Topic outline

  • General

  • UNIT 1: RELIGIOUS TEACHING OF NONTHEISTIC AND POLYTHEISTIC BELIEFS

    Key Unit competence:

    Appraise the moral and social values from the teachings of non-theistic

    beliefs.

    1.1 Buddhism

    1.1.1 Origin of Buddhism

    Buddhism was founded as a way to end suffering. Its founder, Siddarta
    Gautama, began his search in response to suffering; he wanted to find a way
    to live a life of happiness, wisdom, compassion, joy and equanimity. It is worth
    of noting that these values are taught about only in theistic religions, such
    as Christianity and Islam; non-theistic religions, including Buddhism also hold
    them. In fact, Buddhism does not centre around the veneration of one person,
    human or divine. Buddha, from which the term “Buddhism” derives, is not a
    god, nor a god-sent mediator; he is not even considered as someone who can
    act as a savior or redeemer for others. Buddhism traces its origins to India in
    the 6th century BCE (Before the Common Era/Before Christian Era) and the
    experience of the man, called Siddharta Gautama, who came to be called the
    Buddha.

    The founder: Birth and context of growth

    Siddharta was born in about 560 BCE in a village called Lumbini, near the
    modern border between India and Nepal. As is common with the founder of a
    religion, all sorts of legends have grown up around Siddhartha’s birth. However,
    there is today no doubt that the ‘historical’ Buddha, founder of Buddhism,
    actually lived. He was born of King Shuddhodanna and Queen Maya, his wife.
    The Buddhist literature says that it had once been prophesied to Siddhartha’s
    parents that their son would become either a great ruler or a homeless itinerant
    (homeless/vagrant/wanderer). In order to protect Siddharta from the second
    and ensure the first, his father brought him up as a prince in the greatest luxury
    and splendid and sheltered him from pain or ugliness so that he would not
    experience suffering. The prince also married a girl called Gopa or Yashodara
    and had a unique son, whom he called Rahula, which means ‘chain’, for in the
    midst of all this luxury he felt as if he were in chains. Life gave him no satisfaction,
    and at 29 years of age he decided to leave and become homeless (R. Pierce
    Beaver et alii, The World’s Religions, Lion Publishing, Oxford, 1992, p. 223).

    The founder: journeys and experiences

    When Siddharta decided leave his family and riches, he opened himself up to
    the great awakening through four journeys. The latter allowed him to experience
    life’s realities in a way which he had never known before. On the three first
    journeys, he saw the suffering of the world in three forms: a frail old man, a
    very sick man racked with pain (a sick man), and a dead man whose body
    was escorted by weeping mourners. To the question of the meaning of sorrow,
    poverty and misery he had just seen, Siddharta was answered that suffering is
    merely the common fate of all mankind; deeply troubled, he returned back to his
    family. However, he has become aware of human suffering.

    On his fourth journey, Siddharta met a traveling and mendicant monk, though
    contended and joyful. This journey was decisive; it showed him that all life’s
    pleasures and attractions are vain and worthless. From that standpoint, he began
    to seek for true knowledge (R. Pierce Beaver et alii, The World’s Religions, Lion
    Publishing, Oxford, 1992, p. 224).

    From Hinduism to Buddhism (Enlightenment)

    When Siddharta left his home for good (on the fourth journey), it was an attempt
    to find the true knowledge, the truth by which people are set free from suffering
    and death. He sought this truth through Hinduism for a while, living the homeless
    life as a proper method for earnest seekers after spiritual truth and reality. He
    took instruction from teachers, undertook yoga exercises, and lived in extreme
    self-denial and discipline until he lived the point of starvation. However, he did
    not fully accept Hinduism because its rigid practices were not bringing about

    the way out of suffering and death.

    In fact, at the age of 35, Siddharta came to realise that death would bring him
    no closer to true knowledge, and that severe ascetism was not the right way
    to set people free from the cycle of death and rebirths. He had realised that
    external treatments were no use; what was needed was wisdom to understand
    reality and compassion to overcome greed for life. Henceforth, he abandonned
    his strict life-style and resolved to direct all his energies to achieving holiness by
    meditation. He entered a deep mediation beneath a fig-tree, which came to be
    called ‘the tree of enlightnment’ or bodhi-tree. He sat for 49 days of meditation
    after which he believed he finally reached enlightenment as he has come to
    understand causes and cure of suffering (David B. Kopel. 2007., “Self-defense
    in Asian Religions” in Liberty University Law Review, Vol. 2: 79, p.120). His
    enlightenment had three stages:

    • First stage: he saw his previous lives passsed before him.
    • Second stage: he saw with a supernatural insight the cycle of birth,
    death and rebirth and recognized the laws that governs it.
    • Third stage: the four holy truths were revealed to him: the knowledge of
    suffering, the source of suffering, the removal of suffering and the way to
    the removal of suffering.

    It is only after these three stages that, Siddharta Gautama became known as
    “Buddha”. Buddha is a title of honour meaning “the Enlightened One”, “the
    Awakened One”. This title became attached to his name in much the same way
    that the title ‘Christ’ became attached to the name of Jesus. At this level, he was
    in a state of complete redemption and could have entered nirvana, the Buddhist
    heaven, at once.

    Beginning, growth and expansion of Buddhism

    All the events of Siddharta Gautama’s life – luxurious life, being locked within
    palace walls, journeys and awareness of suffering, fasting and meditation, etc.
    – lead him to enlightenment which provided the basic inspiration upon which
    Buddhism religion and all ‘Sangha’ (the Buddhist communities) have been built.

    After his experience of enlightenment, Buddha (Siddharta Gautama) travelled
    about India for about 44 years, living as a beggar-monk and teaching monks,
    disciples, and laypeople. He quickly won disciples who followed him into the
    homeless life and missionary service. The way of life of this first Buddhist
    community may be characterized as meditative, mendicant and missionary. They
    were in effect a missionary order fully devoted to proclaiming the liberating truth
    of dharma (Teaching of Buddhism/law/Path) and nirvana.

    The Liberty University Law Review (2007) states, “Siddharta taught for nearly
    five decades, until about 486 B.C.when he died of food poisoning” (Vol. 2:
    79, p. 120) but his followers spread Buddhism from India throughout most
    of Asia. Eventually, it came to North America and Europe, where it has grown
    tremendously in the past century. Today, at least six or seven percent of the
    people on the five continents of the earth follow Buddhism and their number
    keeps increasing.

    1.1.2 Fundamental teachings and Practices of Buddhism

    A. Fundamental Teachings of Buddhism

    The term “Dharma” is used to describe the teachings of Buddhism. The primary
    source of the Buddhist teachings is the Sutras, that is, the Buddha’s teachings.
    Note that the Sutras are many sacred texts which are not compiled in one single
    sacred book like the Bible. The Sutras are the spoken word of the Buddha;
    wich were recorded after his death. The Tripitaka (literally “Three Baskets”) is a
    substantial collection of the Buddha’s teachings, and is one of the central sacred
    texts for Buddhists. The Buddhist scriptures are guides for enlightenment, not a
    legal code like the Qur’an or the Torah.

    Buddhism focuses not so much on a set of doctrines as a course of action. It
    often is explained not as something one believes but as something one does in
    order to develop both wisdom and compassion.
    - Wisdom is to directly see and interpret for oneself and to keep an openmind;
    to listen to other opinions; to be truthful and reasonable; to have
    an analytical and objective thinking; always being ready to change one‘s
    beliefs when facts or truth that contradicts them are presented to us.
    - Compassion is both an attitude and an action. It involves feeling the
    pain of someone in distress as if it is our own and strive to eliminate or
    lessent it. Compassion is manifested through the qualities of sharing,
    readiness to give comfort, showing concern and caring; having a kind
    heart, being generous and helpful to fellow beings; and respecting all

    lives while being mindful of one‘s actions and words.

    In fact, Buddhism is concerned with alleviating suffering through right living and
    mental, moral and spiritual discipline. In Buddhism, suffering results from three
    poisons. These are: craving (a powerful desire for something), hatred and
    ignorance (State of Washington Department of Corrections. 2013. Handbook
    of Religious Beliefs and Practices. p.15). One is saved from these poisons
    through a deep understanding of the Four Noble Truths and diligent practice
    of the Eightfold Path and of the Ten Precepts. There are four key concepts to
    understand the Buddhist teachings and beliefs.

    Key concepts in Buddhism

    - Anicca
    Anicca (impermanence) is easily observable, everything changes. People grow
    old and die, seasons change. It is not possible to keep anything static.

    - Dukkha

    Dukkha (suffering) is not the same as pain, sorrow, loss or anything we usually
    think of as suffering. It refers instead to the discontent we feel when we
    experience pain, sorrow, loss and so on. Things rarely are exactly to our liking,
    and when they are, they do not stay that way, since everything is impermanent.

    - Anatta

    Anatta (no-self) does not mean our body and sense of self are not real. It means
    that the ideas we have about them are not the whole picture. This is explained
    by the fact that the parts of the universe, including human beings, and their
    individual components are completely interdependent on everything else.

    - Karma or Kamma

    Karma is the Buddhist law of cause and effect. Every action causes some result,
    which in turn causes some action, which again causes a result. Good actions
    give to good consequences and evil ones to evil. In the last case, liberation from
    karma is possible by a reorientation of life.

    - Nirvana

    Nirvana is the end of suffering, the goal of Buddhist practice.

    The Four Noble Truths

    1. All existence involves suffering (dukka). Dukka is universal.
    2. Suffering is caused by desire.
    3. Suffering can be eliminated by eliminating desire.
    4. The eightfold path is the means to eliminate suffering.

    The eightfold path (Middle Way) consists of :

    1. Right view/understanding/knowledge: a recognition of the Four Noble
    Truths.
    2. Right resolve/thoughts/intention: having a mental attitude of
    goodwill, peacebleness, keeping far from oneself all sensual desire, hate
    and malice.
    3. Right speech: lying, useless chatter and gossip are outlawed, instead
    speech must be wise, truthfull and directed towards reconciliation.
    4. Right conduct/actions: embraces all moral behavior. Murder, stealing
    and adultery are especially prohibited.
    5. Right livelihood/living: one’s way of earning a living must not be
    harmful to others.
    6. Right effort: evil impulses must be prevented and ones fostered, so that
    the individual can develop noble thoughts, words and deeds.
    7. Right mindfulness/awareness: careful consideration, not giving in to
    the dictates of desire in thought, speech, action and emotion.
    8. Right concentration/meditation: which frees the holy man from all
    that holds him back in the quest.

    Note:
    1. The path is usually divided by Buddhist practitioners into three sections:
    the wisdom/insight section (1-2); the morality section (3-5); the
    mental development/spiritual discipline (6-8).
    2. 4 Noble Truths & 8 Fold Path are the core beliefs of Buddhism.
    3. Understood the Four Noble Truths + follow the 8 Fold Path =
    enlightenment & nirvana.
    4. Far from any strictness or rigidity, the Eightfold Path is the middle way
    between a life of self-pleasure and a life of self-denial. The path offers a
    demanding life-style that is both practical and balanced.
    5. Buddhist teachings are rafts; they should be changed or discarded when
    the truth is reached (Andrew Harvey. 2002. “Foreword”, in Dhammapada
    Annotated & Explained xii).

    Precepts

    Buddhist moral understanding is not very different from that of other faiths. The
    precepts describe the life and actions of a fully enlightened Buddha. It is worth
    of noting that in Buddhism, the precepts are taken in a formal ceremony, again
    and again, because we continue to make mistakes, they are not easy. The ten
    cardinal precepts in Buddhism are:
    1. Not to kill, but to cherish all life.
    2. Not to take what is not given, but to respect the things of others.
    3. Not to misuse sexuality, but to be caring and responsible.
    4. Not to lie, but to speak the truth.
    5. Not to cause others to use substances that confuse the mind, nor to do
    so oneself, but to keep the mind clear.
    6. Not to speak of the misdeeds of others, but to be understanding and
    sympathetic.
    7. Not to praise myself nor disparage others, but to overcome my own
    shortcomings.
    8. Not to withhold spiritual or material aid, but to give them freely where
    needed.
    9. Not to indulge in anger, but to exercise control.
    10. Not to revile the Three Treasures:Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha but
    to cherish and uphold them.

    Note:
    6. In many Buddhist traditions, the Ten Cardinal Precepts are compressed
    into first five precepts. The precepts 6-10, in essence, are all encompassed
    within the fundamental principles expressed in the first five precepts.
    7. The tenth precept means to regard all living beings equally, recognizing
    that all are inherently equal and worthy of respect. Cherishing yourself is
    equally important to cherishing and upholding the Sangha, supporting the
    people you practice with and all those around you (Princeton Buddhist
    Students Group, Buddhism Religious Basics on http://www.princeton.
    edu/~buddhism/old/basics.pdf)

    B. Religious Practices of Buddhism

    With the lack of a centralized Buddhist authority and the huge cultural
    differences that have been added in over the years, Buddhism can look like it
    is many faiths, not just one. Nevertheless, Buddhism is divided into two main
    movement: Theravada Buddhism (traditional), the strict and narrow teaching
    of the ancients, and Mahayana Buddhism, more liberal and open to a wider
    range of ideas (Wulf Metz, “One Goal, Many Paths”, in The World’s Religions,
    Lion Publishing plc, Oxford, 1992, p.237). Therefore, there are great variations
    in what is considered to be essential to individual or group practice. However,
    there are common - or particular to some sects - practices and observances.
    These include:

    8. Meditation

    Form of prayer, silent meditation is practiced to cultivate mindfulness and
    attentiveness to the present moment. Meditation is ideally practiced at all times
    it is not just in a quiet room free from distractions, but while working, washing
    dishes, running, walking, cleaning, etc. However, regular silent meditation helps
    to calm and focus the mind and gives strength to apply to daily life.

    9. Chanting

    Form of prayer, sutras (the teachings of the Buddha) are recited by chanting;
    chants are done in different languages depending on the country. Chants are
    commonly translated so that people know what they are saying. Often, chanting
    services are dedicated to those who are suffering, sick, hungry, or otherwise
    experiencing pain.

    10. Metta

    Another Buddhist practice is metta meditation: loving-kindness meditation,
    in which loving thoughts are directed first to one’s self, then to a benefactor,
    then to a friend, a neutral person, and finally to an “enemy” (someone we have
    difficulty with) and then to all living beings.

    11. Dietary

    As in the differences in holidays, different Buddhist communities follow dietary
    practices based on cultural origin and geographical conditions. For instance,
    in the West, lay Buddhist practitioners often choose to follow a vegetarian
    diet, and should be allowed this option.Generally, monks in the monastery are
    expected to be vegetarian.

    12. Days, Holidays and festivals

    According to Handbook of Religious Beliefs and Practices (2013), Buddhist
    faith and practice require no work proscription days and fast days. Moreover,
    Buddhists celebrate several ceremonies and holidays throughout the year.
    While these may vary according to different lineages or traditions and the dates
    may change, here are the essential holidays:
    • Vesak: The Buddha’s birth, generally recognized as April 8;
    • The Buddha’s Enlightenment: December 8;
    • The Buddha’s Death: February 13 (again, dates may vary according to
    tradition). The Buddha’s Paranirvana is an extremely important ceremony,
    and is not regarded as a negative day in Buddhism but rather, was a time
    of great serenity and joy for the Buddha.
    • Jukai: Jukai is the formal ceremony of entering the Buddha’s Way, or
    becoming a Buddhist. Jukai consists of a repentance ceremony, chanting,
    taking the three refuges (in Buddha, Dharma and Sangha), three general
    resolutions (to avoid evil, to do good and to liberate all sentient beings),
    and the ten cardinal precepts, stated below.

    Buddhists also have ceremonies for the New Year, a Hungry Ghost Ceremony
    (for those beings who, due to their greed, cannot eat food or drink unless it is
    offered to them), and Ceremonies of Aid (for ending world hunger, for world
    peace, and other causes).

    13. Burial practices

    Prayer, incense burning, and chanting take place at intervals following death,
    those intervals being determined by the tradition. In most Buddhist traditions
    cremation is the preferred method of disposal of the remains, as a new vessel
    will be used for the next incarnation. But cremation or burial should wait until
    the body has been at repose for a bit, to allow the consciousness time to leave
    the body (State of Washington Department of Corrections. 2013. Handbook of

    Religious Beliefs and Practices. p.18-19).

    1.2 Confucianism

    Confucianism is looked on by some as a mere philosophy, or simply as a guide
    for social and political life, and not as a religion. Nevertheless, Confucianism is
    ranked among world’s religions. One of the reasons (not only one) for calling
    Confucianism a religious tradition is the importance of the term “Heaven” (tian).
    “Heaven” has a range of meanings – such as the realm of the heavenly bodies
    (sun, moon, planets, stars), the realm of gods and ancestors - but Confucians
    understand Heaven to be the absolute reality, the ultimate moral authority,
    and the source of human virtue and the explanation for whatever is beyond
    human control, for example events that we might attribute either to chance or
    to necessity, such as the family one is born into or the fact that we must all die
    (Adler 2012, p. 4). In many respects Heaven is a functional equivalent of the
    Biblical god. So, even though the Confucian “god” (heaven) is impersonal and
    does not speak to people, Confucianism is approached in this unit from the
    religious perspective.

    1.2.1 Origin of Confucianism

    Confucianism is traced back to the thoughts expressed by a certain Confucius
    in the 6th – 5th Before Common Era (BCE). The latter lived about from 551 to
    479 BCE in the State of Lu (now Shandong or Shantung). After his professional
    experience along with the Prince of Lu and travels around China, he founded his
    own school so as to provide students with the teachings of the ancients.

    In fact, Confucianism existed even before Confucius. In fact, it should not be
    traced back to the ideas or experiences of an individual as it is for Buddhism,
    Islam or Christianity, but to moral, ethical, social, intellectual, political, religious
    teachings of the ancestors. Confucius himself considered as a transmitter who
    knowingly tried to re-visit and value the old in order to attain the new. Confucius
    was strongly convinced that the past holds the roots of the present and future
    life. This conviction lead Confucius to the love of the history and culture and
    nourished the desire to understand why certain life forms and institutions, such
    as reverence for ancestors, human-centred religious practices, and mourning
    ceremonies, had survived for centuries. In fact, it is this sense of history and the
    awareness of the importance of culture in finding out sustainable solutions to
    the humanity’ deepest needs that inspire Confucius to establish a school. The
    mission of his school was nothing else but ensuring the continuity of the cultural
    values and social norms.

    It was while he was teaching that he started to write. His write included,
    • The Book of Odes (poetry)
    • The Book of Documents (poetry)
    • The Book of Changes (treatises on divination)
    • The Spring and Autumn Annals (History of Lu)

    None of these works outlined Confucius’ philosophy. Rather his thoughts
    are found from second-hand writings which became the major sources of
    the Confucian thought. These include: Analects (the most reliable source
    of Confucianism); Mencius; Great learning and Mean. Through these texts,
    Confucianism became the official state religion of China from the second
    century right up to the present day.

    Note
    Confucianism is essentially based on mutual respect and kindness towards
    others. It was developed to bring peace and stability in society. It was founded
    before the birth of Confucius and developed through his later life.

    1.2.2 Fundamental teachings and Practices of
    Confucianism

    A. Fundamental Teachings of Confucianism

    Confucianism is more concerned with social fulfillment than with spiritual
    fulfillment and afterlife as it is in Hinduism for example. This influences the
    Confucian teachings, ethics and practices. Emphasis is put less on rituals,
    deities or the divine than on relationships, duties, values and virtues.

    In fact, Confucius did not give his followers a god or gods to be worshiped.
    This is not because the Confucianism is not against worship but because it
    essentially believes that social duties are more important. The focus is on the
    following three elements:
    • Ethical behavior
    • Good governance
    • Social responsibility
    Thus, Confucianism isn’t a creed; it also has no many of the conventions and
    doctrines of a religion. Also, there are neither monks nor priests or religious

    leaders.


    Li is the term to describe Confucian rites and good manners. It refers to the
    respect to all facets that support good social order. The followers of Confucianism
    believe that when Li is observed (respect) everything runs smoothly and in its
    right place. Relationships and virtues are important for a healthy social order
    and harmony.

    The fundamental relationships in Li are:
    • Father over son;
    • Older brother over the younger;
    • Husband over wife;
    • Ruler over subject;
    • Friend is equal to friend.

    Relationships are important in Confucianism. They exist at the different levels:
    family, school, local community, the state and kingdom. Confucius taught that
    virtue was essential for balancing people and society. He gave out five main
    relationship principles/virtues:
    • Love within the family (Hsiao): Examples include love of parents for
    their children and of children for their parents.
    • Loyalty to the state (Chung): According to Confucius, broken political
    institutions are attributed this to unworthy people being in positions of
    power. He believed rulers were expected to learn self-discipline and lead
    through example.
    • Righteousness or duty (Yi) in an ordered society.
    • Honesty and trustworthiness (Xin): Confucius believed that people
    were responsible for their actions and treatment of other people.
    • Benevolence and humaneness (Jen) towards others: It is the highest
    Confucian virtue and can also be translated as love. This is the goal for
    which individuals should strive.

    These virtues/principles allow an individual to respect the position that s/he has
    in all relationships. Due honor must be given to those people above and below
    oneself. This makes for good social order.

    B. Practices and rituals in Confucianism
    - The respect of elders and ancestors is the most important and is
    practiced at home, at temples and at the graves of relatives. A common
    practice includes ancestral tablets and shrines dedicated to deceased
    eleders.
    - A Confucian practice shows veneration for the departed through:
    • Visiting their graves at least once a year and cleaning the tombs
    and adding frest soil to the surface of the graves;
    • Placing favorite foods and wine of the departed on their graves
    and burning incense;

    • Kneeling before the dead to show respect.

    • Birth rituals
     A certain number of birth rituals center on the spirit of the fetus. These
    are designed to protect an expectant mother.
     The mother is given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after
    delivery.
     The mother’s family supplies all the items required by the baby on the
    first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversaries of the birth.
     Etc.

    • Marriage rituals are conducted in six stages:
    1) The proposal: It can be accepted or rejected.
    2) The engagement. It is manifested through the announcement of the
    wedding day.
    3) The dowry.
    4) Procession: The groom visits the bride’s home and brings her back to
    his house. The procession is accompanied by a great deal of singing and
    drum beating.
    5) The marriage ceremony and reception: The couple recite their vows,
    toast each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet.
    6) The morning after the ceremony: The bride serves breakfast to the
    groom’s parents, who then reciprocate. This marks the completion of the
    marriage.

    • Death rituals

     At the time of death, the relatives cry loudly. This is a way of informing the
    neighbors. The family begins mourning.
     Mourners bring incense and money to offset the cost of the funeral. Food
    and significant objects of the deceased are placed in the coffin.
     A Buddhist, Christian, or Taoist priest performs the burial ceremony.
    Liturgies are performed on the seventh, ninth, and forty-ninth days after
    the burial.
    - Confucianism celebrates different holidays and festivals. These include:
     The birthday of Confucius, every 28th of September. Celebrations last
    10 days;
     The Chinese New Year, which is on 31st of January;
     Qing ming. They go to their ancestors’ graves and give them offerings;
     Chongmyo Taeje. It is celebrated on the 1st Sunday in May to honor the
    kings and queens of the Yi dynasty;

     Etc.

    1.3 Hinduism

    1.3.1 Origins of Hinduism

    Hinduism is the religious tradition of Hindus, that is, the peoples of India or
    Indians. Indians themselves prefer to call their religious tradition “sanatana
    dharma”, which means ‘eternal religion’ or ‘eternal truth’. By this denomination,
    Indians indicate the “givenness” or revelatory character of the beliefs that
    underpin their ways of life. On the other hand, Hinduism should not be
    understood as a belief system in the sense of Islam and Christianity because it
    has no historical founder (comparable to Buddha), no prophet (comparable to
    Muhammad) and no set creed (comparable to the Nicene Creed). The Indians
    understand Hinduism more as culture than a creed (Radhakrishnan, former
    President of India). Understood from this perspective, Hinduism is an umbrella
    which embraces a wide diversity of beliefs. These beliefs existed hundreds of
    years before the current era. It is worth of noting that the term, ‘Hinduism’ didn’t
    exist until the late eighteenth/early nineteenth century, when the British coined
    it to categorize the religious traditions they were encountering in colonial India
    (Largen 2013, p. 14).

    Scholars agree that Hinduism is the oldest living major religious tradition. Indeed,
    there is no firm date of origin of Hinduism. However, between the year 1500
    and 1200 Before Christ (BC) the Aryan (literally ‘noble’) peoples invaded India
    from the northwest bringing their language and tradition, influencing the older

    religions, ideas and practices.

    Although, the older Hindus religion seems to have included yoga, renunciation
    and purification rites – all of the which, continue to mark the ‘holy men’ of India
    – the Aryans appear to have been dominant. For instance, they had an important
    class of priest who composed hymns to their gods for use at sacrifices. Over
    the years these hymns were committed to memory and remarkable preserved
    until in later centuries 1,028 of them were enshrined in writing in the Rig Veda,
    the world’s oldest living religious literature and Hinduism’s most sacred book
    (State of Washington Department of Correction, p. 36). So Hinduism as we
    know it today is the mix of the Aryan religion and the beliefs, and practices of the
    numerous races, ethnic groups and cultures of the Indian sub-continent. This
    means that there are almost as many versions of Hinduism as there are villages
    or groups of Hindus.

    Hinduism has been growing and spreading in time and space. From the 7th
    century Anno Domini (AD) Hindu culture and religion exercised a widespread
    influence throughout south-east Asia, taking in modern-day countries
    of Thailand, Laos and Vietnam as well as many of the islands of Indonesia.
    (Hammer 1992, p. 174). Today, Hinduism is the third largest religion in the
    world, behind Christianity and Islam. The majority of Hindus are located in India
    at 95 percent (Muesse 2011, p. 6). and Nepal. Hinduism is indeed the religion
    of most Indians and consequently Hinduism exists wherever Indians are to be
    found in all continents, including Africa.

    1.3.2 Fundamental teachings and practices of Hinduism

    A. Fundamental teachings of Hinduism

    Contrary to all other major world religions, Hinduism has no basic confessional
    statements, unifying doctrines, or creed. The Supreme Court of India once
    declared: “In distinction from followers of other religions, one does not believe
    in a specific set of theological or philosophical conceptions.” Hinduism is more
    a “way of life” than a belief system. In other words, Hinduism is more about how
    one conducts one’s life than about what one holds to be true. That is, Hinduism
    is more about “orthopraxis,” right actions, than “orthodoxy,” right beliefs. If
    what makes one a Christian is one’s belief in Jesus Christ (and, correspondingly,
    baptism), what makes one a Hindu is being born and raised in a Hindu family
    and living one’s life in accordance with specific religious beliefs and teachings.
    Although, Hindu beliefs and teachings may vary from geographic and cultural
    contexts to others, some features can be identified to Hindu Religion. These
    features include:
    • Hinduism is a theistic religion, but it can be difficult to determine whether
    it is a polytheistic or even monotheistic religion. On one hand, 33 gods
    are identified in Hinduism (polytheism). On the other hand, Hindus are
    monotheists at heart. They believe in one High God, whom they refer to
    as Brahman, ‘the absolute’, ‘the One’- the origin, the cause and the basis
    of all existence. Neutral and impersonal, Brahman is manifested through
    lesser gods through whose aid he rules over the world.

    • Reincarnation: Hindus believe that at the death the soul always passes
    from one body into another body until released from the continuous wheel
    of rebirth.
    • The principle of karma (actions): Hindus believe that a person’s moral
    actions have unavoidable and automatic effects on one’s fortunes in this
    life and condition of rebirth in the next (the law of cause and effect: good
    actions are bears good fruits, vice versa).

    • The four orders or stages of life:
    1. The life of the student: school years - grow and learn
    2. The life of the householder: marriage, family and career
    3. The life of the retired: one is removed from the ordinary
    demands of family, community and society.
    4. The life of the ascetic: one abandons world to seek spiritual

    things

    • The four purposes of life
    1. Dharma: fulfill moral, social and religious duties;
    2. Artha : attain financial and worldy success;
    3. Kama : satisfy desires (sexuality, enjoyment) and drives in
    moderation;
    4. Moksha : attain freedom from reincarnation.
    This is the great goal for the Hindu. Moksha speaks of ‘release’ – deliverance,
    emancipation, calm and, all in on, salvation.
    This goal of salvation is attained through three paths:

    a. Path of works and action

    We live in the world, where there is work to be done and there are obligations to
    be met. Our status in society involves duty. It is through action that man attains
    freedom from action.

    b. Path of knowledge or philosophy

    Hindus believe that it is ignorance that ties a person to the round of birthdeath-
    rebirth (reincarnation). Release would be attained as knowledge replaces
    ignorance, when reality is properly understood and illusory rejected. This would
    involve yoga and ascetic practices.

    c. Path of devotion to God or love

    It is in commitment to God that we accept the leap from the temporal to the
    eternal, the realm of the Ultimate and absolute reality, Brahman.

    • Ten Commandments
    1. Do not harm (Ahimsa);
    2. Do not lie (Satya);
    3. Do not steal (Asteya);
    4. Do not overindulge (Brahmacharya);
    5. Do not be greedy (Aparigraha);
    6. To be clean (Saucha);
    7. Be content (Santosha);
    8. Be self-disciplined (Tapas);
    9. Study (Svadhyaya);
    10. Surrender to God (Ishvara Pranidhana)

    Note
    • Hinduism emphasizes on tolerating the different beliefs of others,
    respecting the pluriformity of truth, and recognizing diversity of belief and
    practice. In this sense, Hindus say, “Truth is one; sages call it by different
    names.” This attitude towards religious beliefs, and truth made Hinduism
    one of the more open-minded religions whereby peaceful coexistence
    among religious traditions and theories is highly favorable. Hinduism
    teaches other religions that unity (not uniformity) in diversity is possible.

    • Hindus and other Asian religions (including Buddhism) believe in
    reincarnation. Reincarnation is also called “transmigration”. It refers to
    the “Hindu” understanding of life. Life is thought as a flow through which
    many existences occur: from birth to death, and then on to rebirth to
    death, and so on. Reincarnation refers to the cycle of rebirths; it indicates
    an unending round of existences which were influenced by the deeds
    each individual performed (karma).

    B. Religious practices of Hinduism

    Hinduism is a way of life. It is a path of duty to be followed within a divinely
    ordered society. The basic unit of society is the family. The individual is reminded
    that he is part of a family. Hindu families mark an individual’s life at every stage
    by domestic rituals. These rites are performed by a Hindu priest, either at home
    or at a temple. Birth, initiation, marriage and death (each has a ritual, as well
    as rites of daily worship and annual festivals). Some of these practices are
    understood and explained as follow:

    - After birth, there are practices for the naming of a child, the child’s first
    haircut, and the initiation to enter the first stage/order of life. From then on
    the man will wear the sacred thread which passes over his left shoulder
    and under his right arm.

    Marriage is a foundational practice in Hinduism. The wedding ceremony is one of the 
    most solemn and complicated rites in Hinduism. Arranged marriages still are common
    in India. Marriage ensures not only the continuity of the family but also the welfare of
    its dead members in the other world. As an institution, marriage is, in practice,
    obligatory: divorce is rare, as is not having children and staying single.

    • After death, Hindus organize the funeral. Cremation is the norm for
    Hindus, although certain categories of people, including sadhus and
    young children, typically are not cremated. Before cremation, the dead
    body is anointed at home, and wrapped in layers of colorful cloth. He
    or she is accompanied by chanting, singing, and drums. The body is
    submerged there, and certain rites are performed.

    • There are dozens upon dozens of Hindu festivals. They mark specific
    seasons, specific events in the lives of the different gods and goddesses,
    and specific concerns of life—wealth, health, fertility, etc. Examples of
    festivals: Divali, the festival of lights that falls somewhere in October
    or November; Holi, that inaugurates the coming of spring, in February/
    March; etc.

    • Hindus are lacto vegetarians who use no eggs, no meat of any kind, no

    onions, and no garlic. Milk or dairy products can be used.

    1.4 End Unit Assessment

  • UNIT 2: VALUES AND COMMITMENT TO RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS

    Key Unit competence:

    Practice values and commitment to religious teaching in his or her daily life

    2.1 Commitment: Discipleship and Stewardship

    A religion binds its followers to beliefs in someone or something in which or
    whom they put complete trust or confidence. Alternatevely, a believer is someone
    who commits his entire life to a strong belief in the teachings of a religion, or its
    founder or its prophets and saints, based on spiritual conviction or experiences.
    This commitment goes beyond a firm decision and an explicit promise to live
    according to the embraced beliefs; commitment is rather the state or quality
    of being fully dedicated to the will of God/gods, his or their representatives
    or to a spiritual cause. In religion, commitment implies both discipleship and
    stewardiship.

    Firstly, commitment consists in following someone else’s will instead of his or
    hers. This is appropriate to the disciples and/servants with regard to their masters.
    In Christianity, discipleship is simply adherence because through baptism they
    dedicate themselves to give everything up and follow Jesus’ teachings and
    principles (Matthiew 19: 27). This applies even to Muslims, for Islam, their
    religion means ‘submission to the will of God’. As such, Muslims are followers
    of God of peace, compassion, love, justice, and all divine attributes. The idea of
    discipleship exists also in oriental religions, namely Hinduism, whereby there is
    this relation of discipleship between individuals or communities and ‘gurus’. The

    latter are considered as personal religious teachers and spiritual guides.

    In the sense that commitment implies discipleship, disciples actively imitate both
    the life and teaching of the master to the extent that they become living copies
    of their respective masters. For instance, Christians as disciples are called to
    be and behave like other ‘Christs”. If Jesus Christ was a friend to the little ones
    (sinners, the poor, the sick, the marginalized, etc.), his disciples, should strive
    to care for little ones. In Matthiew 7:21, Jesus warned that discipleship is not
    about saying to Him ‘Lord, Lord’ to enter the Kingdom of God; what matters in
    discipleship is rather doing his will and his will is nothing but loving God and
    the neighour.

    Secondly, commitment entails discipleship, and discipleship involves
    stewardship. In fact, disciples concretely do the will of their masters through
    specific missions they are entrusted to. The commitment to this mission is called
    ‘stewardship’ in the sense that it expresses disciples obedience regarding
    the execution of the mission God/gods/divine or spiritual representatives has/
    have placed under their control. This mission can be administration of affairs,
    management of resources or leadership of people and community. Stewardship
    is the commitment of one’s self and possession to God’s service, recognizing
    that we do not have the right of control over our prosperity or ourselves. A
    steward is a man/woman who recognizes that all he/she has, including his/her
    own life, is given and consequently accountable to the giver.

    In the religious world, believers are good disciples by being good stewards, that
    is, by protecting people and the planet and by living their faith in relationship with
    all creation (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Sharing Catholic Social
    Teaching: Challenges and Directions – Reflections of the US Catholic Bishops.
    Washington , D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1998, p.6). The parable
    of talents (Matthew 25:14-30) is an eloquent example of commitment which
    results in both discipleship/servanthood and stewardship. It narrates a man who
    called his servants before he goes on a journey and entrusted his possession to
    them. Some frutified their master’s talents; these were called good and faithful
    servants/stewards and they were rewarded to share their master’s joy. Others
    buried their master’s talent; these were called wicked and lazy servants and were
    severely punished. From this story, four principles of stewardship are drawn:

    a) Principle of ownership

    Some religious beliefs, especially theistic religions, teach that man was created
    to work and work is the stewardship of all of the creation that God has given
    him (Genesis 2:15; Galatians 6:4-5). God as the source of all that exists, he
    owns everything while humans are simply managers or administrators on his
    behalf. The Bible says, ‘No one can receive anything except what has been
    given him from heaven (John 3:27) and, ‘Look the heaven, even the highest
    heavens, belong to the Lord, your God, as well as the earth and everything on
    it’ (Deuteronomy 10:14).

    b) Principle of responsibility

    Believers acknowledge that nothing really belong to them; and God owns
    everything. Consequently, they’re responsible of how they treat God’s creation
    (including human beings, rivers, soil, air, animals, forests, lakes and oceans,
    etc.) and what they do with it. In short, owners have rights; stewards have
    responsibilities. Example: “Be fertile and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it...”
    (Genesis 1: 28-31).

    c) Principle of accountability

    A steward is called to give an account of how he/she has managed what the
    master has given him/her. In other words, stewards should be as active and
    caring as behave righteously abehave their masters affairs or possessions
    because the day evaluation and judgement awaits for them (Matthew 25:14).

    d) Principle of reward

    Faithful stewards who do their master’s will can expect to be rewarded. In
    the New Testament, a steward is rewarded by his master, ‘Well done, my
    good and faithful servant. Since you were faithful in small matters, I will give
    you great responsibilities. Come share your master’s joy’ (Matthew 25:21). In
    some religious tradition, the principle of reward does not require God/god’s
    intervention; rather it follows the karmic law, the law of cause and effect. In both
    cases, gratitude and recognition are helpful in value education; they also are

    against the culture of impunity.

    2.2 Important values associated to commitment

    2.2.1 Sharing with the poor

    The poor have a special place in religious teachings. Are poor those who lack
    material means to meet basic human needs. These needs include nutritious
    food and safe drinking water and basic health care, home and unemployement,
    etc. The presence of material poverty on earth is evident today: 20% of the
    population in the developed nations consume 86% of the world’s goods.
    (Michael Pennock, Catholic Social teaching. Learning and living social justice.
    Ave Maria Press, Indiana, 2007, p. 148). Consequently hunger, diseases,
    unhealth living conditions, drug addiction, prostitution, unwanted pregnancies,

    robbery, food insecurity, etc. are flagrant in the developing countries.

    Sharing with the poor is a duty to believers

    In a world undermined by poverty, the great measure of the believers’ response,
    indeed a test of the love for their God/god or fidelity to the religious teachings
    they have committed to, is what they do for the poor. The Sacred Scriptures say,
    “If a brother of a sister has nothing to wear and has no food for the day, and one
    of you says to them, ‘Go in peace, keep warm, and eat well,’but you do not give
    them the necessities of the body, what good is it? So also faith of itself, if it does
    not have works, is dead” (James 2:15-17).

    There is a sense that sharing with the poor can be considered as stewardship.
    Saint John Chrysostom explains, “Not to enable the poor to share in our goods
    is to steal from them and deprive them of life. The goods we possess are not
    ours, but theirs” (The Catechism of the Catholic Church, no 2446). In the same
    way, Confucius warns leaders (stewards of public goods): “In a country well
    governed, poverty is something to be ashamed of. In a country badly governed,
    wealth is something to be ashamed of”. This is simply an appeal to meet our
    responsibilities truthfully and genuinely.

    2.2.2 Love of God and neighbour

    The common value among religious beliefs is ‘Love of God, and love of the
    neighbour’. Practically, every faith has its way of manifesting the love for God.
    In fact, love is as active as expressive and the most important way to express
    the love for God is discipleship or servanthood. For example, Abraham was
    able to sacrifice his son Isaac as this was the will of the God (Genesis 22) he
    had vowed to serve, to follow and worship. In the same vein, Jesus has given
    an outstanding example of love for God and for humanity. He says, “ No one
    has greater love than this, to lay down one’s life for one’s friends” (John 15:13).
    Thus, genuine love demands sacrifice and sacrifice without love is useless. This
    is why the love for God is connected with the love for neighbour because “If
    anyone says, ‘I love God,” but hates his brother, he is a liar; for whoever does
    not love a brother whom he has seen cannot love God whom he has not seen.
    This is the commandment we have received from him: whoever loves God must
    also love his brother” (1 John 4:20-21).

    The commandment to love the neighbour is stressed in various faiths, the
    measure of this love being the love for oneself. They formulate it as follow:
    • Judaism: “You shall love your neighbour as yourself. I am the Lord”
    (Leviticus 19:18).
    • Christianity: “Do to others whatever you would have them do to you
    (Matthew 7:12)
    • Islam: «As you would have people do to you, do to them; and what
    you dislike to be done to you, don›t do to them.” Kitab al-Kafi, vol. 2,
    p. 146.
    • Hinduism: “If the entire Dharma can be said in a few words, then
    it is—that which is unfavorable to us, do not do that to others.”
    (Padmapuraana, shrushti 19/357–358).
    • Buddhism: “Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find
    hurtful.” (Udanavarga 5:18).
    • Taoism: “Regard your neighbour›s gain as your own gain, and your
    neighbor›s loss as your own loss.” T›ai Shang Kan Ying P›ien
    • Confucianism: “What you do not want done to yourself, do not do
    to others” (Confucius).

    Loving others as oneself has become to known as the ‘Golden rule’. If the love
    for oneself is prior to the love for the neighbour, one needs to respect and
    care for himself or herself. This includes eating healthy diets, keeping himself
    or herself fit, respecting his or her body through avoiding impurity. The love for
    oneself is not only enjoying life but also cultivating the virtue of self-control. The
    latter is, “one mark of a mature person; it applies to the control of the language,
    physical treatment for others and the appetites of the body” (John B. Wirthlin).
    As such, the love for oneself and for the neighbour binds all humans as far as
    they will need to live peacefully in society. It entails the values of equity and
    justice.

    Concretely, the love of neighbour involves respect of others’ rights and the
    responsibility to protect those rights. Muhammad said that the life, property and
    honor of one are sacred to another (Diana Hayden, Religious Studies A: Islam,
    Nelson Thornes, UK, 2009, p. 94). In Genesis, when God asks Cain after Abel,
    his brother, whom he had just killed, he answered: “I do not know. Am I my
    brother’s keeper?” (Genesis 4:9). This shows that everyone is in charge of his
    neighbor’s life, wellbeing and happiness. In other words, a believer and even a
    non-believer should respect the property of others (stealing them or damaging
    them not), their feelings and privacy, and treat them with good manners to show

    that they recognize that they are as important as himself or herself.

    2.3 People who performed good works in Rwanda and in

    the world

    2.3.1 Abarinzi b’Igihango (Friendship pact)

    In 1994, Rwanda passed through one of the most atrocious genocides of the
    world history. It has been recognized as the Genocide against Tutsis in 1994.
    Rwandans have been united before in the light of their cultural and religious
    values. It is scandalous that the 1994 Genocide against Tutsis was perpetrated
    by Rwandans against their fellow rwandan Tutsi and some perpetrotors ,if not
    all, belonged to one of the religious denominations that existed in Rwanda.
    However, some of Rwandans, motivated by their religious convictions or not,
    did outstanding deeds of humanity during the Genocide and their exemples in
    saving and protecting lives have to be recognized and imitated. Those brave

    men and women were recognized as “Abarinzi b’Igihango”.

    According to Rwandan history, an “Umurinzi w’Igihango” is any Rwandan citizen
    or foreigner who abode by the Rwandan values such as patriotism, integrity,
    truth, humility, tolerance, impartiality, fairness and who fights against segregation
    and genocide ideology and genocide (Unity Club, Ndi Umunyarwanda, 2016,
    p 13). The National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), Abarinzi
    b’Igihango in Rwanda, August 2018, presented several success stories on
    Abarinzi b’Igihango, among wich three examples are here proposed as examples
    woth of commitment, discipleship and stewardship:

    - Munyakazi Ramadhan (+)

    Munyakayanza Ramadhan helped some Tutsis to cross Muhazi Lake to former
    Giti Commune which was safe. Unfortunately, his secret was revealed and he
    learnt that he was wanted because he had betrayed the Hutus. When he learnt
    that he was wanted, he took his family to Giti and joined the Tutsi refugees.
    When he arrived there, his best friend also called Munyakazi that he had helped
    to cross before told him that his children were hiding in his neighbour’s house.

    They returned to collect the children and it was risky because the situation had
    become worse and the shores were thoroughly patrolled. They crossed in the
    night to look for those children. They found them and when they were trying to
    evacuate them they fell into killers’ ambush. They were thrown alive into a latrine
    and big stones were thrown over them until they died. He was killed when he
    was trying to help another group of Tutsis to cross. He was betrayed by his
    younger brother who was interahamwe. He didn’t ask anyone to pay him for that
    assistance and he sacrificed his life for others. Note that Munyakazi Ramadhan
    was not afraid of extremists; he used to condemn their practices and told them
    that all persons are equal.

    - Father Marius Dion Gilles

    He is a Canadian and a Dominican Priest. He hid people during the Genocide
    against the Tutsis in 1994 and he provided them with food and medical care.
    In fact, Father Dion refused to leave endangered Rwandans while his cofriars:
    brothers (natives and foreigners) were with him were evacuated because
    of the insecurity which was in the country. He opted to remaind with people who
    came to seek refuge in the convent at the St Dominic Priory. He risked his life
    because most of the times interahamwe attacked the convent and he used to be
    in constant dispute with them trying to convince them that there were no people
    inside or give them some money and they would go back. When the Rwandan
    Patriotic Army(RPA) captured Kacyiru, they found more than 30 people in the
    convent. On 11 April 1994, they were taken to King Faysal Hospital.

    After the Genocide, he kept assisting indigent people by providing them with
    food and clothes. Father Marius Dion had been inspired by religious values of
    brotherly love. This is the source of his kindness during those hard times that
    required an outstanding courage. He sacrificed his own life for people who
    were hunted because of their ethnic group.

    - Pastor Renzaho Sostène (+)

    Renzaho Sostène, a Pastor in Anglican Church, was known as a fair and honest
    person even before the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994. He was sent to
    preach in Ruhanga Parish because there were fierce tensions. When he arrived
    there, he managed to bring together all the Christians and tensions decreased.
    He visited all persons without distinction in that way that at the break out of the
    Genocide there were no longer factions. During the genocide, interahamwe
    ordered him to separate Tutsi Christians from Hutus so that they could kill the
    Tutsis and he refused. Then, interahamwe humiliated him by cutting parts of
    his body till he died. However, before the attack, the Bishop had sent a driver
    twice to evacuate him and his family but he refused to leave the sheep that
    God entrusted to him. About 15,000 people were killed at Ruhanga Church
    and the Renzaho’s wife was kille d at home with other people who were hiding
    there. Testimonies about him assert that he was a real Pastor (steward) and his
    teaching targeted the unity of Rwandans while there were ethnic division and
    segregation in the whole country.

    2.3.2 Martin Luther King

    An American Christian minister, Martin Luther King, he was a civil rights activist
    in the 1950 and 1960. He was born in Atlanta, on January 15, 1929. He studied
    sociology and got a doctor’s degree in Theology from Boston University. Martin’s
    father was a preacher which inspired Martin to pursue the ministry as a pastor.
    Martin is known for being a civil rights leader. In fact he led non-violent protests
    to fight for the rights of all people including African Americans. He hoped that
    America and the world could become a colorblind society where race could not
    impact a person’s civil rights. His first major civil right action took place when
    a black called Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man
    and she was arrested and spent the night in jail. Martin reacted to that injustice
    and racist attitude by helping to organize a Montgomery Bus Boycott, which
    was a boycott of the public transportation system in Montgomery. The boycott
    lasted for over a year and it was very tense at times. Martin was arrested and his
    house was bombed. In the end however, Martin prevailed and segregation on
    the Montgomery buses cam e to an end.

    Martin led other important civil rights actions such the famous “March on
    Washington” in 1963. Attended by over 250,000 people, this march intented
    to show the importance of civil rights legislation. More concretely, it aimed to
    abolish segregarion in public schools, to accomplish protection from police
    abuses, and to get laws passed to prevent discrimination in employment. It is
    at this march where Martin gave his well-known inspiration speech, entitled “I
    have a Dream”. The march on Washington was a great success because the
    Civil Rights Act was passed the following year. Because of his commitment
    to the promotion of human rights using non-violence, Martin was awarded
    the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. His persistent engagement to the cause of
    ending discrimination among human beings was persistent to the extent that he
    was even assassinated on April 4, 1968 in Memphis; he was shot dead while
    standing on the balcony of his hotel by James Earl Ray.

    2.3.3 Wangari Maathai

    She was born on 1st April 1940 in Nyeri (Kenya). As a child, she already valued
    her classroom education, and was always at the top of her class. She studied
    in the USA and Germany and earned degrees in biology, German, ad anatomy,
    becoming the first East African woman to get a PhD. When returned to Kenya,
    she was upset by the problems that plagued her country. These problems
    included: overpopulation, recklessly cutting down trees, poverty, unemployment,
    and malnutrition, etc. And Wangari believed the root cause was environmental
    destruction. As forest were being destroyed for profit, rural communities suffered
    and Wangari knew the women suffered the most. So she went to the root of the
    problem literally. To empower local women and help restore the environment,
    she started the Green Belt Movement, wich taught rural Kenyan women to
    nurture and then plant trees to replace the one being cut down. Together they
    created tree nurseries, and the women earned money doing this work, gained

    job skills, and helped the environment.

    Wangari began with a few women planting trees, and by 2004 more than 30
    million trees had been planted by hundreds of women. She also encouraged
    people to register to vote, to speak out for their rights and the environment, and
    to press for political reform.

    Wangari was indeed a leading advocate for peace, environment sustainability,
    and democracy. She received many international awards from organisations
    that recognized these efforts. In 2004, she became the first environmentalist,
    and the first african woman, to win the Nobel Peace Prize. The Nobel committee
    praised her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace”.
    Note that her own government saw her actions differently; on several occasions
    she was arrested, beaten, and even put in jail because she was seen as a threat
    to the men in power. Though she passed on from cancer in 2011, Wangari’s

    legacy lives on.

    2.4 End unit Assessment

  • UNIT 3: MARRIAGE CELEBRATIONS IN RWANDAN CULTURE AND IN DIFFERENT RELIGIONS

    Key Unit competence:

    Appreciate the importance of human sexuality and family in God plan

    3.1 The meaning and the purpose of human sexuality

    3.1.1 Meaning of human sexuality

    The question of sexuality carries a multidimensional character according to its
    effects and influence on human life. The attempt to define ‘sexuality’ leads to the
    analysis of the areas there, as well as their fields of application and limitations.
    The purpose of the study of sexuality leads to the comparison of overlapping
    concepts such as sexual interaction, marriage, gender and related issues.

     Sex: characteristics of the human being, and other living things, according to
    the basis of their reproductive functions. Everybody can be referred as male
    or female. The concept ‘sex’ may also refer to sexual intercourse.

     Gender: gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women
    and men, such as norms, roles and relationships between group of men
    and women. Different societies have different views on the roles that are
    specific to men or women. The attitudes on various roles, clothing styles and
    behaviour are influenced rather by the family interaction, peers, education,
    mass media, cultural beliefs and family norms.

     Sexuality: the sexuality bears a broader and multidimensional aspect of
    the human life. The Resource Centre for Adolescent Pregnancy prevention
    defines sexuality as “the expression of who you are as a human being, your
    femaleness or maleness”. While sex is attributed at the birth according to
    the human physiology, sexuality evolves from the combination of various
    influences. The sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts,
    imaginations, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviours, practices, roles
    and relationships. Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological,
    psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical,
    religious and spiritual factors (WHO 2006, p. 5).

    In some societies, for instance, rearing a child is ascribed to the women while in
    other societies it is the duty of men. Thus, gender and role attribution cannot be
    absolute nor over-generalised since the culture is dynamic and diverse.

    3.1.2 Purpose of human sexuality in various religions
    There two types of religion: Abrahmic(theistic ) and Non-Abrahamic(theistic
    and non theistic ) religions.

    a) Abrahamic religion

    The sexuality bears a universal aspect. The concept of sexuality is addressed
    in various religions and its physical and spiritual effects. Mostly Abrahamic
    religions consider the sexuality as a gift from God hence giving reason to the
    respectful reflection of moral principles.

    Judaism: the comprehension of sexual life in Judaism exceeds the physiological
    feature. The Hebrew word translating ‘sex’ also means knowledge. Thus, sex
    involves a thinking act that requires responsibility and commitment, sex is more
    than physical encounter. The sexual behaviour and activity are restricted to the
    context of marriage. Several rules and regulations highlight the sexuality the
    conditions, restrictions and prohibitions:

     The sexuality is willed and created by God for the purpose of
    procreation (Genesis 1: 26-27), companionship (Genesis 2: 18),
    intimacy, comfort (Ecclesiastes 4: 9-12) and physical pleasure.
    Sexuality reinforces the marital bond between husband and wife.

     Both sexes, male and female, were created in the image of God
    (Genesis 1: 26-27). Each gender brings unique and complementary
    qualities to sexuality and relationships.

     Some sexual practices are considered as immoral acts and therefore
    prohibited: adultery, incestuous acts, sex with a menstruating woman,
    bestiality (sex with animal) and other various sexual acts (Leviticus
    18: 1-23; 20: 9-21).

    Example of prohibition:
    “You shall not uncover the nakedness of your mother’s sister, for that is to make
    naked ones relative; they shall bear their sin; they shall die childless. If a man
    takes his brother’s wife, it is impurity. He has uncovered his brother’s nakedness;
    they shall be childless (Leviticus 20: 19-21).

    The transgression of the above rules bears both social and spiritual
    consequences: dishonest, shame and spiritual impurity hence breaking the
    family and social integrity.

    Christianity: the Christianity has maintained the value of sexuality according
    to the Jewish legacy. However, it developed more protective mechanisms and
    set boundaries of the sexual desire. The teachings from the New Testament
    denounce the immoral thought at the as equally to sinful act. The sexuality
    expression constitutes an important part of the worship. Inversely, the sexual
    immorality, impurity, evil desire, and covetousness are compared to idolatry”
    (Colossians 3:5). Thus, the scriptures warn against human beings lest that they
    do not fall under the undesirable impulsions. The Sermon on the Mount declares
    it clearly: “you have heard that it was said, ‘you shall not commit adultery’. But
    I tell you that everyone who looks at a woman with lustful intent has already
    committed adultery with her in his heart (Matthew 5: 27-28). This statement
    might be the interpretation of the 10th commandment from Decalogue. It is a
    reminder that the sin starts with coveting the neighbour’s wife which may indulge
    in sexual desire. Nevertheless, coveting extends to more objects. Coveting is
    one amongst the roots of the sin (James 4: 1-3).

    Thus, the youth is warned to flee from any temptation that may lead to foolishness
    or illegal acts:
    “So, flee youthful passions and pursue righteousness, faith, love, and
    peace, along with those who call on the Lord from a pure heart” (2
    Timothy 2: 22).
    “Flee from sexual immorality. Every other sin a person commits is outside
    the body, but the sexually immoral person sins against his body” (1
    Corinthians 6:18).

    Islam: Islam upholds the view of the sexuality as the gift from God and restricts
    the sexual relationship between man and woman. The main end of sexuality is
    the procreation and rearing children, although its expression of sexuality may
    lead to further benefits. The sexual acts practised in the lawful norms may lead
    to potential benefits including fulfilment, enjoyment, trust, pleasure and feeling
    of love. However, these benefits are supplementary and cannot justify the end
    in them. In this regard, the Qur’an advises the unmarried persons other modesty
    ways to prevent sexual intercourse:

    Whoever among you can marry, should marry because it helps to lower
    his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private part from committing illegal
    sexual intercourse); and whoever is not able to marry should fast, as fasting
    diminishes his sexual desire” (Sahih al-Bukhari 5066).
    The sexual intercourse outside marriage is discouraged. Chastity is
    encouraged: “Let those who find not the wherewithal for marriage keep
    themselves chaste until God gives them the means (Qur’an 24: 23). Adultery
    is considered as abomination and evil (Qur’an 17: 32).

    b) Non-Abrahamic religions:

    The view on sexuality and sexual relation is shared among non-Abrahamic
    religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism, etc. These considerations
    recognize the social and religious value of sexuality. The sexual relation is
    reserved to the marital duty. In Hinduism, the sexual act is exclusively accepted
    in the context of marriage. Any sex before the marriage or the age of twenty-five
    is likely to interfere the intellectual development. The Sikhism views chastity
    as important and believes the divine spark from almighty God is present in the
    divine body so that everyone is to keep clean and pure. The Buddhism teaching
    although acknowledge the sexual act for couple but recommends the chastity.
    The sexual urge is considered amongst the sources of suffering along with other

    cravings.

    3.2 Human sexuality theories

    Theories of human sexuality consist of the analysis of various beliefs, rules as
    well as assumptions guiding the consideration of sexuality. These theories are
    examined regarding the psychosocial and spiritual contribution to wellness of
    the society.

    The sexuality raises diversified understanding and interpretation in both religious
    and psychosocial consideration.
    Here are some of the sexuality theories:
    The religious comprehension finds the sexuality and sexual desire as positive or
    negative.
    The pessimistic view considers the sexual desire as negative and morally wrong.
    The sexual activity is considered a threat to another person by reducing him or
    her to an instrument. Both parties engaged in the sexual activity lose their selfcontrol,
    an important character of human being. This view considers the celibacy
    as an ideal spiritual state. On the other hand, the optimistic view considers
    the sexuality as a natural mechanism that joins people together, both sexually
    and non-sexually. Sexual activity is thought to generate pleasure, gratitude and
    affection that are significant to deepen the human relationship. The pragmatic
    and prudential use an evaluative approach to analyse the dangers of sex. Sexual
    activities can be physically and psychologically risky, dangerous and harmful.
    They are susceptive to the damage of the body tissues, transmission of several
    diseases and/or result in unwanted pregnancy. They may also lead to the
    negative feeling such as anger, guilt, regret, pain and discomfort (Soble 2009).

    On the psychosocial aspect, studies have shown the various conditions from
    which the sexuality evolves and the subsequent behaviour. The human sexuality
    is understood in the interplay with various emotions, feelings and behaviour
    actions.
     Evolutionary perspective: human sexuality to the sole physiological
    traits. The theory sees the gender and psychological differences as the
    result of biological reflection. Sexual personality is considered the effect
    of defence mechanism and environmental influences.
     Psychological theory: it was developed by Sigmund Freud. The theory
    discourses the sexuality and behaviour from the concepts of id, ego and
    super ego on one side and erogenous zones associated each of five
    stages of the psychosexual development: oral (birth to 1 year), anal (1-3
    years), phallic (3-6 years), latency (6 years-puberty) and genital (pubertydeath).
    The erogenous zone is meant by an area of the human body with

    higher sensitivity to sexuality thought, relaxation or provocation.

    Erogenous zones change gradually from the period of infancy to adulthood.
    During these stages the energy of sexual ambition (libido) may be regulated
    by unconscious instinct for satisfaction (id), the sense of self-efficacy (ego) as
    well as the moral ethical standards and lows (super ego). This approach is also
    intended to be medical. In his psychanalysis approach, Sigmund proposes that
    one should reflect on his/her feeling thus making the unconscious conscious
    (Gans 2019 July 24).

     Sociological perspective: this theory believes the society to be the main
    agent in shaping the human sexuality through and its social institutions. The
    social institutions such as family, religion, education and media, etc. affect
    social norms such that appropriate behaviour depends on the culture. The
    physical pleasure or disclosure and sexuality are associated with the kinship
    system, power structure and beliefs of society. For instance, the culture
    defines rules and set up the permissible behaviour and prohibitions.

     Learning theory: The learning theory upholds the motivation as the major
    determinant of the human behaviour. The sexuality is defined by a system of

    reward and punishment.

    3.3 Marriage according to teaching of different religions

    The marriage is fundamental in any society as the basis of the human family.
    Every society and culture define the practices of marriage, as well as the laws
    regulating the home in this case the relationship of couples, family duties, laws
    and obligations as well as restrictions.

    The Judaism recognises a sacred character of marriage. The marriage is
    considered the covenant entailing obligations of procreation; educate children
    the ‘shema’ (Deuteronomy 6: 4) and ethical practices.

    The practice of marriage requires the mutual consent of both parties. Before the
    ceremony the bridegroom signs the document (ketubah) pledging himself to the
    bride. However, the document might be also signed by their respective parents
    or other relatives in the presence of at least two witnesses from both bride
    and bridegroom families. After the reading of the conditions stipulated in the
    promise, the ceremony ends by the breaking the glass under the bridegroom’s
    foot. This symbolic act is thought by some to represent the idea that even times
    of great joy need to be balanced by moments of serious reflection. Others see
    it as a reminder of the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem, a theme which
    reappears in Hebrew prayers (Harley 1992: 306). The marriage entails rights
    and duties of the parties: enjoy life together (Ecclesiastes 9: 9), bring happiness
    to the wife (Deuteronomy 24: 5) the provision of food and other home duties
    (Proverbs 31: 10-31).

    Christianity: Marriage is considered as an unbreakable union of the man and
    woman (Genesis 1: 26-28; 2: 24). The husband and wife are believed to remain
    together until the death departs them. The purpose of marriage includes the
    procreation, but not limited to, the procreation, mutual delight. The bride and
    bridegroom pledge to love and care for each other ‘in sickness and health’.
    The marriage is deemed sacred, involving the careful consideration (Hebrew
    13: 4; 1 Corinthians 6: 19-20). The fulfilment of marital duties is mandatory for
    both spouses and in a mutual consent (1 Corinthians 7: 3-5). Celibacy is also
    encouraged to the same extent with the marriage (Mathew 19: 1 Corinthians
    7: 1).

    The divorce is discouraged (Mathew 19: 4-11). Though, the sexual infidelity is
    regarded as the reason that may cause the divorce in some conditions. “But
    I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for marital unfaithfulness,
    causes her to become adulteress and anyone who marries the divorced woman

    commits adultery” (Matthew 5: 32).

    The celebration of the marriage is declared by a priest or minister after the
    mutual consent of spouses. Most of the time, civil marriage takes place before.

    Islam

    The Islamic law recognizes the marriage as a contract between two individuals.
    The marriage intends to bind together. The marriage is acceptable when two
    individuals feel ready financially and emotionally to do so. The governing force
    of marriage is love (30: 21) and decisions are to be taken according the mutual
    consent. The sexual act is intended for the reproduction. Though the sexual
    urge is considered natural, free sex is not accepted. Spouses are guaranteed
    the rights to enjoy each other and to inherit from each other as well as the
    confirmation of the lineage of their children.

    The mutual consent, the dower, the witnesses and prenuptial contract are the
    preliminary conditions of the marriage. After that the contract is signed, the
    marriage is legitimatised. The celebration of wedding will take various forms
    according to the culture.

    The divorce takes two forms either through the repudiation (talaq) or mutual
    consent by returning the dower. The dower differs from dowry since the former
    remains the property of the bride rather than her family. But the malicious life is
    not supported (2:231).

    Some restrictions in Islam:

     Polygamy is accepted in some conditions when man is able to take care
    of his wives physically, financially, intellectually, morally. But polyandry is
    strictly prohibited;
     Homosexuality is forbidden;
     Sexual intercourse outside marriage, or before marriage, is forbidden;
     Marriage is permissible at the age of maturity (puberty): i.e. menstruation,
    voice changing, wet dreams. A forced marriage is forbidden, without
    consent of partners;
     Interfaith marriage is allowed in case a man is to marry is Jewish or
    Christian woman;
     Adulterous men are not allowed to marry chaste women and vice versa;
     The dower is given to the bride rather than her father;

     Contraception is allowed if pregnancy may endanger the woman life.

    3.4 Marriage celebration in Rwandan culture



    The Rwandan traditional culture, the marriage shows a remarkable moment of
    joy in the bridegroom and bride families. The traditional marriage traces many
    years back and was held in the family of the bridegroom family. Although some
    modifications are coming into effect, the traditional wedding rituals keep the
    social value that should not be overlooked.

    The marriage constitutes the basis for family. It intends the procreation, raising
    children and establishing kinship systems. Rwandans used to believe that being
    single especially among women was considered strange and unacceptable.

    The steps of traditional marriage include the following:

    1. Courtship: preliminaries relation which culminates into marriage
    under traditional laws and customs. The procedures of courtship involve
    negotiation for the dowry price, and it is carried-out by the spokesman from
    both families. The courtship is the most important for the future bride and
    groom to know each other.
    2. Introduction ceremony: During this ceremony the bride introduces
    her future husband to her parents, relatives and friends. The families are
    required to have a spokesman to represent them. The spokesman takes
    the role of the final emissary of the day of the introduction. He plays an
    important role in showing that he has the tradition and experience in
    responding the challenging question from the other side’s spokesman.
    Originally, the spokesman had to be a member of the man’s family to speak
    on behalf of the man’s side. Today, few people remember prominently the
    cultural requirements and tongue-twisting of old at these ceremonies, many
    people now offer the service at a fee. During the introduction ceremony, a
    Rwandan man is required to pay dowry in form of a cow or money before the
    solemnization of the marriage. Bride price carries the purpose of validating
    and legitimizing the relationship between a man and woman. Traditionally,
    in case of divorce the dowry could be returned. The payment of dowry is a
    still common practice in Rwanda.

    3. Wedding: In Rwandan custom, marriage is solemnly held at the residence
    of the groom’s father. The ceremony is the joyful moment characterized by
    folklore dress, dance, and promises to take care of the bride and to meet all
    the expected responsibilities. The bride is formally introduced to the family
    of the groom.
    4. Seclusion: After the reception party, some of the guests drive to the
    couple’s new home for the seclusion ceremony. Traditionally, after marriage
    the newlywed wife stays isolated for an undetermined amount of time. At
    the end of this period of seclusion, a ceremony is organized by the family
    and friends to visit her and bring her several items to stock in her home.
    The husband is expected to furnish the home completely and new wife is
    expected to bring household goods which include the wedding presents.

    Additionally, the evening after the wedding at their new home the couple respects
    other rituals that have evolved over the years. Word is that in the past, wedding
    guests waited while the couple consummated the marriage to find out if the
    woman was a virgin. Other rituals include: the groom’s aunt is cutting a piece of
    the bride’s hair to symbolize that she belongs to him. Also, a young bridesmaid
    is also given to the bride as a symbolic little sister to help her out for a few days.

    The Rwandan marriage knows the three parts: traditional introduction
    ceremony, a civil ceremony and religious church ceremony.     It is a means
    of keeping relations between the two families alive and strong. Basing on the
    traditions, parents played a huge role in assisting their daughter or son in selecting
    a marital partner or giving in approval to the relationship. The involvement of
    parents and relatives emanated from their willingness to provide security and
    peaceful homes for their children. They used to carry out a background check
    on the family of the prospective bride or groom before establishing contacts.
    Marriage is considered the most basic social institution in Rwanda. Unlike in the
    past; most couples today select their own mates, though approval of the family

    is expected (Newtimes Reporter January 21, 2011).

    3.5 Rights and duties of spouses

    • Looking out for each other’s interests in all things (1Corinthians 7:33-
    34);
    • Praying for each other (1Peter 3:7).
    Islam also considers the view of shared and specific duties and responsibilities
    among spouses.
    a) Shared duties: care for the need of the family, mutual responsibility,
    treat each other with kindness, and fulfil the other sexual needs.
    b) Duties of the husband: the husband owes to his wife the dower,
    support, kind and proper treatment, marital relations, privacy, justice
    between multiples wives (in case of polygamous husband), to be taught
    of her religion, defence of her honour.
    c) Duties of the wife: value the husband authority, obedience, marital
    relations protect the property, praise the efforts of the husband, request

    permission in some matters (leaving home, voluntary fasting), etc.

    3.6 Different kinds of marriage and their effects on society

    and human rights

    The marriage takes different forms according to the societies and cultures
    including monogamy, polygamy and polyandry.

    Monogamy consists of the engagement of one man with one woman.

    Polygamy was commonly practiced in the ancient Israel. Several patriarchs
    were polygamous such Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Samuel, David, Solomon.
    However, an explicit notice was prescribed against which kings were not to take
    many wives (Deuteronomy 17:17). The consequences were various among
    others the rivalry between women, the diversion against the Lord, hatred and
    wars between the descendants of the same lineage. Further effects include the
    abuse of power from the husband, jealousy and rivalry; woman is reduced to
    the neglected status, affects children. Polygamy does not allow the principle of
    equality.

    Polyandry is the umbrella term for one woman maintaining sexual access
    to more than one man. In the societies where it is known, it may take various
    forms: fraternal polyandry where a woman is married to two or more brothers;
    associated polyandry where a woman marries two or more men separately when
    one woman is married to one man, but has sex with other men in addition to
    her husband (Benedict 2017, p. 3). Polyandry is known to lead to severe health
    issues. It may lead to sterility and extinction of the population of the society. It is

    prohibited amongst Abrahamic religions.

    3.7 Issues associated with marriage and families

    The marriage and family face a wide range of pressures and challenges that
    bear a serious effect on the social life. These evolve from the concerns of the
    life of couples in their household, the parental responsibilities and problems
    rooting from the social progress and change. They include:

    1. The struggle raising and education of children;
    2. Difficulty agreeing on decisions;
    3. The support of extended family; etc.
    4. The lack of convenient consensus is likely to lead, but not limited;
    5. Emotional depression;
    6. Divorce and separation, etc

    The attempt to address the issues associated with marriage approach and
    mechanism to sexuality education that are likely to address both health and
    psychosocial issues. They may include the sexuality rights and education, gender
    equity, techniques of birth control, use of contraceptives, contractual marriage,
    etc. However, there is a debate among the cultural and religious beliefs on the
    appropriate approach to marriage issue. Thus, as Kösternberger (2017) notes,
    it is important to analyse the root cause of the failure of marriage and return to

    the religious teachings.

    3.8 End unit assessment

  • UNIT 4: RELIGION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

    Key Unit competence:

    Analyse the impact of science and technology on religious belief

    4.1. Meaning of science and technology

    Research and discovery are important for technological advancement

    The examination of the influence of science and technology on religious life
    demands a careful consideration. The study of both domains shows at the same
    time a relation of dependence and interdependence. Thus, an attend to find the
    meaning may reveal their resemblance and difference.

    The word ‘science’ implies at the same time the knowledge and the means to
    acquire the knowledge. It may also refer to the domain of study, a matter of
    investigation, observation or experiment. The application of science is common
    in everyday life aspects including health, transport, ecosystem, etc.

    Technology refers to the application of knowledge in order to solve a specific
    problem. The etymology of the concept shows the interdependence between
    science and technology. From two words; ‘techno’- meaning application, art or
    skills and ‘logy’ simply meaning science and/ or learning. Technology refers to
    the methods, techniques, tools and devices created and used by man to solve
    different problems (Younes & Al-Zoubi 2015:82). It may also denote the efforts
    and actions aiming at rendering the work easier and productive towards a better
    life.

    The science deals with the production of knowledge while technology applies
    the knowledge to solve problems. Equally, science may search for understanding
    the accuracy of technology in use so that it can generate theories for future
    developments (Kiyiki & Kiyiki 2007, pp. 47-48). Science is concerned with how
    and why things happen while technology focuses on making things happen
    (Waddell 2013).

    Religion comprises a set of beliefs and worship practices in reverence to
    a Supreme Being or deity. These beliefs and worship are transmitted into a
    socio-cultural system of a given society implying a system of values, behaviours,
    norms and moral ethics, etc. The religious life permits to hold a worldview. The
    relationship between religion and science depends on the uses of science in
    the spread of religious values to the large number of people and large space.
    Another consideration may involve the value that religion accords to science
    and technology. Religion defines norms and values to be maintained in the
    society like courage, commitment, promptness. Thus, science and technology
    are supported and vulgarised by a religious viewpoint. The relationship may be
    independence, contact and union (Stanford Encyclopaedia Philosophy 2017).
    Generally, science and religion find the common interest in the study of the

    created world.

    4.2 Controversy on scientific and technological

    advancement on human life and religious teachings

    The science and technology have a great impact on the religious cannot be
    overlooked. However, the views differ regarding the contribution of science and
    technology in various domains of human life. On the other hand, their pressure
    imposed on the human behaviour is deemed to lead to decline of the society
    (Younes & Al-Zoubi 2015: 82). Thus, the impact science and technology on
    moral life opens to a great debate. Despite the countless opportunities offered
    by technology in various domains, views differ regarding the side consequences
    of science and technology.

    The progress of development could not be possible without the contribution
    of science and technology. For instance, the modern life acknowledges the
    importance of technology in facilitating communication and rendering the
    world like one village. The development of the techniques of information has
    reduced the distances, save time and effort in terms of access to information
    and completion the transactions.

    However, the moderate view considers also the effects of the new technologies as
    leading to the decrease of the social and family ties. The religious fundamentalist
    belief denies any compromise between science, technology and religion. This
    view considers the modern technologies as abomination of Satan and that they
    have contributed to the deterioration of values and lack of ethics while others
    see it as a constructive means that we should take advantages of them (Younes
    & Al-Zoubi 2015, p. 84).

    There is a debate however concerning the complementarily and mutual
    interdependency between science, technology and religious life. Nevertheless,
    the abusive utilisation of the technology is said to lead to harmful and inhuman
    actions. For instance, the fabrication of nuclear weapons, artificial products,
    abortion, etc. has the negative effect on the human life and the natural creation.
    Thus, the controversy is to assess the relationship between religion, science
    and technology. Does religion contribute to science and technology and viceversa?
    Should religion be distinct from science and technology like two different
    masters that one cannot serve at the same time (Matthew 6: 24; Luke 20:
    25)? How science and technology may serve better for the religious and moral
    life? And inversely, how can religion promote the science and technological

    advancement?

    Swierstra (2017) notes three theories regarding the relationship religion,
    science and technology: descriptive, normative and voluntarism.

     The descriptive shows technology as working independently irrespective
    of the human influence.
     Inversely, the normative emphasizes the human choice to use technologies
    in positive or negative way. Technologies are considered neutre objects
    that can be manipulated by the human intention. As in the following
    illustration: “If someone kills another person using a hammer, one does
    not blame the hammer or its designer, only its user”.
     The voluntarism combines both descriptive and normative; it seeks the
    social factors in the technology use and development (pp 8-11).

    The question remains to assess the potentials of science and technology as
    well as the doubt on their side effects. Thus, the religious should evaluate
    their position in relation to the progress of science and technology and their
    destructive power on the human society. Linda (998: 384) notes the challenge of
    believers in the era with growing technology along with evolving autocratic. The
    author calls Christians to denounce the misuses of technology: speak against
    the abortion, the manipulation of life, behaviour and death’. They have also to act
    as peacemakers and overcome oppressive ideologies by the faith in the world

    where the technology is subjected to manipulations unethical purposes.

    4.3. Consequences of science and technology of

    information on social and moral life

    The development of science and technology has its side effect on natural,
    social and moral life that cannot be overlooked. These vary from individual to
    the community life. The inventory from Mohammad Bani Younes and Samer
    Al-Zoubi shows numerous negative impacts of the use of modern technology
    including:

    1. The formation of personal beliefs social isolation;
    2. Reduction in the family ties between the family and society members;
    3. Inactivity;
    4. Obesity;
    5. Lack of desire to work different kinetic activities;
    6. Waste of time in things that are not useful;
    7. Increase in the rate of violence especially in children because of watching
    violent programs, high crime rate because of spreading video clips
    presenting all kinds of these crimes and ways of committing them and
    8. The spread of lies and rumours causing distraction and loss of trust in
    such information (2015, pp 82-83). etc

    The excessive use of the new technology is susceptible to endanger the youth.
    The more people spend time on social media and chatting may reduce the
    concentration on tasks,     which affects their future development. Aharon
    Hersh Fried and Chaim E. Fried (2019) note the effects of technology on the
    consciousness/awareness, interpersonal relations and communication, our
    respect for privacy, and our sensitivity to truth and not hurting others. Technology
    affects considerably the conscientiousness, concentration, awareness and
    attention as the four basic areas that are affected in using technology. The social
    media impose a hurry life hence resulting into the lack of the nice of language. In
    addition, the uncontrolled diffusion of information sometimes constitutes a threat
    against the human privacy, leading to the vulnerability. Thus, educating to the
    conscious use of science and technology becomes a necessity for constructive

    purpose (Younes & Al-Zoubi 2015, p. 83).

    4.4 Importance of science and technology to Religion

    The impact of science and technology on humankind has been transformative
    on many levels. In particular, the birth of the Internet and its use by society
    has changed the way people communicate, learn and understand the world.

    Alongside the consumer aspect of technology, the advances in science and
    technology have also made great changes in various aspects of life. The mastery
    of the technological tools becomes the essential of basic literacy.

    Technology is crucial to religious life as positive religious belief is central to the
    development of technology in any society. Religion is a philosophical thought
    that directs the human response, motivation and adequate choices to deal
    with challenges. Science and technology evolve from the religious foundation
    as means adopted by a given society. Thus, religion and technology find a
    coincidence and mutual facilitation. Although the challenges of technology are
    mostly observed in the use of media, smart phone, the benefits of technology
    in promoting religious life remain fundamental. The use of the internet, social
    media, smart phones, apps and cloud phone system essential tools for
    religious organizations. They enable members of the congregation access to
    sacred scriptures (Bible, Qur’an) and sources or information necessary for the
    strengthening of the faithful through the electronic system (Alleman 2018).

    Another consideration bases on the historical view on reciprocal influence of
    religion and science/technology. The foundation of the religious communities
    such as monasteries was based on both religious and science development.
    The schools started from monasteries, one among the community life was the
    link the prayer with work and vice-versa. The work is considered as a form of
    worship, and thus technology finds roots in efforts attempting the improvement
    of work (Austine 2019). The religious scriptures show the relevance of the
    science as fundamental value along with other virtues. For instance, the appeal
    from Peter calls at the dilegent search of science: “Now for this very reason
    also, apply all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence, and in your
    moral excellence, knowledge, and in your knowledge, self-control, and in your
    self-control, perseverance, and in your perseverance, godliness, and in your
    godliness, brotherly kindness, and in your brotherly kindness, love” (2 Peter 1:

    5-7).

    4.5 End Unit Assessment

    REFERENCES

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    Andrew Harvey (2002). “Foreword”, in Dhammapada Annotated & Explained xii.

    Balkan Kiyici, F., & Kiyici, M. (2007). Science, Technology & Literacy. Turkish
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    Benedict A., L. (2017). Polyandry around the World. University of Nevada, Las
    Vegas: University Libraries.

    Cline, Austin. (2019, August 22). The Relationship between Technology and
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    David B. Kopel. (2007). “Self-defense in Asian Religions” in Liberty University
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