Defeated countries lost their colonies
– Defeated powers were not allowed to trade with victorious powers.Hence the collapse of international trade and the collapse of economy.
• The announcement of effects of the economic depression
The newspapers, radio stations, politicians and opinion leaders had announced
the economic depression. This forced various businessmen to withdraw theirmoney from banks and hence the fall of other economic activities.
• Poor distribution of income
Poor distribution of income between the employers and the workers, major
consumers, was reduced at 80% while the profits of industries rose by 72%. This
led to economic depression because the workers were losing their purchasingpower.
• The failure of League of Nations to solve problems
It failed to promote economic cooperation and international trade. It failed to
suppress protectionism policy. It failed to prevent USA from exploiting her debtors
by paying debts using gold. It also failed to solve problems of unemployment,inflation, overproduction which led to economic depression.
• Reduction in the efficiency of labour
The first World War reduced the efficiency of labour because most of the
strongest, experienced and skilled manpower was either killed or disabled bythe war. This led to low production and general collapse of economic activities.
• The rise of political instability in Europe
These are revolutions, assassinations, riots, demonstrations and conflicts
between communism and capitalism, the rise of Nazism and Fascism, etc. Suchinstability paralyzed economic activities and led to economic depression.
• The increasing population with limited welfare services
The population increased after World War I but the economy remained
underdeveloped. As result, there was unemployment leading to financial
shortages and hence the collapse of purchasing power, industries closed
down which led to economic depression.
• The rise/emergence of weak and young states
These could not support themselves financially and powerful countries like USA
spent large sums of money to the new countries like Poland and Yugoslavia. The
money given to the new countries reduced the production capacity of donor
countries.
• The general decline in agricultural activities
After World War I there was a great rural-urban migration (USA and UK) and
this affected agricultural productivity, thus affecting negatively agro-based
industries.
• The gold standard system
This was operating in world economies by 1929 also caused the depression.
This is because each country was supposed to have a total amount of money in
circulation equivalent to total value of gold in her reserves. This limited money
supply for some countries which had little gold which reduced demand leading
to a depression.
Measures to overcome the World Economic Depression
The USA and other European countries set the following strategies to resolve
the crisis:
• Germany on her part attempted to solve the economic depression by
violating the 1919 Versailles Peace treaty terms when she stopped
paying the war indemnity of around 6.6 billion pounds and also started
serious industrialization thus solving the economic depression in
Germany.
• The USA fought the economic depression by using the New Deal
Program introduced by the new US President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt in 1932. By this program, there were new laws regulating
the stock market and protecting bank depositors’ savings, jobs creation
programmes for the unemployed like Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA), construction of schools, hospitals etc. The USA also set up a
social security system and depreciated the value of her dollar so as to
increase the purchasing power of the Americans. The New Deal was
largely inspired by some economists such as John Maynard Keynes
who introduced an economic theory popularly known as Keynesian
theory of unemployment after analysing the causes of the Economicdepression.
• The gold standard system was stopped since played a role in the
outbreak of the World Economic Depression from 1929 up to 1935.
• A World Economic Conference was held at Geneva in 1933 in
Switzerland and was attended by 66 countries that worked out different
solutions to end the Economic Depression such as to remove obstacles
to free trade and implement a uniform tax on imports and exports.
• World powers attempted to solve the economic depression by using
aggressive policy where they invaded weak states so as to solve the
problem of lack of raw materials and markets for their goods. For
instance, in 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia, in 1936 Germany invaded
Czechoslovakia and in 1939 invaded Poland.
• Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by various countries
which among others included United States of America, Britain and
France to benefit the unemployed citizens above 18 years.
• European powers formed regional economic integration for example,
the European Economic Community (EEC) which promoted interstate
trade in the region, hence solving the depression.
• Socio-economic reforms were also used to solve the depression. This
was through modernization of agriculture and industrialization and
formation of trade unions which fought for the rights of workers.
Effects of the World Economic Depression
The effects of the World Economic Depression are as follows:
• The economic depression led to widespread unemployment.
• It led to the closure of industries: factories were producing surplus
products yet prices and demand were very low. This subjected
industrialist to heavy losses and consequently they closed down
factories.
• The economic depression led to the rise of dictators in Europe like
Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and General Franco
in Spain.
• It made powerful countries of the World to start attacking weak powers
as way of solving their economic problems. For example, Japan on
China and Italy on Ethiopia.
• Economic depression led to formation of European Economic
Community (ECC) as a way of promoting trade among European
countries.
• It led to the failure of League of Nations member’s states had no money
to finance its activities.
• It led to the breakdown of international relationship where European
countries hated America because of the isolation policy.
• The gold standard system was abandoned up to the present. This is
because this system limited countries with little gold to have enough
money in circulation which had contributed to the economic depression.
• It led to World War II because of the rise of dictators, weakening theLeague of Nations and making countries aggressive.
Application activity 4.2.3
1. Discuss the causes and consequences of the world economicdepression of 1929-1935.
4.2.4. The totalitarian regimes in Europe
This is a system where the government allows the only one political party of
the government in power and does not allow parties to coexist. This system
also calls for complete obedience. It is basically characterized by autocracy,
despotism and favoritism of those in power like the Fascist Regime in Italy andNazism Regime in Germany.
4.2.4.1. Fascism
Learning activity 4.2.4.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and explain the factors for the rise anddownfall of Fascism.
Background of Fascism and Mussolini
Fascism: The world fascism is derived from Latin world “fasces” or bundle
of rods tied around the axe which was the magistrate’s emblem of power inancient Rome.
In Italy, Fascist group presented themselves as the only symbol of authority and
strength for the purpose of making Italy gain her place and pride in Europe and to
fight socialism and communism. It was a style of politics that was characterized
by personal dictatorship of Benito Mussolini, Political intolerance, party rule,violence and terror.
Mussolini was born in Romagna in1883. His father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith
and a socialist, while his mother Rosa Mussolini Maltoni, a devoutly Catholic school teacher. Owing
to his father’s political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican Reformist President
Benito Juárez, while his middle names Andrea and Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa
and Amilcare Cipriani. Benito was the eldest of his parents’ three children. His siblings Arnaldo andEdvige followed.
Benito Mussolini
At the age of 9, Mussolini began his education and graduated as a teacher
with a diploma in education in 1907. He later abandoned his education career
and joined journalism as a newspaper editor. Mussolini had fought for Italy
in the first World War and was wounded during the war, but by its end he
formed a political movement called the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian
Combat Leagues or Squard), in March 1919 at Milan City in Italy whose
members came to be known as the Fascists. It was composed of frustrated
jobless youth, industrial capitalists and the middle class.
In 1922, Italy witnessed a successful fascist revolution that led to the rise of
Mussolini, supported by the Black shirts, army and the guards. On October
28th, 1922 he organised a March to Rome and when King Victor Emmanuel
II was convinced by the Parliament to suppress the marchers, he refused and
then, the Cabinet under Prime Minister Luigi Facta resigned without firing a
shot. The King Victor then handed over power to Mussolini by inviting him to
form a new government on October 28, 1922 and the Fascist Party got power
in Italy. Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and theliberal right wing.
Characteristics (Principles of Fascism)
• Anti-liberalism: The Fascist members were against the principles
of French revolution (equality, liberty, human rights). They suggested
authoritative regime.
• Anti-communism: Fascists were enemies of communism and
socialist because these systems promoted equality while for fascists,
social inequality is a natural fact that nobody can suppress.
• Extreme nationalism: That is an emphasis on rebirth of nation after
a period of decline. They promoted prestige of the country by the war
and conquest. Hence military regime.
• One party state: there was no room for democracy.
• A totalitarian system of government: This was where the fascist
was to control everything in Italy.
• Economic self-efficiency: The government needs to direct the
economy of the nation owning factories and land.
• Military strength and violence: Mussolini said “peace is absurd
fascism does not believe in it”. They get power by force and they were
to use violence to silence opponents.
• Tireless propaganda (unremitting): fascist slogan “believe, obey,fight”.
Factors for the rise of Mussolini (Fascism) to power in Italy by 1922
Mussolini rose to power on 28th October 1922 after taking over Victor Emmanuel
III the legitimate king. He was favored by the following factors.
• The negative effect of World War I: The impact of the first World
War aided fascism and Benito Mussolini to power. The war had
negative consequences like loss of lives over 600,000 Italians both
civilians and soldiers. Mussolini associated the democratic government
of Victor Emmanuel III with such losses and Mussolini decampaigned it
as weak and incompetent of handling the Italian affairs. This paralysed
the democratic government and undermined its popularity in favour of
facism and Mussolin. Hence rising up of Mussolini and fascism.
• Weakness of Victor Emmanuel III’s democratic government:
The government failed to handle crucial socio-economic problems
like inflation, unemployment, poverty, high crime rate and bloodshed.
Victory Emmanuel failed to promote unity and harmony. His government
ignored violence with false hope that the opposition would crash,
weaken, and destroy themselves. This gave Mussolini a chance to
exploit such negligence and violence to weaken other rival political
groups and undermine democratic government. This led to the rise of
Fascism.
• The unfair Versailles treaty on Italy: It cultivated a favourable ground
for the rise of Mussolini to power. Italy was promised territorial rewards
which were not fully implemented and Italy was poorly compensated.
• Role of the fascist terrorist squad: Mussolini used a group of
hooligans to create chaos in Italy so as to get a reason for blaming
the government of Victor Emmanuel III. He was therefore supported by
most Italians.
• His personal talent: Mussolini was a gifted speaker whose speeches
were enjoyed by the Italians. During his public speeches, he spread the
fascist manifesto to the Italians convinced them to support him against
the government of Victor Emmanuel III.
• Influence of press: Newspapers like Papolo d’Italia campaigned for
Fascist and made Mussolini popular for Italians. It was also used to
spread the Fascist propaganda as well as de-campaigning against the
then government.
• Political and democratic reforms in Italy: From 1900, Italy allowed
different political parties and people to participate in politics. This
opened the gates for Mussolini and Fascism to join political struggles.
• Disunity among political parties: in Italy also provided opportunity
for fascism to rise to power with Benito Mussolini. Such political parties
had different ideologies that facilitated room for a united fascist party
to become popular.
• The July 31st 1922 strikes: The fascist was instrumental in suppressing
the general strikes organized by the socialists. This increased the
popularity of the fascism hence rising to power.
• The weakness of the League of Nations: This failed to check the
rise of the new aggressors like Mussolini.
• The prevailing social and economic problems: for example,
declining industries, inflation, mass unemployment, low wages,
starvation, poverty, foreign debts, and collapse of agriculture. All theseled to his rise because Mussolini also promised to solve these problems.
How did Mussolini consolidate himself to power?
• He abolished other political parties and established a single party
government in Italy. This removed opposition parties from the parliament.
• He carried out public works. Roads, bridges and health centers were
established or innovated. Most Italians therefore supported his rule
because of the hardworking spirit.
• He made the Catholicism a state religion and declared Vatican an
independent state under the Pope. He was therefore supported by
most Catholics. Mussolini achieved this through the Lateran treaty
which he signed with Pope Pius XI in 1929.
• Strict censorship of press. His government monitored all newspapers
before their circulation and opposition journalists were usually forced
into exile to Lipari Island in the Mediterranean Sea.
• He strengthened dictatorship by removing constitutional check on his
rule.
• He used the Fascist propaganda of extreme nationalism to change
people’s minds and thinking or opinion against his rule.
• He used economic reforms such as industrialization, modernization of
agriculture, supply of hydro-electric power and modernization of towns
to win support of the majority Italians.
• He abolished democratic constitutional of Italy. He dismissed all officials
who had been elected democratically in Rome like mayors, town clerks
and town councils.
• He organized and strengthened the Italian army and police whichensured peace and fought all those who opposed his rule.
Different factors that led to Mussolini’s downfall:
• Mussolini established the Fascist state in Italy based on
dictatorship and leadership by decree: This inflicted a lot of
suffering of the Italian masses. He denied Italians their democratic rights.
Leadership through elections came to an end with his coming to power
and referendum was introduced in policy making and representative.
• He made Fascism the supreme and only political system:
i.e. political pluralism was suffocated and in 1925, party system was
abolished. This was brought by repressive measures on communist
supporters many of whom were imprisoned.
• Mussolini denied the Italian people all sorts of freedom: these
included the censorship of the press, no freedom of speech, association
and worship among others. Injustice was widespread and because of
this the majority of the Italians were living like prisoners in their country;
• Mussolini failed to control the malpractices within the
government: there was corruption and embezzlement of government
funds. By 1930, the Italian economy had deteriorated by all standards;
• During his period of administration, leadership discrimination was
rampant in all sectors of the society. Even the social services were not
extended to the poor Italians in the rural areas;
• He promoted the feeling of anti–Semitism: the negative attitude,
hatred and segregation against the Jews. The union between Mussolini
and Hitler and their ideology were hated throughout Europe and this
forced European communities to unite and fight against them and
eradicate their ideologies of Nazism and Fascism.
• Mussolini followed aggressive policies: when he involved Italians
in hostilities and military confrontation with other Europeans leading to
the outbreak of the Second World War. He was therefore responsiblefor the disastrous war between 1939 and 1945.
Application activity 4.2.4.1
1. Identify the rise of Fascism in Italy.
2. Examine the factors for the decline of Mussolini’s fascist regime inItaly
4.2.4.2. Nazism
Learning activity 4.2.4.2
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and explain factors for the rise anddownfall of Nazism.
Adolf Hitler
Adolph Hitler was born on April, 20th 1889 in the Austro-German border town of Brounaal. His father
Alois Hitler was a minor customs oyears but was released after only 6 months. While in prison, Hitler wrote his
book “Main Kampf” (my struggle) which became the bible of the Nazis. This
new bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide.fficial in Austria. In 1902 his father died and in 1907 his mother also
died. Hitler did not get proper education on account of his obscure background and being a total orphan.
Adolf Hitler
Hitler got his early education in Linz town academy; however, he failed to get
a certificate (1907). His ambition was to become a fine artist but this was
frustrated when he failed to join the Vienna as a sign painter, causal labourer
of odd jobs and a street beggar. This is what shaped Hitler’s personality of
poor interpersonal relationship, intolerance and hatred of the bourgeoisie, theroyalists, the socialists, the Republicans and the Jews.
In May 1913, Hitler went to live in Munich a city in Germany. In 1914, Hitler
joined the Germany’s army and fought in World War I. at the end of the war;
he had risen to the rank of Lance Corporal and awarded the “Iron cross” for
his bravery. Towards the end of the war, Hitler was badly wounded and was
hospitalized when the armistice was being signed. He was discharged andreturned to Munich where he lived for some time on occasional work.
Hitler was very disappointed with the defeat and humiliation of German in the
first World War. His views were that Germany was not defeated due to her
military weakness but was “stabbed in the back” (betrayed) by its leader Emperor
Kaiser William II and traitors like Jews, Socialists, Pacifists, Democrats, etc.
this experience haunted him for long time as he later wrote: ‘the more I tried to
glean some definite information of the terrible events that happened,the more my head become a fire with rage and shame.’
Hitler later joined the National German workers socialist party which was later
renamed Nazi. He distinguished himself as a true patriot and his oratory and
demagogic skills earned him the leadership of the party. In 1924, Hitler attempteda futile coup against the Weimar Republic for which he was imprisoned for five
years but was released after only 6 months. While in prison, Hitler wrote his
book “Main Kampf” (my struggle) which became the bible of the Nazis. This
made him and the party more popular. By 1933, Hitler and Nazism were very
popular amongst the Germans. In the elections of March 1933 the Nazi won
288 seats in the parliament. This forced president Hindenburg to appoint Hitler
as a chancellor that became a platform for his rise to power when Hindenburg
died in August 1934.once in Power, He eliminated all opposition and launched
an ambitious program of world domination and elimination of the Jews. His rule
lasted 12 years and he died a broken and defeated man. Several attempts were
made on Hitler’s life during the war, but none was successful. As the war defied
his orders, he killed himself on 30th April, 1945. His long term mistress and anew bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide.
Dust jacket of 1926–1928 edition Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mein_Kampf
The factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism to power
• The first World War led to the rise of Nazism: It left Germany in
the state of economic decline and dictatorship was looked at as the
only solution to Germany’s problems. Hence the rise of Hitler to power.
• Unpopularity of the Weimer republic: It accepted the unrealistic
Versailles settlement which was against the will of the Germans. This
made the people of Germany to admire a leader like Hitler who was
courageous to strongly oppose the unfair terms of the Versailles treaty.
• His personal character and talent: He was a courageous and
ambitious leader and above all an eloquent speaker. His speeches
touched on the hearts of the Germans who felt that Hitler was the
answer to all their problems. This made him to work for his rise to power.
• His publication: For example, my struggle (1923-1924) while in
prison. It contained a 25-year program promising to improve the general
conditions of German masses.
• The death of Von Paul Hindenburg (the president of the Weimer
republic) on 15th august 1934 also created a power vacuum for Hitler
to rise to power moreover he was the chancellor from 1933.
• The great economic depression: It created a desperate situation
of poverty, unemployment and inflation and Hitler was looked at as the
only liberator.
• Role of the Nazi storm troopers: The Storm Troopers, also known
as Sturmabteilung, or “Brown Shirts,” refer the Nazi Party militia that
helped Adolf Hitler rise to power in Germany. Created in 1922, and
organised by Hitler’s great follower captain Ernest Roehm. The Storm
trooper was extremely antisemitic and antidemocratic in its military
activities. Its members were mainly lower-middle class Germans who
had lost their jobs due to the country’s economic problems. The Storm
troopers gave them something to be part of and proud of. They engaged
in street fights with their political enemies, practiced pseudo-military
exercises, and terrorized Germany. Ernst Rohm became the Supreme
Commander of the Storm troopers in 1924. They influenced people tovote for Hitler.
Source: https://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-Stormtroopers-Nazis-Brownshirts-1922/dp/1848324251
• Role of the Nazi party: Most Germans believed that the Nazi party
would solve the problems of the middle class such as unemployment
and poor working conditions. They therefore supported the Nazi party
and Hitler.
• The Germany traditional history of loving dictators: Germany
was characterized by dictatorial rule since her unification struggle such
as Bismarck, Von Moltek, Von Roon and Kaiser William influenced
people to believe that dictators can rule the state.
• The unrealistic Versailles treaty: Hitler condemned the Versailles
as unpopular and influenced the Germanys to stop paying the war
penalty of 6.5 billion pound. He was therefore judged as a true Germany
nationalist.
• The growth and spread of communism in Germany: the success
of 1917 Russian revolution led to the establishment of communist
government in Russia. The spread of communism threatened the
property owners in Germany. However, after the formation of Nazi partyin 1920, Hitler promised to fight communism and protect capitalists.
How did Hitler consolidate himself to power?
Hitler came to power in 1934 after the death of President Hindenburg. When he
came to power, he used the following measures to strengthen himself to power.
• Dictatorship: as a dictator, Hitler: He made law which outlawed other
parties. He only recognized Nazism. He limited the power of parliament.
He outlawed the constitution. He denied the people, the freedom of
association and press.
• He banned all political parties and the Nazi party remained the only
legal party in Germany.
• He used suppressive policies to eliminate his political enemies that are
by setting up special prisons, concentration camps to jail those with
anti-Nazi ideas.
• Hitler suppressed public press broadcasting, literature, drama, music,
painting, public films and publications reflecting Hitler’s tastes. All
books which had anti-Nazi ideas were burnt in huge fire in Berlin in
1935.
• The clergymen were warned to sign an oath promising never to teach
materials that were against Nazi.
• The professional teachers had to sign an oath promising never to teach
materials that were against Nazi party.
• Hitler built a strong army that was used against internal and external
enemies.
• Hitler reduced the pre-1933 economic problems which earned him
more support from Germans and no one would think of opposing
Adolph Hitler.
• Hitler modernized agriculture, set new industries, thus solving
unemployment which attracted support to Adolph Hitler.
• Hitler captivated Germans youth where parents had to take their
children to public schools where they had to register and joined Hitler’s
young group association and were brought up according to Hitler’s
doctrine and the young generation was completely royal to Nazism.
• Hitler used Nepotism to consolidate his power, he employed his close
relatives and friends to carry out administration on his behalf.
• Hitler used a strict spy network and a secret police to keep him informed
of the events in his empire (suspects were jailed, killed or exiled).
• Hitler controlled education to his favour: he did this by encouraging
the teaching of Nazi principles and ideas in public schools. Hitler also
rewrote school textbooks to include Nazi ideas.
• Hitler promoted strict control of the church: he controlled both Catholic
Church and the protestant. For example, he signed an agreement with
the pope in which the pope was to appoint bishops after consulting
Hitler. He also withdrew the church from controlling politics and
education.
• Hitler used Racism to maintain his power in Germany. For example, he
discriminated the Jews and the Slavs. He banned intermarriage between
Germans, Jews and Slavs. Jews were dismissed from political offices,
arrested and killed Jews in large numbers: The Jews were accused of
collaborating with the big powers to defeat Germany in World War I.
• Hitler introduced the people’s courts to try suspects charged with
treason.
• He promoted strict control of workers.
The factors for the downfall of Nazism and Adolf Hitler
• Death of his best friend Benito Mussolini on April 28, 1945 and the
downfall of Fascist Party damaged Hitler’s morale and forced him to
commit suicide on April 30, 1945.
• The great decline in the economy of Germany due to bombardment of
her factories and industries by allied forces of Britain, France and USA
among others harmed Hitler’s popularity.
• Dictatorship which was coupled with excessive oppression like banning
other political parties, harassing and killing of his German opponentswho among others included Hans Ramshorn a member of the Reichstag.
In 1934, as part of the Night of the Long Knives, Ernst Julius Röhm wasexecuted on Hitler’s orders as a potential rival among others.
Ernst Julius RöhmSource: https://www.fold3.com/page/286091759-night-of-the-long-knives/stories
• The size and heterogeneous nature of the German Empire by 1939,
whereby it included the Germans, the Austrians, the Poles, the Dutch
and the Czechoslovakians and by the time Adolf Hitler failed to manage
to control this wide size. It was necessary for Hitler to commit suicide
before the various German senior officers did since they attempted to
do so several times.
• Withdraw of Germany from the League of Nations which put Germany
under isolation from world affairs. This made Germany to be considered
as an enemy of other European countries which later formed an alliance
against Germany.
• Betray of strong supporters of Nazism. For example, Hammira the
commander of the Schultz Staffel crossed and surrendered to the allies
on 28th April 1945. This weakened Hitler since all his war plans wereexposed to the allies hence his downfall
The formation of the allied powers of Britain, France and Russian against the
Axis powers of Rome Tokyo-Berlin Axis meant decline of the Nazi party as it
was the case with World War I, the alliance system played a significant role inthe defeat and downfall of Adolf Hitler by 1945.
Application activity 4.2.4.2
1. Explain the factors for the rise of Nazism and Adolf Hitler in Germany2. Account for the downfall of Adolf Hitler in Germany.
Skills Lab
Use a combination of knowledge, skills, attitude and values acquired
throughout this unit and create a poster against wars and any other form ofconflict in the world. Present your poster to the class.
End unit assessment
1. The outbreak of the First World War was inevitable by 1914. Discuss.
2. Examine the merits and the demerits of the Versailles peace treaty
of 1919.
3. Account for the formation of the League of Nations by 1920.
4. Examine the significance/consequences of the world Economic
depression of 1929-1935.
5. To what extent was Mussolini’s ability responsible for the rise of
Fascism in Italy?6. Why did Hitler and Nazism collapse in 1945?
UNIT 5 THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND ITS EFFECTS
Key Unit competence
The student-teacher should be able to examine the causes and the effectsof Second World War.
Introductory activity
The Second World War witnessed intensification of military conflicts all
over the World and left disastrous effects. Do research, using internet and
reading range of written materials to:
1. Describe the causes and the effects of the Second World War.
2. Explain the aims, achievements and failures of United Nationsorganization.
5.1 Causes and consequences of Second World War
Learning activity 5.1
Read textbooks, internet and other history books to find out the causes andeffects of the Second World War.
The Second World War was the war fought between the axis powers, that is,
Italy, Germany and Japan (Berlin- Rome-Tokyo axis powers) against the allied
powers, that is Britain, France, Russia and USA. It was the most destructive
war that mankind had ever experienced and it started with Germany invasion ofPoland on 1st .09.1939 and ended with the surrender of Japan in August 1945.
The Second World War period witnessed intensification of military conflicts all
over the World. It also witnessed the use of dangerous weapons and ended
with weapons of mass destruction such as atomic bombs. Modern technology
was applied during the war and it was also during this war that the World
experienced the genocide which claimed the lives of about 6 million Jews killed
by the Nazis under Adolf Hitler of Germany. A number of factors played a role inthis most destructive war.
5.1.1 Causes of Second World War
It has been argued that the Versailles settlement of 1919 sowed seeds for the
outbreak of the Second World War. It was signed in a vengeful mood on the
part of the Allied powers against Germany, and it was unfair to Germany. The
peace treaty was very unrealistic in its attempt to create a lasting peace which
ploughed ground for the outbreak of war in 1939.This treaty was a kind of
dictated peace. It was a dictated treaty on Germany which had no chance to
negotiate.
The following explain how Versailles settlement sowed the seeds of the outbreak
of WWII:
• It deprived Germany of every scrap of its colonies in Europe, Asia and
Africa which caused economic hardships in Germany. This forced Hitler
to invade Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia, hence the outbreak of
the World War II.
• Danzig was cut off from Germany and the country was forced to stand
totally disarmed.
• Allied troops were stationed in Germany, in order to enforce the
provisions of the Treaty.
• The Versailles treaty forced Germany to pay a heavy war indemnity
or reparation of 6.5 billion pounds. This amount was too huge that
Germany became weak. This forced Hitler to revenge on the powers
that imposed the treaty on Germany. (Article 232).
• With the article 231 of the settlement, Germany alone was held guilty
of the war. Thus it caused hatred in the minds of the Germans and
made Hitler to adopt an aggressive foreign policy which made World
War II inevitable.
• The Versailles treaty was imposed on Germany. She was forced to sign,
she was not allowed to criticize or negotiate, and this creates a spirit of
revenge, which prepared ground for World War II.
• The Versailles treaty disarmed Germany unfairly. Germany’s soldiers
were reduced from 400,000 to 100,000 men, German bases and
weapons were destroyed yet other countries were busy rearming
themselves. Such unfairness forced Germany to rearm and prepare forwar.
The revival of the arms race and failure of the disarmament policy
also contributed the outbreak of the war. The victorious powers disarmed
Germany almost to the end and themselves, never did at all. This forced Adolf
Hitler to rearm Germany to the teeth. As a result, arms race resumed among
European states especially Britain, Germany, France and Italy. This bred tension,
mistrust, and fear which eventually resulted into the outbreak of the SecondWorld War.
The Appeasement Policy initiated by the British prime minister, Neville
Chamberlain who argued that another war could be avoided by pleasing
aggressive powers like Germany. The policy was based on dialogue and
compromise as opposed to violence as a solution to axis aggression. There was
a general feeling that the Versailles treaty was unfair. It was due to this policy that
no military action was taken against Mussolini when invaded Ethiopia (1935)
and on Japan when she occupied Manchuria (1931) and when Hitler invaded
the Rhineland (1936), Austria and Czechoslovakia (1938). Britain and France
took no step against Germany. They instead signed the Munich agreement with
Germany in recognition of her occupation of the Sudetenland. Chamberlain
thought that this would serve as a reconciliatory approach between Germany
and the signatories of the Versailles Settlement. However, these inspired Hitler
who decided to occupy the whole of Czechoslovakia. On September 1, 1939
Germany decided to invade Poland culminating into war because Hitler hadrefused to withdraw from Poland as He was demanded by France and Britain.
Neville Chamberlain
Neville Chamberlain, prime minister of Britain immediately prior to World
War II, appeased Adolf Hitler’s aggression in Europe to keep his country
out of the war. Chamberlain’s efforts ultimately failed.Source: Encarta Premium 2009
Why did France and Britain use the appeasement policy?
It was a way of avoiding war which was likely to be more devastating.
Britain and France used their appeasement policy because they knew that they
were unfair to Germany and Italy during the 1919 Versailles settlement.
The League of Nations had become very weak; Chamberlain believed that the
only way to settle disputes was by personal contact between leaders. Hence
the use of appeasement.
Economic cooperation between Germany and Britain would be good for both.
Britain used appeasement policy because they feared that the dictators might
ally with the communists which would be a threat to France and Britain, because
they were capitalists.
The weakening of the British economy after World War I made Britain not ready
to be involved in other wars.
World powers had learned from experience of the World War I because it was
destructive, causing economic depression, loss of lives and destruction ofindustries.
The weaknesses of the League of Nations: It failed to condemn and
react against the aggressors of the time, hence resulting in war. The inherent
weakness of the League of Nations inspired major powers to invade weaker
states. For instance, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, Johel in 1933. Japan
even evacuated the League of Nations but no step was taken against her. Italy
under Benito Mussolini was also encouraged to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in
1935. Germany under Adolf Hitler was inspired to attack Poland on September1, 1939, all this resulted into a world War between 1939 and 1945.
The negative effects of the World Economic Depression (1929 –1935)
forced many powers like USA, Britain and France to resort to the policy of
protectionism in a bid to protect their domestic markets. This increased suspicion,
mistrust, fear and tension and destroyed international relations between the
world powers. Some powers like Germany, Japan and Italy resorted to the use
of force against weaker as a way of securing raw materials and markets. On the
other side when other countries were busy handling the problems of caused by
the economic depression, Germany used the opportunity to rearm herself andbecame aggressive and all these generated the World War II.
The rise of the dictators in different countries: The dictators and
aggressors undermined world peace and led to the outbreak of the SecondWorld War. The period between wars saw the rise of dictators such as Benito
Mussolini in Italy in 1922, General Franco in Spain, Hirohito in Japan, Adolf
Hitler in Germany in 1933. The dictators formed the Axis Alliance and started an
aggressive foreign policy. The Allied Democratic Powers waged the war to stop
the influence of dictators which created fear, panic, and hatred that explodedinto war in the aftermath of German invasion of Poland.
Benito Mussolini (left) and Adolf Hitler (middle) (Source: Google) , Hirohito( Right)
The role of the press also contributed to the outbreak of World War
II. The press exaggerated the military capacities of different powers especially
Germany against the allied powers. This created a war atmosphere leading toWorld War II.
The 1931–1939, Spanish Civil wars were also antecedents to the Second
World War. In 1939, with the support of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini,
General Franco overthrew the republican regime which was supported by Britain,
Russia and France. General Franco decided to establish a fascist regime of
Italian type. The war created enmity between allied and Axis powers, increased
prestige for Italy and Germany and they gained full confidence that winning any
war was obvious. This caused Hitler to attack Poland which immediately led toWorld War II.
The presence of the ideological differences (Communist phobia):
After the success of the 1917 Bolshevik revolution under Lenin and Joseph
Stalin. Russia spread communism in Western Europe. This fear of communism
contributed to the rise of dictators like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, who
promised to eradicate communism in their respective countries and were warmongers that eventually made World War II inevitable.
The formation of the Rome-Tokyo- Berlin Axis (Military alliance) by
1939: The aggressive alliance started with Italy and Germany in 1938, inspired
Japan under Hirohito to join and the alliance became Rome - Tokyo - Berlin
Axis. This conditioned the formation of the counter alliances. These alliances
made the weaker states. For instance, Rome-Tokyo-Berlin axis inspired Hitler
to invade Poland on September 1, 1939 sparking off the Second World War.
One of causes of alliance systems include “living space but there are other factorsvital related to resentment against western democratic countries.
a) Germany and Italy: Rome-Berlin axis/ Mussolini said that the axis was a
line drawn between Rome and Berlin, around which “all Europeans states
that desire peace can revolve.
b) Anti-comintern Pact: This pact was concluded between Germany and
Japan and consisted of mutual support. To this pact many fascist countries
joined: Italy, Hungary, and Spain.
c) Pact of Steel (May1939): this alliance was signed by Mussolini (Italy)
and Germany (Hitler). These countries decided:
– To carry out permanent consultation for any case involving common
interest and take measures to maintain their interests.
– To promise full military support if any war outbreak.
d) The Nazi-soviet pact: this was alliance secretly arranged by Germanyand Russia a few weeks before Germany entered eastern Poland.
Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
In 1940, during World War II, the military alliance of Italy and Germany—the socalled
Rome-Berlin Axis—was extended to include Japan and became the Rome-
Berlin-Tokyo Axis. The three countries and their allies, known collectively as the
Axis Powers, fought against the Allied Powers in the war. Here, Japanese andItalian emissaries accompany German dictator Adolf Hitler.
Source: Encarta premium
Leaders of axis Powers
Source: https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history
The rise and growth of nationalism also caused the Second World
War. Germany wanted to regain her lost pride denied by the victor powers
under the Versailles treaty using unfair terms. This was done through arms race,
foreign invasion and alliance system. All these caused the war.
Lastly, the Germany invasion of Poland on 1st.sept.1939 also caused
the war. This was the immediate cause of World War II where Hitler attacked
Poland hoping that France and Britain would not intervene because of their
appeasement policy. Unfortunately, Germany was given an ultimatum of 48
hours to withdraw its troops from Poland an order which Hitler ignored, hencecausing the Second World War.
Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjz3O
Course of World War II
– Hitler attacked Poland on September 1, 1939.
– England and France retaliated by declaring war on Germany.
– Russia began invading neighboring countries.
– After invading insignificant states like Holland and Denmark, Germany
invaded and captured France.
– Britain confronted the Axis powers alone.
– The Anglo Russian pact was signed against Germany.
– The U.S.A. entered the war when Japan attacked the Pearl Harbor in
1941((the USA naval base in the Hawaiian Islands) on 7December
1941). The U.S.A., Britain and Russia were pitted against Germany,Italy and Japan.
– Italy surrendered unconditionally in 1943.
– Germany did the same after it was defeated by the Allies in 1945, and
Hitler committed suicide.
– Japan surrendered after the two atomic bombs were dropped inHiroshima and Nagasaki marking the end of the war.
5.1.2 Consequences of World War II
World War II produced disastrous consequences that were unparalleled in thehistory of mankind.
• The war caused unprecedented loss of life. It was estimated that
62 million to 76 million people died, 45 million people were wounded
and about 21 million people were displaced from their homes.
• The war caused large scale destruction of property. There was a
complete destruction of fields and factories, mills and workshops and
the houses of the civilians. Many people died and many more werepermanently disabled.
Hiroshima after atomic bomb
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=hiroshima+after+atomic+bomb+pictures
• During the war, the Nazi dictator, Adolf Hitler initiated a movement
that aimed at wiping out the whole race of Jews. This was called the
holocaust. This movement was part of his plan to conquer the world.
Millions of Jews were imprisoned into concentration camps and were
subjected to inhuman torture. The captives were even starved to death.
Cruel experiments were performed on these helpless victims. The aged,
the sick and the disabled were poisoned with gas.
• The war also created an acute scarcity of foodstuff, essential
commodities and cloth. This led to unprecedented inflation. The
standard of living fell drastically. Since the prices shot up, life of millions
became made miserable.
• The war proved the moral degradation of man, for he killedhis own species in an unparalleled scale. Nazi Germany, Fascist
Italy and militarist Japan inflicted unimaginable cruelties upon the
combatants, non-combatants, as well as on innocent men, women and
children. The dropping of the two atom bombs by the U.S. upon Japan
in August 1945 demonstrated how man was competent enough towipe out the entire human race.
B-29 Superfortress
The Boeing B-29 Superfortress was a long-range bomber used by the United
States during World-War II (1939-1945) in bombing raids against Japan.
B-29s were used to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshimaand Nagasaki, ending the war in August 1945.
Source: Encarta premium 2009
• World War II enhanced the prestige of the communist
dictatorship of Russia, and enabled it to spread its control all over
east and central Europe as well as Asia. However, democracy held its
influence over Western Europe.
• The World War II divided world countries into two power blocs.
These are capitalist bloc of Great Britain, the U.S. and their allies and
the communist bloc of the Soviet Union and her satellites.
• The British, Dutch, French and Italian Empires were left in a
disintegrated state. New nations like India, Pakistan, Burma and
Ceylon were born on their ruins. Israel, Iran, Syria and Lebanon won
political freedom from their imperialist masters.
• Massive destruction of infrastructure, especially in France and in
Japan due to heavy bombing of major cities.
• Influx of homeless refugees: Most refugees were in camps of
Western Europe. Many of them were the Jews who were running away
from Adolf Hitler.
• The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was formed to replace
the defunct League of Nations in 1945 at the end of the Second World
War. The League of Nations had become weak and failed to maintain
world peace.
• The production of nuclear weapons which up to the present day
have disorganized World politics.
• The defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler
who committed suicide on April 30th, 1945 and Benito Mussolini who
was killed by his own forces on April 28th, 1945.
• It led to the partition of Germany into two zones till 1989; East
Germany, known as Democratic Republic of Germany was controlled
by Russia; and West Germany, known as Federal Republic of Germany,
controlled by USA, Britain and France.
• The Second World War helped in the rise of African nationalism
which led to the decolonization of Africa. The legacy of African World
War Veterans was evident and important in the winning of independence
in different parts of Africa.
• The Second World War led to economic decline in Europe.
This was due to the destruction of infrastructures, trade, agriculture,
communication and industries. The British and French economies were
shattered and left in shambles. This compelled most of them to rush
to USA for economic aid. On the other side, they were not able to
continue running vast overseas colonies in Africa and Asia. They began
preparing them for self-determination.
• Outbreak of the “Cold War” which was a non-violent confrontation
between the western capitalists led by USA and eastern communists led
by USSR.
• The Second World War contributed to rapid scientific
innovations and technological development. This resulted into
production of sophisticated weapons of mass destruction.
• The rise of Zionism (Jewish nationalism) was also influenced by the
Second World War. Millions of Jews got their own country (Israel) in1948 with the division of Palestine.
Reasons why axis powers were defeated (lost the war)
• Numerical advantage: axis powers were few in number.
• Germany internal weakness that made her to fail to get massive support
at home because of dictatorship.
• Germany did not get support from countries she had occupied before.
• The economy of axis powers was very weak compared to that of the
allied powers.
• The Allied powers were much experienced in fighting on sea than the
axis powers.
• Hitler failed to realize the danger of winter and refused to withdraw his
troops from the Russian territories. That is why he was easily defeated
and this weakened military capacity of Germany.
• Lack of foresight: The axis powers ignored the necessity of fighting
planes. E.g. Japan concentrated on the production of battle ship which
was defeated by the allied powers. The Germany made a mistake of
concentrating on production of V-rockets which were defeated by war
planes of allied powers.
• Shortage of raw materials: E.g. oil.
• The allied powers learned from their failure. By 1942, they knew how
to check Blitzkrieg attacks and appreciated the importance of the air
support and aircraft carriers. They built up an air and naval superiority
which won the battles of the Atlantic and the Pacific.
• Domestic opposition led to the defeat of the axis powers. Hitler faced
opposition from the communists and liberals. Mussolini was heated in
Italy until he was arrested and killed.
• Poor technology compared to that of Allied powers. E.g. Britain used
radars to detect and to bomb axis targets and planes while USA used
atomic bombs to weaken Japan.
• The size of the area to be covered by the axis powers with their small
size of the population led to their defeat.
• Determination of allied powers. They were determined to defeat the
axis powers at all cost. Churchill “we shall fight in the seas and
oceans, we shall fight in the air, we shall defend our island,
whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches,
we shall fight on the ground, we shall fight in the fields and
streets, hill, valleys… we shall never surrender”.
• The loss of Hitler’s colonies of Hungary, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia and
Rumania which contained a lot of resources. E.g. oil.
• The defeat of axis powers was caused also by the death of Mussolini
who was killed 28th April 1945 while on 30th April 1945 Hitler committed
suicide.
• Allied powers had good leaders, clear-minded leaders. E.g. Roosevelt,Churchill, Stalin.
• Hitler carried out purge, i.e.; he began killing some of his commanders,
these commanders attempted also to kill Hitler but they failed. By theend they betrayed him.
Application activity 5
Examine the causes and consequences of Second World War of 1939-1945.
5.2. Aims, achievements and failures of United NationsOrganization
Learning activity 5.2
Using internet, textbooks and other history documents discuss the aims,
achievements and failures of United Nations Organization and make a classpresentation
United Nations Organization (U.N.O)
The World War II resulted in widespread concern for world peace. Hence the
United Nations Organization was established after the World War II in 1945.
The United Nations organization is an international peace keeping organization
which was formed in the aftermath of the Second World War (1945) to replace
the discredited League of Nations.
It was formed to end wars and ensure permanent peace in the world as well
as to enhance the economic and cultural development of mankind. The UNO
charter was signed on June 26, 1945 at San Francisco in California. The
U.N.O. started functioning from 24th October, 1945 and this is recognized as
its date of creation. This day is therefore celebrated as the United Nations Day.
Its headquarters was based at New York. It was formed to replace the League of
Nations. UNO has 5 permanent members with veto powers i.e. Britain, France,USA, Russia, and China. UNO started with 51 nations.
PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLES
Article 1
The Purposes of the United Nations are:
1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to
take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which
might lead to a breach of the peace.
2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take
other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace.
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character,
and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and
for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language, or religion.
4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment
of these common ends.
5. To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.
6. To promote respect among the member nations for fundamental rights
and freedoms of mankind by ending the differences of caste and creed.
Article 2
The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article
1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles.
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of
all its Members.
2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits
resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations
assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter.
3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means
in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are
not endangered.
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat
or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence
of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of
the United Nations.
5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any
action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain
from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is
taking preventive or enforcement action.
6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the
United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may
be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.
7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United
Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic
jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such
matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shallnot prejudice the application of enforcement measures.
5.2.1. The aims of the of United Nations Organization (UNO)
• Preserving peace and eliminate war.
• Removing the cases of conflict by encouraging economic, social,
educational, scientific and cultural progress throughout the world,especially in underdeveloped countries.
UN security council meetingSource: https://media.voltron.voanews.com/Drupal
• Safeguarding the rights of all individual human beings, and nations.
• Stopping the aggression was an issue behind the formation of UNO.
This was because Kaiser William II and Hitler’s aggression were
responsible for the outbreak of the first and Second World War
• Bringing justice to those who committed crimes of war against humanity.
For example, the Nazi and Fascists who conducted killing of the Jews.
• Enforcing disarmament and stop arms race that was responsible for the
two world wars.
• Promoting political, economic and social co-operation in the world.
• Facilitating decolonization and democratization of those nationalities
that were dominated and oppressed.
• Embark on/check on threats to environment which was potentially
dangerous to mankind. Weapons of mass destruction like atomic
bombs were used in the Second World War which destroyed flora and
fauna.
• Eliminating the problem of human and drug trafficking. By 1945 the
consumption of intoxicated drugs had damaged the youth.
• Rehabilitating and resettle prisoners of war and displaced persons
who were made homeless by the Second World War.
• Checking out the violation of children’s rights. There was gross abuse
of children’s rights like child labour, corporal punishments, child neglect
and defilement.
• Checking out the exploitation of workers by employers especially
capitalists. The capitalists were oppressing workers by poor payments,
over working under poor conditions.
• Improving on world health services and standards. World War II had
destroyed most health centers and made medical services inadequate
during and after the war.
Organs of the United Nations Organizations
There are principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a
Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, anInternational Court of Justice and a Secretariat.
a) The General Assembly
It is an important organ of the U.N.O. It is the chief deliberative organ. It is
regarded as the parliament of the U.N.O. Its regular session is held once a year
on the third Tuesday in September and continues until the end of December.
At the start of each session, it elects a new President, 21 Vice-Presidents, and
Chairmen of its seven main committees. Each country can send five delegates
but has one vote only. Important decisions need two-thirds majority while
decisions on ordinary matters are reached by a simple majority. The General
Assembly’s chief functions are:
• To discuss matters relating to international peace and security.
• To promote international cooperation in economic, social, educational,
cultural and health fields.
• To promote the development and codification of international law.
• To promote cooperation in the realization of human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all.
• To promote friendly relations among nations.
• To discuss and make recommendations on any question affecting the
powers and functions of any organ of the U.N.O.
• To receive and consider reports from Security Council and other organs
of the U.N.O.
• To consider and approve the budgets of the U.N.O. and its specialized
agencies.
• To perform the functions which are concerned with international
trusteeship system
• To elect members of the U.N.O., the Security Council, Economic and
Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the International Court of
Justice.
• To appoint the Secretary General at the recommendation of the Security
Council.
b) The Security Council
The Security Council is the executive body of the U.N.O. It is the most influential
organ of the U.N.O. The Council has 15 members. The U.S.A., Russia, England,
France and China are the permanent members. Their support is required for
every decision. The remaining ten non-permanent members are elected by the
General Assembly for two years. At any one time, the ten rotating members
must consist of five countries from Africa and Asia, two from Latin America,
one from Eastern Europe and two from Western Europe. Each member of the
Council has one vote. Each President holds the post for a month.
The functions and powers of the Security Council are:
• To maintain international peace and security.
• To investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international
friction
• To recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or terms of
settlement.
• To formulate plans for the regulation of armaments.
• To determine the existence of a threat to peace or acts of aggression
and to recommend what action should be taken.
• To call on the members to apply economic sanctions and other measures
to prevent or stop aggressions.
• To take military action against an aggressor.
• To recommend the admission of new members.
• To exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations.
• To elect the judges of the International Court of Justice.
• To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of theSecretary General.
c) The International Court of Justice
It is the chief court of the U.N.O. It has 15 judges that are elected by the General
Assembly and the Security Council voting separately. The term of the judges is
restricted to nine years and they may be reelected. The seat of the court is at
Hague in Netherlands.
It primarily functions to settle mutual disputes among different nations by peaceful
methods. Other agencies of the U.N.O. also approach it for consultation. It may
also resolve disputes among nations, arising on legal questions or treaties.
d) The secretariat
This is the office staff and it consists of 50,000 employees and they look after
administrative work, prepare meeting, translation and information. It is headed
by the secretary general who is appointed for a 5 year terms by the general
assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. The secretary
general acts as the main spokesperson of UNO, and is always at the forefront
of international affairs trying to solve world problems.
e) The trusteeship council
This replaced the League of Nations Mandates commission which had originally
come into existence in 1919 to keep an eye on the territories taken away from
Germany and Turkey at the end WWI. Some of these mandated territories
had been handed over to victorious powers and their jobs were to govern the
territories and prepare them for independence. The trusteeship council did its
job well and by 1970 most of mandates had gained their independence.
f) The economic and social council (ECOSOC)
This has 27 members elected by the general assembly. It organizes projects
concerned with health, education and other social and economic matters. It
has appointed four regional commissions (Europe, Latin America, Africa,
Asia, and the Far East) as well as commissions on population problems, drug
problems, human rights and the status of women.
ECOSOC also coordinates the work of other commission and specializedagencies around thirty in all. Among the best known are:
Financial and economic agencies
1. IMF: the international monetary fund. This is designed to foster-
cooperation
between nations to encourage the growth of trade and the
full development of nation’s economic potential. It is headquartered
in Washington D.C., United States of America.
2. World Bank: the international Bank of reconstruction and development.
The World Bank headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., United
States of America.
3. GATT: the general agreement on tariffs and Trade (encourage
international trade by reducing taxes). The headquarters of the World
Trade Organization in Geneva, Switzerland.
4. UNCTAD: United Nations conference on trade and development.Encourages the development of industry in third world by pressurizing
the rich countries into buying countries third world products. UNCTAD is
a permanent intergovernmental body established by the United
Nations General Assembly in 1964. Our headquarters are located
in Geneva, Switzerland, and we have offices in New York and AddisAbaba. UNCTAD is part of the UN Secretariat.
Differences between UNO and LON
• The UN has been more successful than the league.
• The UN spends much more time and resources on economic and social
matter. All the specialized agencies, with the exception of ILO (1919)
were founded in 1945 or later.
• The UN is committed to safeguarding individual human rights, which
the LON did not get involved.
• Changes in the procedures of the general assembly and the Security
Council (uniting for peace resolution) and the increased power and
prestige of the secretary general have enabled the UN to take more
decisive action than the LON.
• The UN has much wider membership and is therefore a real world
organization than the league. In 1993 membership had reached 183
while LON never had more than 50 members.
• The LON Covenant did not provide the states with, or did not make
them clear over, their right to self-defense. However, this condition is
addressed under the Article 51 of the Charter of UN, which specifies
this right.
• League’s Unanimity Vs UN’s 2/3rd Majority in decision making
• The League’s covenant permitted under certain conditions its members
to withdraw from the general membership. But the UN’s charter says
nothing for a state opting to quit the platform, whereas a moral obligation
still exists to continue as a member, for the collective betterment.
• The League’s Covenant did not emphasize upon the establishment
of regional arrangements for the maintenance of regional peace and
security, which then leads to the collective world peace. But on the
other hand, the UN’s Charter under Article. 52, gives a recognition, and
even a greater recognition to the regional arrangements, and along with
that, also directs the members formulating, devising and entering those
regional arrangements for their regional pacific solutions, to achieve the
solutions to their regional and local disputes on their own at first, so as
to avoid knocking the Security Council’s doors at every now and then.
Similarities between the League of Nations and United Nations
• Both the United Nations and the League of Nations aimed at the pace
and security- as their basic goals,
• Both were voluntary associations of the sovereign states,
• Both had an assembly with a diverse membership,
• Both provided the states with equal rights to vote,
• Both instituted a council with powerful states as members and both
held a secretariat headed by a Secretary General, and indeed, both
were very formal organizations- basing their structure and functions
on the basic documents envisioning their codes of conduct i.e. theCovenant and the Charters were there absolutely.
5.2.2. Achievements of the United Nations Organization
It is probably fair to say that the UN has been more successful than the League
of Nations in its peacekeeping efforts, especially in crises which did not involve
the interests of the Great Powers. On the other hand, it has been just as the
League of Nations in situations where the interests of the Great Powers seemed
to be threatened and where the Great Powers decided to ignore or defy the UN.
The UN provides a world assembly where representatives of over 180 nations
can come together and talk to each other. Even the smallest nation has a chance
to make its voice heard in world forum.
Although it has not prevented wars, it has been successful in bringing some
wars to an end more quickly. For example, the war between Iran and Iraq (1980-
1988) and the Gulf War in 1991.
The UNO has done valuable work in investigating and publicizing human rights
violations under repressive regimes like military government in Chile. In this
way, it has slowly been able to influence governments by bringing international
pressure to bear on them.
Economically, the UN has promoted economic co-operation and development
especially in the less developing countries. Trade and industry were developed
and boosted through the UN programs like the I.M.F (International Monetary
Fund) and the World Bank by giving short loans.
Discrimination and abuse of women was also addressed by the UNO. The
charter of 1948, emphasized equality between women and men which provideda basis for women emancipation.
Similarly, children’s right and welfare were promoted and protected by the
UNO. This was through funding children’s education especially the girl-child
education and welfare in many countries of the world.
The welfare and standards of living of workers was improved by the International
Labour Organization (I.L.O) through its headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland.
This protected workers from exploitation.
The UNO scored great success in settling social and economic problems of
refugees and victims of natural disasters. By 1945, disasters like earth quakes,
famine and floods had led to untold suffering and death of thousands of people
around the world.
Decolonization and democratization was achieved by the UNO through its
trusteeship council. This facilitated the independence of Libya, Somalia,
Namibia, Israel, Palestine, etc.
Disarmament was one of the remarkable achievements of UNO towards world
peace. In 1946, the Security Council set up the atomic energy commission to
control production of atomic energy.
The establishment of the Jewish State of Israel in 1948 was an achievement for
the UNO. The congress system had granted the Jews citizenship that had fled
due to persecution. But still the Jews were persecuted and massacred by the
Nazi, Fascist and Arabs.
Increased membership since its formation in 1945 is a clear testimony of its
success. It was formed in 1945, with 51 member states but by 1970 the number
had increased to 100.
5.2.3. Weaknesses of the UNO
The loans granted by IMF (International Monetary Fund) and World Bank had
some negative consequences on the development of the third world countries.
It had strings attached that promoted political ideologies of Western capitalistic
powers.
Although drug trafficking was reduced but it was never eliminated completely.
This was because the UNO did not have an effective and competent force to
control drug trafficking.
The UNO failed to stop cold war politics and its associated tension in Europe.
Cold War was led by USA and USSR yet the countries were permanentmembers.
The UNO failed to wipe out culture intolerance and racism. Though the
UNO embarked on global sensitization campaign against racism and culturalintolerance but it was not fully successful by 1970.
The UNO’s policies on disarmament, weapons of mass destruction and space
exploration were great failures. By 1945, it was only America with the atomicbomb but nearly all nations by 1970 had such weapons.
It failed to unite the once united states for example after the cold war politics,
Germany was left divided between West and East German as well as NorthKorea and South Korea.
In the field of politics, the UNO failed more than it succeeded. This was seenwhen veto powers began fighting against the resolution of the UNO.
The universal declaration of Human rights (UDHR) of 1948, failed totally to
achieve its objectives by 1970. It was not fully accepted in many states especiallyArab states.
The rise of neo-colonialism and its associated evils in the third world countries
exposed the failures of the UNO. After decolonization, European powers
resorted to neo-colonialism as an indirect means to control, exploit and oppressthe third world.
The UNO failed to eradicate terrorism in the world. By 1970, the world
experienced rampart assassinations, hijack of planes, planting of time bomband suicide bombing especially in Asia and Middle East.
Why has UNO failed to achieve its aims and objectives?
Lack of adequate funds to run the activities of the UNO. The UNO has
enormous work to do but it entirely relies on annual contributions of memberstates which more often fail to pay.
Lack of UNO permanent army. The UNO rely on the member states to
provide troops and equipment for peace keeping missions. Members many
times refuse to send soldiers or do not send enough. This undermines UNactivities.
The cold war that divided Europe and UNO into two bodies, that is capitalistsand communists weakens also UNO.
The formation of alliances which were enemies, that is, NATO and WarsawPact divided the World leading to the UNO weakness.
Remoteness of some parts of the world has led to the failure of UNO. Some
areas are too remote and underdeveloped with no infrastructure like roadsor very mountainous to facilitate UN humanitarian to work.
Existence of civil wars in some parts of the world has led to the failure ofUNO. It is difficult to control intertribal differences.
Ineffectiveness of sanctions of UNO has weakened it.
Proliferation of arms and existence of weapons of mass destruction
The rise and growth of world terrorism mostly in the middle east
Overdependence on individual superpower countries like USA and Britain
in terms of funds. This has made these powers to interfere with UNO workand manipulate it for their interest. This also undermines the UN activities.
Application activity 5
1. Explain the aims and achievements of the United Nations Organisation.
2. Examine the weakness of the United Nations Organisation.
Skills Lab
Use a combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values you have
acquired about the Second World War and its effects and analyze mistakes
committed by the politicians of the time and suggest guidance to today’sleaders and make presentation.
End unit assessment
1) What were the causes and consequences of the Second World
War?
2) Examine the effects of Second World War.
3) Why did victorious powers of World War II decide to create UNO
by 1945?
4) “Even though the United Nations organization registered many
achievements, it has repeatedly showed its weaknesses”. Discussthis statement.
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