Topic outline
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO PRIMARY ENGLISH LANGUAGE SYLLABUS
Key unit competence: To justify the relevance of teaching English in primary schools and application of English communication skills in Rwandans’ daily life.
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
Picture observation and interpretation
Observe the above figure and answer the following questions:
a. Discuss what countries located in East Africa have in common.
b. What does the emblem on figure 2 represent?
c. Discuss the two pictures above and in a composition of 200 words, relate your discussion to the relevance of teaching English in primary schools.
1.1. English teaching and learning rational in primary schools, Rwanda’s membership to EAC
1.1.a. Learning activity Read the text below and referring to your previous knowledge about EAC activities, answer the questions that follow:
English and Rwanda’s membership in East African Community The East African Community (EAC) was originally founded in 1967, dissolved in 1977, and revived with the Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (the Treaty Establishing EAC) signed in 1999 by Kenya, Uganda and United Republic of Tanzania. Burundi and Rwanda became members in 2007 while South Sudan gained accession in April 2016. Underpinned by their historical links, Kenya, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania had established strong economic cooperation laying the groundwork for further political, economic and social integration of the EAC member states.
East African Community is a regional, intergovernmental organization that coordinates some of the economic affairs and trade activities of its member states including Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, South Soudan and Uganda. It also seeks to promote cooperation and integration among its member nations in a wide variety of policy areas, namely, science and technology, environmental and natural resources management, tourism and wildlife management, and health, social, and cultural activities. Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007 and became part of the customs union. Economic observers have noted that the customs union has had a significant effect since it has allowed the member nations toenjoy increased revenues. The EAC Treaty adopted English and Kiswahili as official languages. But in this Community, the majority of the Rwandan population is still struggling to use English in business and meetings as well as several other areas of their daily life. This inadequate use of English has resulted into difficulties in common understanding and in-depth negotiations during EAC council and sector meetings, also for the follow up on agreed decisions or coordination of Rwanda’s EAC policy implementation
Comprehension questions:
a. When was EAC originally founded?
b. How many countries form EAC?
c. Which official languages does the EAC use for smooth running of business and policy implementation?
Notes:
Rwanda is part of East African Community and Commonwealth. The Rwanda Government has adopted English as one of Rwanda’s official languages to help its citizens integrate easily into these communities and participate in the global economic development. The use of English in Rwanda serves different purposes, the most important being the following:
- It is the medium of instruction in primary schools, starting at P4 grade and all through the other education levels.
- It is an integrating factor for the present Rwandan society made up of people coming from a wide range of cultural and linguistic backgrounds;
- It is a means of communication with the national and international community on politics, diplomacy, business, science, and technology;
- It contributes to the better understanding of other people and their diverse cultures.
The relevance of teaching English from pre-primary upwards Language is the vehicle through which knowledge is transmitted and therefore, it ultimately bound up with the process of education at all levels. English language is an essential tool in accessing content and skills in other subjects whose materials are written in English. Language for learning is found in most L2 situations. Here, the learner already has a L1 which is for everyday use. In most cases, the L2 is learnt in formal situations normally within a curriculum (English/French Teaching methods, EDC 203(2014). The teacher of languages should be aware that the second language acquisition should start at early age for better learning and that early grade pupils need to be exposed to contextual activities that stimulate their language learning.As indeed, before engaging English as both an official language and the language of instruction in Rwandan schools, Rwandans could not effectively relate with, transact and fully exploit business and other opportunities in East Africa, the Commonwealth, and the rest of the English-speaking world. However, with the introduction of English in Rwanda, these problems will be solved.
Therefore, Teaching English should start earlier enough that is from pre-primary upwards.
1.2. The structure of English Syllabus for Primary Schools in Rwanda.
1.2.a. Learning activitiesAnalysing a sample English syllabus unit
Study the table below from the English syllabus unit and answer the questions that follow.
a. What is a syllabus?
b. What are the components of the syllabus units?
c. Discuss the relationship between the syllabus and the curriculum
b) Look at the puzzle below and answer the question that follows:
c) Make sentences using words related to the roles of the syllabus.
Notes
1.2.1. Definition of a syllabus
A syllabus is a document which describes the learning objectives, content and learning activities of a specific subject.
1.2.2. Components of the syllabus verse the unit
1.2.3. Importance of the Syllabus
- To guide teachers on what content to teach
- To guide teachers on what approaches to use
- To guide teachers on how assessment will be done
- To guide teachers on resources to be used
- To Guide teachers on sequence of content and objectives for the year/Level
1.2.4. Relationship between the syllabus and curriculum
1.3. End unit assessment and remediation activities
UNIT 2 : English language teaching and learning resources
Key unit competence: To use available learning and teaching resources in the learning and teaching of English language at primary level of education
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
Read the following scenario and answer the questions that follow:
Umulisa is a primary one English teacher at Murago primary school. She teaches primary one A and her colleague Kalisa teaches the rest of the classes at lower level. One day the headmistress told her that she wanted to come and watch her lesson. The next day, the headmistress came in her class as planned. The lesson title was classroom object. She wrote the lesson title on the blackboard and asked learners to keep quiet. During the lesson, Umulisa’s job was only to list classroom objects and ask pupils to repeat each object as she mentioned it. When the lesson came to an end, the headmistress randomly picked one pupil and asked him to show to the class the cupboard. The pupil failed to show the cupboard to this colleague. The headmistress told Umulisa to come in her office for feedback.
a. Why do you think the pupil failed to show the cupboard to his classmates?
b. Which comments would you give to Umulisa?
2.1. Classroom highly equipped with literacy materials
Observing and discussing an image of multimedia tool used in teaching and learning
Discuss the contribution of one laptop per child in teaching and learning English language.
2.1.1. Defining major types of English learning materials
Print materials: this refers to the teaching and learning resources made of words or symbols produced on paper either by a machine or manuscript.
Non print materials: these are materials that are not processed on a paper with machine or manuscript but can be found in the environment.
Multimedia materials: multimedia is defined as the use of computers to present text, graphics, video, animation and sound in an integrated way.
2.1.2. Picture observation and interpretation
Observe the following image and discuss how the learning environment can contibute to the English teaching and learning.
2.1.3. Reading materials
2.1.3.a. Learning activity
Read the text below and answer the questions that follow:
Textbooks have more advantageous teaching material in many ways. There is a lot within various texts that can help learners and teachers feel confident since they provide direction in whatever they teach or learn. Textbooks present different types of activities and the following are aspects that teachers and learners should identify when using learning and teaching materials:
These should be easy to use with some level of difficulty, topics are chosen from simple to more complex, regular to irregular and structured to less structured
A teacher of English should know how to select and grade resource materials to ensure that they suit the linguistic level of learners and stimulate their interest in the learning and use of language. He/she must choose textbooks which can help in the facilitation and learning of the four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as grammar and vocabulary. Books chosen should be used selectively as teaching and learning aids in the teaching and learning process.
It is also expected that the teacher provides a variety of resources to motivate learners. Such a variety of resources allows the teacher to expose learners to different English language structures and show them how specific language structures are used in different contexts
It has been indicated that sources of language teaching and learning materials are extremely numerous: written materials, visual as well as oral materials. We are consistently surrounded by an environment in which many available resources can be exploited. All sorts of resources should be explored and made real materials to engage learners effectively in language learning activities
a. Why should a teacher be selective towards teaching and learningresources?
b. Which criteria should the teacher use when selecting books for learners to read?
Notes:
2.1.4. Types of instructional materials for teaching English
Learning and teaching English requires a lot of patience, energy, time, creativity and competence. The success of the teaching and learning of a language skills including English is determined by a number of factors both linguistic and non linguistic such as pupils, the teacher, methods, materials and multimedia resources or aids used.
English teaching materials from environment are also very important. They can help pupils acquire new concepts, skills and language competences. There are three kinds of teaching and learning resources (print, non print and multimedia resources) which can be used by the teachers in the teaching learning process, but the teacher should be selective in the choice of teaching and learning materials. This summary discusses some of instructional materials for teaching English\
Flashcard
Flashcards are small cards with a picture or symbol on them used in teaching learning. In the classroom, flashcards are commonly used to teach reading. A picture, for example, of an elephant may be drawn or stuck on a card and the word ‘Elephant’ written underneath or on a different card. The pupils are encouraged to associate the pictures and the words through various
Charts
A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which presents a clear visual summary. Edgar Dale defines charts as, “a visual symbol summarizing or comparing or contrasting or performing other helpful services in explaining subject-matter”. The main function of the chart is always to show relationships such as comparisons, relative amounts, developments, processes, classification and organization. ‘look and say’ activities and games.
Computer:
When we talk about multimedia, a term CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) should not be ignored. Rwanda is striving for integrating technology into various aspects of the country’s education sector. To that end the laptop can be used as a teaching and learning tool in English class
2.2. Teaching and learning materials from local environment
2.2.1. Examples of teaching /learning materials
2.2.a. Learning activity
Select among the above teaching and learning materials that are available in your local environment the best you can use to teach English language.
Soil, stones, sticks, bottle tops, straws, animal wastes, boxes, ropes, plants, feathers, mats, sorghum stems, reeds, flowers, sand, tobacco leaves, water, seeds, used up clothes, banana fibres, grass, egg shells, tree, bark clothes, barks, rice sacks, plastic bottles, papers, pens, fruits, vegetables, animal wastes, domestic objects, sugarcane, tea, cigarettes, nails, glue, pair of scissors, masking tapes, markers, eggs, food stuff, salt, torches, lamps, candles, low cost, polythene bags, envelopes, readers, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, radios, resource persons, locally made toys, Computers, projectors, digital cameras, audio visuals, software, interactive, simulators, laboratory equipment, professionals (doctors, lawyers, engineers)
Notes:
We are surrounded by the environment from which we can find the best things to use for teaching and learning . It is the teacher’s role to make lessons interesting by preparing teaching and learning aids that he/she uses in the classroom. What to remember is that the teacher shouldn’t bring in the classroom real materials that distract pupils rather than helping them to focus on what they are learning.
2.3. End unit assessment
a. Describe the resources used for teaching English in primary.
b. Working group of four, make three resources of English teaching and learning and demonstrate how they can be used in English class.
c. Discuss the importance of OLPC in teaching English.
UNIT 3 : General principles of teaching and learning English languages
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
Effective principles, methods and working techniques are key for any success in life. Observe the figure below and answer the questions that follow:
a. Relate the above figure with language learning and teaching.
b. Discuss the relationship among three elements presented in the above figure.
c. Why do you think the elements in colours are not at the same line?
Notes
3.1. Defining different concepts:
Pedagogical principles, approaches, methods and techniques Learning principles are fundamental laws of learning. They provide aresearch-based and conceptual foundation on how people learn. Learning principles add insight into what makes people learn most effectively. These learning principles should consistently guide teachers in their teaching instructions and other decisions.
Approach is a general overview of the way a teacher tackles a discipline. It is an idea or a theory that is being applied to a language teaching.
Method, on the other hand, is a collection of techniques used in a systematic way which is expected to result in an efficient learning. In this context, we consider teaching and learning as a research from the beginning up to the end. *Roger Pinto and Madeleine Grawitz define a method as “a set of intellectual operations by which a study proceeds in order to reach and explain truths. They added that a method is “a compressed set of operations evolved to achieve either one or several objectives; a unit of principles prominent to every organized research and, a set of norms enhancing techniques selection and coordination.” Methods are ways used to achieve goals; here, teaching and learning goals.
To achieve teaching and learning objectives, both teachers and student teachers should use appropriate methods and techniques. Thus, in a language study, the notion of method derives from the assumptions and beliefs one has about how a language is taught, and the principles drawn from observations and experiments regulate different steps and procedures of language teaching and learning. In fact, language teaching principles are guiding forces that preside over the choice of teaching techniques and procedures.
Regarding Techniques, Pinto and Grawitz declare that these are“ tools of the research. It implies the procedures of collecting data applicable to the topic being investigated, as well as the method of analysis, and above all, in a point of view that guides the research.” Techniques are the means a researcher (here, a teacher) deploys to achieve a goal. Out of the class and within it, techniques consist of the personal means ways or procedures used while conducting a method in a classroom situation. Its purpose is to bring about an expected outcome in learners. In any method, different techniques could be used and the same techniques could be found in different methods
In summary, in any method, different techniques could be used and the same techniques could be found in different methods. A set of procedures or techniques can make up a method while a series of methods can be viewed under one approach.\
3.2. General language teaching principles
3.2.a. Learning activity
Read the scenario below and answer the questions that follow:
Uwimana is a primary English teacher, she loves her profession. With her experience of language teaching, she reported that she has learned a lot so far. We visited her at her school and shared what she knows about language learning and teaching. She said that Language learning is a process.
For instance, when children learn their first language they begin by listening and then experimenting with the sounds and language patterns. When they make errors parents accept their attempts to use the language, but repeating the correct language in a positive manner. And therefore, professional language teachers adopt a similar attitude towards their learners.
In addition, any language is learnt from habit formation and speech should be taught before writing but also reading should be practiced simultaneously with oral skills rather than delayed indefinitely to a later stage. However, any language has its own structure and L1 habits often interfere with those of L2 and handicap the acquisition of those of L2, finally, she said.
a. Explain how parents and professional language teachers help children when they make errors.
b. Discuss the standards or set theories of teaching a language shared by Uwimana
Notes
3.2.1. Principles of language learning
H.E Palmer (1974) presented a set of principles which are basic to most language teaching methods. These principles have been exploited in almost all language teaching methodologies (Palmer: 38f)
1. Initial preparation
During this period, the teachers awaken and develop by means of provision of appropriate exercises, the pupil’s natural capacities for language study. In the initial preparation, teachers should train pupils in all sorts of skills: ear training exercises, pattern practice drills, silent listening, etc.
2. Learner age and language level appropriateness
In language teaching and learning, the teacher should adapt the language to the age and language level of pupils.
3. Gradation
Teaching materials should be arranged in such a way that pupils can start from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the easy to the difficult, from the familiar to unfamiliar and from the common to uncommon
4. Proportion of different aspects of a course
This principle postulates that different aspects of language (understanding, speaking, reading and writing), as well as different branch of study (i.e.phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, etc.), should be given equal importance and appropriate amount of attention. The teacher should not teach only the aspects he/she is interested in and forget the others. Language is made up of different components and cannot be studied well unless a fair amount of time is given to each component.
5. Concreteness
Teachers of English should see it in that pupils proceed from concrete to the abstract and receive many examples that illustrate study points. This principle has been a source of inspiration for most language teaching methods that tend to use realia for teaching purposes (audio-visual method)
6. Interest
Motivation in a language teaching course is a very important factor for language learning. Example, variety in language lesson presentation, sense of progress and competition, game like exercise as well as understanding between the teacher and the pupils are the factors that can equally sustain pupils’ interest in lessons.
7. Multiple line of principle
This principle refers to the idea of eclecticism in the use of methods and the choice of materials to be taught. No one approach alone can be the answer to all the problems encountered in a language teaching course. Thus, in varying our approaches and methods, we use different means to achieve definite objectives in a more effective way. Therefore, a study of teaching methods is useful as it can enable us to know what has been codified from the experience of competent language teachers the world over. We need to know the major useful language teaching methods and procedures that have been devised for conducting different language teaching activities.
3.2.2. Importance of principles and procedures of language teaching methods
Knowledge of principles and procedures of language teaching methods can help in conducting all lessons properly and economically. The following are eight ways in which language teaching methods can be useful as stated by Larsen Freeman (2001: 1x ff):
a. Language teaching methods inform teachers of the rationale which lies behind their actions. Before starting teaching practice, interns hold several ideas about teaching methods. They finally realize that the aim of undergoing some training on methods is to make their knowledge and intuitions explicit, and concrete.
b. Armed with awareness of new different methods, interns can thus teachin a different way from the usual way they normally carry out theirteaching tasks. Concurrently, they can act freely and in a discriminatingway instead of following ideas that have been imposed to them without a reason.
c. Knowledge of LT methods can encourage teachers to participate actively in a community of practice with other English language teachers in this country or abroad. They can for example attend seminars, conferencesand debates about language teaching with colleagues the world over.
d. Knowledge of methods can help to expand techniques repertoire and thus allow teaching and learning to take place in a better way.
e. Knowledge of methods can help in the selection and use of specific techniques that would suit situations.
a. Give and explain four principles of teaching and learning language.
b. Discuss the importance of the knowledge of principles and procedures of language teaching methods.
c. Explain the relationship between approach, method and technique.
3.3. Approaches of teaching languages
3.3.a. Learning activity
Read the following summary about English teaching and learning approaches, identify and explain different approaches of teaching and learning English.
Natural Approach
The natural approach takes its cues from how the first language is naturally learned by children. That process is then simulated for teaching adults a second language.
Just as there is a “silent period” when babies do not utter a single comprehensible word, the natural approach gives time for learners to simply listen and absorb the language. Producing correctly pronounced words and phrases comes later in the learning curve. The emergence of speech is not a priority. Listening comprehension is the priority. So, early in the process, pupils do not need to speak at all. They must observe, to read the situation, to guess the meanings of words, to make mistakes and self-correct, just like babies!
Functional-notional approach
The functional-notional approach recognizes language as purposeful communication. That is, we talk because we need to communicate something. There is purpose and meaning behind the sounds that come out of our mouths. We have verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and so on in order to express language functions and notions. When we speak, we do it to inform, persuade, insinuate, agree, question, request, evaluate and perform other “functions.” We do it to talk about concepts (“notions”) like time, events, action, place, technology, process, emotion, etc. So, a teacher’s first step when using this approach is to evaluate how the pupils are using the language. For example, when teaching very young kids, you might want to teach them language skills that would help them communicate with mummy and daddy, or with their friends. So, you can teach them key social phrases like “thank you,” “please” or “may I borrow.”
Communicative approach
What good would it do any of your pupils if they know all the different ways of conjugating a verb but fail to communicate a coherent message? Communication is essentially the rationale for language and the communicative approach seeks to develop those skills that enable pupils to meaningfully engage with each other. Interactive activities are the hallmark of this approach. The responsibility of the teacher is to give the pupils as much opportunity to give and receive meaningful communication as possible. For example, pupils should be allowed to introduce themselves, share their hobbies using the target language. Instead of just presenting the language, the teacher gives learners tasks that can only be accomplished by using the target language.
Cognitive approach
The cognitive perspective in learning a language puts the learner in the centre of everything. Cognitive approaches look to answer questions like: How can a language be effectively learned? How does one make a set of vocabulary words memorable and get them embedded in long-term memory? According to this kind of approach, the techniques, strategies and even the sequence of lessons are learner-led and cannot be predetermined. Learning a language is a conscious, rational, information-processing event.
Structural approach
Structural approaches believe that language can be reduced to a learnable set of building blocks. There are rules, known as grammar and syntax that govern how to combine these basic elements. These rules can be memorized to achieve a high level of proficiency in a language. Some proponents would even go so far as saying that there is a predetermined sequence in which a language should be learned. Grammar textbooks are the most commonly used material in this category.
Total Physical Response (TPR)Approach
Total physical response is an approach to language teaching where gestures, actions and movements play a vital role in language acquisition. Remember when you were a kid and adults would tell you to do all kinds of things, like “catch the ball,” “pick up your doll” or “open your mouth”? Well, TPR is going back to those good old days. TPR believes that when your pupils see movement and when they themselves move; their brains create more neural connections that make for more efficient language acquisition. Another pillar of this approach is that learning a language should be stress free. Pop quizzes and exams are dropped in exchange for fun activities like“Simon Says” where you ask pupils to perform actions like “close your eyes,” “raise your left arm” or “pick up the red ball.”
3.4. Methods of teaching and learning second languages
3.4.a. Learning activity
Which methods do you think are more appropriate for specifically teaching and learning English?
3.4.1. Direct method
The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners’ native language and uses only the target
language. It was established in England around 1900 and contrasts with the grammar translation method & Bilingual method of teaching and other traditional approaches. In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills. Characteristic features of the direct method are:
- Teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
- Teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language) centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation) focus on question-answer patterns
Advantages
• Facilitates understanding of language understanding of the target language becomes easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences from the mother tongue, it establishes a direct bond between contexts and helps in understanding directly what is heard and read
• Improves fluency of speech fluency of speech results in easier writing, it tends to improve expression, expression in writing, and it is a quick way of learning and expanding vocabulary
• Aids reading becomes easier and more pleasant, and it also promotes a habit of critical studying
• Improves the development of language sense
• Full of activities, which make it interesting and exciting
• Emphasizes the target language by helping the pupil express their thoughts and feelings directly in target language without using their mother tongue
• Develops listening, speaking, reading and writing
• Increased employment opportunities
• Helps in bringing words from passive vocabulary into active vocabulary
• Helps in proceeding the English language from particular to general, it bridges the gap between practice and theory
• Makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilitates reading and writing
• Facilitates alertness and participation of students
Disadvantages
• Ignores systematic written work and reading activities
• May not hold well in higher-level classes where the translation method is more suitable
• Supports only limited vocabulary: it restricts the scope of vocabulary as not all words can be directly associated with their meanings
• Lacks application: the method aims at active command of a language, only the clever child can be profited by this method.
• Does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes
• Inconvenient in a huge class
• Ignores reading and writing aspects of language learning
• Does not teach grammar systematically
• Time-consuming in creating real-life situations
• Less suitable for slow learners, who struggle with this method
Techniques used in direct method
• Question/answer exercise the teacher asks questions of any type and the student answers.
• Dictation the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate passage and reads it aloud.
• Reading aloud the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud.
• Student self-correction when a student makes a mistake the teacher offers him/her a second chance by giving a choice.
• Conversation practice the students are given an opportunity to ask their own questions to the other students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-learner interaction as well as a learner-learner interaction.
• Paragraph writing the students are asked to write a passage in their own words.
Principles and goals
There are two main goals to grammar translation classes. One is to develop students’ reading ability to a level whereby they can read literature in the target language. The other is to develop students’ general mental discipline. The users of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in the literature of foreign languages.
Therefore, this method focuses on reading and writing and has developed techniques which facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked. Grammar translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ native language. Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the translation of classical texts. There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.
Audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. This method lays the emphasis on listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, in this order. Language teaching theorists of this method hold the following views about language in line with teaching and learning.
• Language is speech, not writing.
• A language is a set of habits.
• Language is what native speakers say.
• Languages are different.
The behaviorist stipulates that learning a language is acquiring habits through reward and reinforcement (stimulus and response). So, repetition of words through correct pronunciation and intonation of utterances at normal speed, with the usual elisions and liaisons of the native speakers lead to reinforcement of habits, and then to the acquisition of the TL. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner was forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learned through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. This method develops communicative capacity through dialogues as a way of instruction. Through dialogues, “students learn segments of language which can be of immediate use for communication, and acceptable sound patterns, and at a normal speed of delivery.”(cfr Rivers, 1981:46)
Main features
• Each skill (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) is treated and taught separately.
• The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening and speaking.
• Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus.
• Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language items. They provide learners an opportunity to practice, mimic and retain through practices language learnt.
• Patterns drills are used as an important technique and essential part of this method for language teaching and learning.
• The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid.
• Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to the direct method.
• As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by learners. The learners are expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given at lower primary education. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.
3.4.3. Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used mostly to learn foreign languages. The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia”. Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words «suggestion» and «pedagogy”. A common misconception is to link “suggestion” to “hypnosis”. However, Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasizing student choice.
The basic principles of the desuggestopedia method are the following:
a. Learning takes place easily in a colorful, cheerful and comfortable environment.
b. People learn from what surrounds them in environment. (this is what is called ‘ peripheral learning’).
c. The teacher should serve as a good model in a language as this can foster confidence and trust for him/ her in students.
d. The teacher should do his/her best to desuggest all psychological barriers he/she might find in students: lack of confidence, etc.
e. Assuming identities in role-plays gives students confidence as they feel that their performance is not their but that of other people.
f. The main goal of teaching under desuggestopedia is to make the conscious and subconscious meet. This is the moment when learning takes place quickly.
It is not always easy to create a classroom setup that is really bright, colourful and attractive. But with what little material any teacher have locally, he/ she can make his/her classroom attractive. He/she can draw posters or use news paper cuttings to stick on the walls. With a radio-cassette or a taperecorder, the teacher can play cassettes of nice English music in a corner of a classroom and thus create enthralling background effects on learners in some of his/her classes. This is what Larsen-Freeman calls “Peripheral learning”, which is one of the techniques of desuggestopedia (2001: 84).
Advantages:
• It helps learners to learn more in a short time.
• A relaxed atmosphere, soft classical music, and dynamic instruction increase the receptivity of the students to the new material.
• It encourages learners to have informal conduct and promotes free natural communication. Thus, learners develop fluency within a short time.
• The method predicts the lower filter in the learners as a feature aimed at relaxing the learners, reducing anxiety and removing mental blocks, hence building self-confidence.(cfr Module 7: SLA)
Disadvantages
The method seems to neglect grammatical rules or structures as it suggests that these structures are provided by successful communication. Consequently, it gives less importance to the monitor use.
• Dialogues designed in suggestopedia do not seem to focus on specific points of grammar.
• The tools for conversational management are not mentioned explicitly. In order words, no mention is made of what students could do to converse with competent speakers.
• Music may sometimes disturb the class and communication may become distorted. Physical surroundings and atmosphere in the classroom are the vital factors to make sure that “the students feel comfortable and confident”, and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers.
3.5. Commonly used methods in English teaching
3.5. a. Learning activity
Read the following text and answer the questions that follow The teaching of foreign language by its very nature is an interactive process which involves active participation of both the teacher and the learner. It has been stressed in Foreign Language Teaching methodologies that are more than a system of rules, but as a dynamic resource for the creation of meaning, shift away from the study of language seen as purely a system and shift towards the study of language as communication. For that reason, a great opportunity of classroom interaction is being truly demanded. With a growing need for more effective, successful and active ways of foreign language learning. Innovation in the language field has been stimulated by a special concern for learning through active and collaborative setting. In the following diagram, there is an example which can specifically show the relevance of common used methods in teaching and learning English language.
Improve the picture below
Generally, a way to bring a wide variety of social contexts to your class is through a role play, drama, dialogues (conversation), interviews/ questioning, group work, debates, etc… which are one of the most adaptable activities for the language classroom.
These activities are practical, and entertaining, and get pupils to produce authentic English. Incorporating them into the classroom adds variety, a change of pace, and opportunities for a lot of language production and also a lot of fun!
a. Explain how active methods can improve English teaching and learning.
b. Which activities that can bring a variety of social contexts in English class?
Notes on different teaching techniques are described below:
1. Storytelling
Telling stories, recalling events and relating personal anecdotes has been how many cultures and societies have preserved and passed on their traditions. We constantly communicate information through stories e.g. “Wait until I tell you a good one about what happened to me last week” etc. Storytelling is a vital part of everyday conversation and so should be an important feature in all classrooms. “Narratives help students to connect what is happening in the classroom with the real world; they provide a way of understanding, organizing and communicating experiences” (Ewing and Simmons, 2004). Teachers can extend storytelling skills into performance opportunities such as a play, or recital in drama.
2. Group Work
Group work provides an authentic learning context in which student can develop both speaking and listening skills. Pupils are allowed to become actively involved in the construction of their own knowledge. This can often lead to greater understanding and internalization of material. Students are allowed to use language to interact and plan, take on a particular role such as the manager, the recorder etc., develop a group activity and monitor and reflect on the task/learning. Small group learning allows the teacher to effectively scaffold students’ learning by providing guidance towards ensuring that the groups run smoothly, that allocated roles are working and that learning is being fostered.
3. Conversations
Classroom conversations are dialogues that occur between students and teachers and between students and students. They are used to create, negotiate or deepen the understanding of a topic.
4. Questioning and Interviews
Questioning encourages higher order thinking and forms the basis of enquiry. Good questioning enhances understanding, as it provides opportunities to explain, clarify, probe, make connections and identify problems and issues. Questioning encourages dialogue between students and teachers and influences student’s use of questioning to promote their own learning. Self-questioning enables students to reflect and assess their own results and efforts with a view to making them better. Interviews provide an authentic context for questioning. In an interview, students purposefully practice asking questions and develop the skills to listen critically.
5. Debate
The purpose of debating and developing arguments is designed to persuade an audience to accept a point of view. Debates provide pupils with practice in giving and justifying opinions. Students will be required to research topics to provide relevant information to support their point of view. Debates can be used for exploring issues and different points of view such as topics from literature being studied in class, or local concerns such as pollution and current affairs
6. Think-pair-share
This is a way for pupils to pool their thoughts and ideas and to see things from different perspectives. Pupils listen to a presentation, story, read atext, see a video and record their ideas individually. As a class they pair up with a partner to share their ideas. A pair can team up with another pairto “square” their ideas
7. Brainstorming
In language teaching and learning using brainstorming, the whole class contributes ideas for and against a topic. This will help pupils to look at both sides before they decide on a point of view and they will have reasons to justify their opinion
3.6. End of unit assessment
Unit 4 : Teaching lessons of listening and speaking
Key unit competence: To prepare lessons with listening and speaking tasks that develop generic and subject competencies for English.
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
Improve the picture below
Picture observation and interpretation
- How can I reach your home from school?
-Turn left at the gate. You will see a sector office at the corner. There is a road opposite that office. Follow the road opposite the office. Our home is the second house on the left.
a. Ask your friend to give you directions to their home. Listen carefully and then tell the class what your friend said.
b. After observing, and reading what is on the picture, discuss the skills that pupils can develop with this exercise.
4.1 Recall on language components in relation with listening and speaking lessons
4.1.a. Learning activity
Listening and speaking refer to the activity that involves understanding a speaker’s accent and pronunciation, his/her grammar and vocabulary and grasping what he/she means. For successful communication, listening skill is essential, therefore pupils must learn it efficiently. Speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts”. Listening and speaking are interconnected. Use primary English syllabus of lower or upper primary, and carry out the following tasks:
a. Select different components of the language in relation to listening and speaking.
b. Among the selected language components, which one do you find most challenging?
c. Make a self-study on the challenging language components. You can ask for help from one of your classmates or your tutor
Notes.
Acquiring good listening and speaking skills in English are the main concern of many second and foreign language learners. Today’s English teacher must be conversant with current approaches of teaching of aural/oral skills. Teaching and learning listening refer to teaching and learning listening comprehension. Listening is an activity of paying attention to and trying to get meaning from something we hear. It involves understanding a speaker’s accent and pronunciation, his grammar and vocabulary and grasping his message. For successful communication, listening skill is essential, so it should be taught to pupils. HayriyeKayi (2006) quoting Chaney says that speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts”. In relation to other language skills, it can be said, that speaking involves greater efforts in terms of learning second language. As French (1963; 41) points out, English teaching must aim at enabling pupils to speak the language well, since the purpose of learning English is to use it as a second language or as an international language, this implies the ability to speak to someone.
In order to teach listening and speaking effectively, the teacher should be knowledgeable about the skill he/she must develop in pupils. According to Rivers, before the teacher can devise a sequence of activities which will train pupils in listening and speaking activities, he/she must understand him/herself the nature of the skill he/she is setting out to develop. Therefore, student teachers should recall on different listening and speaking language components taught in primary schools as their future working places
Listening and speaking activities at lower primary education level In English, each unit has an activity related to listening and speaking. For example, in P1, we have(welcome to the classroom, describing classroom objects, People at home and school up to unit 10 which is storytelling and also all P2 and P3 units have listening and speaking activities that a student teacher is required to recall on.
Listening and speaking activities at the upper primary education level
All the units of upper primary have listening and speaking activities that student teachers need also to recall on and understand. When necessary, student teachers can seek help from a classmate or the Tutor. However, learning activities in all units of P1 and P2 are mainly of listening and speaking.
4.2. Principles and Strategies to develop active listening and speaking skills
4.2.a. Learning activity
Read the following statements and answer the questions that follow
Listening is an inferential process of extracting meaning from oral stimuli. Hearing on the other hand is the perception of auditory stimuli by the human ear, which may not be necessarily understood. Listening is both a receptive and an active skill that may or may not require a response. It is intentional with the aim of comprehending what is uttered, hearing is not intentional.
Speaking on the other hand is production of speech sounds or making verbal utterances by human beings in the process of communication. It is the instance of uttering words for communication or expression of thoughts in spoken words. The process of speaking is incomplete without listening. The fact that speaking is a productive skill calls for careful understanding of the dynamics of communication. Teaching of speaking skills is aimed at attaining oral fluency and accuracy. Listening and speaking are language skills that should be taught together in the actual classroom situation. Pupils learn to speak by speaking. They use language to monitor and reflect on experiences and to reason, plan, predict, and make connection-orally and in print. For that reason, pupil talk should dominate the language classroom, and the teacher talk should be kept to a minimum. Research confirms that less teacher talk and more pupil talk can significantly increase competence in oral communication. (Stab, 1991). Teachers need to promote the classroom as a language rich environment where pupils think aloud about their interpretation, hypotheses, and perspective (Pirie 1997). This will result in increased opportunities for pupils to participate in different forms of speaking activities and in increased pupil engagement in learning (Albright, 2000; Wilhelm, Baker, & Dube, 2001). However, pupils will not express themselves freely if they are constantly corrected. For that reason, teachers should not pay too much attention to pupils’ grammatical errors. The creation of a classroom environment where pupils are comfortable expressing themselves and taking risks with the language, and the liveliness of the discussion/exchange is more important. However, teachers can and should make note of common mistakes from pupils.
a. What is the interdependence between listening and speaking?
b. Why shouldn’t teachers take too much time on pupils’ errors of speaking?
Notes
4.2.1. Objectives of teaching listening and speaking skills:
1. Listen with understanding and respond appropriately
2. Listen and respond spontaneously and fluently to conversational prompts
3. Articulate all vowels and consonants in the English language alphabet
4. Respond verbally to both verbal and written questions
5. Express one idea verbally in different situations
6. Identify tonal variations and use them appropriately to get the right meanings
7. To conduct a conversation intelligibly
8. Present oral reports from what is read and on everyday experiences
9. Adapt one mode of conversation to suit the context or situation.
4.2.2. Strategies used for maximum pupils’ oral development
1. Using a think-pair-share and various small group configuration to
encourage pupils to engage in sustained dialogue around varied
tasks
2. Create a variety of situations where pupils can use oral language to express ideas, information and emotions( e.g. speeches, storytelling,book talks)
3. Teaching listening strategies by helping pupils identify the main purpose or theme in informational and literary texts.
4. Creating listening and speaking opportunities with the purpose of determining the diction (intonation, speed, loudness. etc) appropriate for a particular purpose and audience.
5. Modelling how making connection to prior knowledge, making prediction and evaluating ideas are important listening skills)
6. Providing opportunities for pupils to orally express initial responses to texts in small, large groups, and whole class situations.
7. Creating a safe climate of respectful listening
8. Challenging pupils to talk, think and explore their knowledge of the world.
4.3. Activities for developing generic competencies and integration of cross-cutting issues in the lessons related to listening and speaking
4.3.a Learning activity
Read the following Dialogue and analyse it.
Listen as your teacher reads the dialogue below.
Ngabo: Hello, Uwineza.
Uwineza: Hello, Ngabo.
Ngabo: Teacher Mike is coming to class at 10:20 a.m. Have you finished doing the class assignment that he gave us?
Uwineza: No, Ngabo. I haven’t finished it. I failed to get a good resource book to use.
Ngabo: I also had the same problem. I have only done part of the assignment.
Uwineza: So what do we do?
Ngabo: Shall we go to the library? I am sure we will find plenty of books that will help us.
Uwineza: Why didn’t I think of that? Yes, let us go then before the bell for the next lesson rings.
Ngabo: You may need a pen and a notebook to take notes.
Uwineza: Oh, thank you for reminding me. I had forgotten about that.
Read the dialogue again and answer the following questions orally.
a. What suggestion was given?
b. Who is suggesting what to do?
c. Why have they chosen the school library?
d. What lesson have you learnt from the dialogue?
e. Suggest a suitable title for the dialogue
After observing the above dialogue and related activities, carry out the following tasks,
Identify different language skills that a pupil can develop through the above activity.
Identify and explain generic competences and Cross-cutting issues after carrying out the above activities.
Notes
Different Generic competences developed and Cross-cutting issues were addressed in the unit of listening and speaking.
Generic competences
Critical thinking
Through listening and speaking, we need to help pupils think critically and creatively. This means that pupils are given opportunities and challenges that help them to develop the habit of questioning and analysing ideas that they encounter. They should be able to identify assumptions and biases, as well as to consider that some arguments are more valid and comprehensively supported than others. Critical thinking empowers pupils to analyse information, to reflect upon its sources and to be able to make informed and rational judgments. Pupils should be able to explain why they have reached their conclusions and support their points of view.
Communication
Through listening and speaking activities, Pupils get the opportunity to develop and practise the skill of asking good questions. Good questions are those that help to enrich our understanding. They are helped to improve their ability to ask questions that enable them to elicit full explanations, deeper meaning and a detailed explanation of significance. In listening and speaking activities, pupils can interpret the message listened and speak orally which will develop their communication skills.
Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
Listening and speaking activities such as role play, dialogue, discussions in groups and presentations, pupils can develop cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills.
Life-long learning: Listening and speaking activities can develop lifelong learning because they develop competences are practiced even beyond classroom.
Cross-cutting issues
Peace and value education: through listening and speaking activities that can be conducted in English lesson such as debate, role-play, group discussions, presentations, etc. Peace and value education can be addressed because when pupils listen attentively to the speaker, it means they value what is being spoken because listening itself is voluntary activity and when pupils present something in class with maximum attention from the rest, it means respect. Therefore, such environment with active listening and value the speech, it addresses peace and value as an important issue to be always addressed.
Gender education: through listening and speaking activities such as classroom debates during teaching and learning, discussions and presentations, when both boys and girls are given equal chance to participate, then the issue of gender education will be addressed. Inclusive education: through listening and speaking activities, pupils with different special need education may be helped accordingly. For example, a class with pupils who have hearing impairment are seated near the speaker; we can also use sign language or hearing devices where possible and providing remedial activities when need arise. Thus, inclusive education will be addressed.
4.4. Activities to develop learners’ listening and speaking skills
4.4.a. Learning activity
Sample lesson focusing on active listening and speaking
Read the following sample lesson plan and discuss how this lesson can enhance pupils’ listening and speaking skills
Notes
4.4.1. Introduction
When we talk of strategies in teaching/learning situations, we mean skills one can use to facilitate or induce learning. It can be an act or suggestion on the part of the teacher which stimulates the learner’s interest in the learning act.
The teacher having identified the listening and speaking kills problems of his/her learners, he/she can try to solve them by using a variety of teaching techniques. The following are examples of these techniques:
A dictation: can also help learners in improving the listening skills, identifying the uttered words and the writing skills. Taking dictation doesn’t only improve the listening and writing skills, but also spelling and punctuation.
Drama and role-play: also helps learners in the development of listening and speaking abilities, self-expression and in gaining confidence to speak in public. Drama can be defined as an activity that asks pupils to portray either themselves or other people in the imaginary situation. The learner is expected to adopt the role of a character and to project for instance, that character’s way of speaking, dressing, physical features and behaviour.
Learners may also interact in pairs or small groups and dramatize a situation familiar to the members of the group. A learner can follow the guidelines laid down by the teacher by acting in controlled manner. They can also be given the liberty to speak and react as they see fit.
Group work: can also a long way in developing listening and speaking skills, as learners interact in relax manner. Research shows that learners retained acquired knowledge, more when they are not under pressure to learn. Small groups should be used to discuss a topic of learners’ own choice or one given by the teacher. After the task is completed, the pupils should be asked to present their discussion to the rest of the class. Other pupils should react to the presentation in a class discussion.
Debate: is a structured contest in form of oral arguments about an issue or a topic. A formal debate involves two teams expressing their arguments on the topic. Normally, there is a team which proposes or argues in support of the topic while the second team is on the opposition side. Each team consists of two or more main Speakers. Such a debate is always governed by a number of rules, as explained below:
Each team is expected to advance two or three arguments, and two to three rebuttal speeches. The proposing team gives its argument first, followed by the rebuttals from the opposing team. There is always a winding up speech or Summarized argument by a selected member of each team. The first speaker on each side is supposed to define the key words or terms of the motion as the basis of advancing his or her points. If the opposing side challenges the correctness of a definition advanced by the proposer, the opposing team provides its view on the matter. Each team of the class debate must advocate or argue in support of his or her view on the topic. In order to establish an assertion, a team must support its arguments with enough evidence and logic to convince the judges. Facts must be accurate. Visual materials are permissible to convince the judges. In case of a query, the question should be clear and relevant to the motion of the debate. As a matter of procedure, each speaker is expected to respond to questions as soon as he or she concludes his or her presentation speech. The speaker concerned may respond to the question personally, although any other member of his or her team can come in to assist.
If anyone, whether in the audience or among the main speakers, feels unconvinced by a speaker’s argument, he or she is at liberty to interrupt the speaker by raising a point of information. However, the chairman of the debate is also at liberty to either permit or object to the point of interruption. The decision about the winning side will be entirely based on the arguments made and points awarded by a team of juries or judges.
Adapted from George H.W. Wilson (1957) Competitive Debate: Rules and Techniques, New York: McCoy Musgrave http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~karchung/debate1.htm retrieved on March 20th, 2018
4.4.2. Important Prerequisites and Tasks for a Debate
Team members should:
• Research on the topic and prepare logical arguments.
• Gather supporting evidence and examples to back their arguments.
• Anticipate counter arguments and prepare rebuttals or responses.
• Plan the order and ideas or points with which to argue and support their points of view.
Communication games: can also be used to develop listening and speaking skills. They foster authentic, natural and creative language use. Goals should be set and the challenge of achieving them should encourage unrestrained communication behaviour. The task of the teacher should be that of a consultant and facilitator. Example of games that you can use in the classroom are:
Songs and poems: these play a major role
4.2.3. Steps involved in teaching a poem/a song
Before reading/singing, the teacher:
• writes the poem/song on the blackboard
• helps pupils explain the blocking words of the poem/song
• helps pupils to analyze the poem/song (theme, characters and conflict if any).
During reading/singing a song or a poem, the teacher:
• asks if there is a pupil who know s the song to model singing for the rest of the class (this is applicable on songs only)
• model sings the whole song or reads the whole poems and pupils follow the teacher modelling a song/poem
• sing/reads the song or poem line and pupilecho sing/read (echo singing/ reading)
• asks pupils to choral sing/read with the teacher
• asks the whole class to repeat the song or poem themselves
• asks the group of learners to read a poem or sing a song to the whole class.
• asks individuals to read or sing the poem or song and ask others to follow
After reading or singing, the teacher:
• asks as many pupils as possible to recite the poem or sing the song
• may also ask pupils some comprehension questions.
Conclusion :
listening and speaking are the first skills a child develops. It is through these skills that other basic language skills of reading and writing are developed.
Accurate intonation, stress and rhythm are rated higher unintelligibly.
One important fact is that when children learn their mother tongue through total involvement in real life situations, which require genuine communication, they acquire both linguistic and communicative competence.
Since opportunities to engage in genuine communication in a second or foreign language learning situation are rare, you have to create opportunities and situations that promote this, intentionally.
UNIT 5 : Teaching lessons of reading
Key unit competence: To prepare reading lessons that develop generic and subject competences for English language learning and teaching
Picture observation and interpretation
After observing the above picture, discuss the following questions:
a. Explain how this learning environment can help a pupil in developing reading skills.
b. Explain how reading aloud to pupils can inculcate the culture of reading into pupils.
c. Discuss the best reading tasks you can give to pupils
5.1. Recall on topics related to reading lessons
5.1.a. Learning activity
Using a primary English book of lower or upper primary, carry out the following tasks:
a. Select different topics related to listening and speaking.
b. Among the selected topics which do you find challenging for you?
c. Make a self-study on challenging topics. You can ask for help from a classmate or your tutor.
d. Explain the importance of reading activities in primary schools.
Notes
Teachers directly responsible for creating and applying various techniques and strategies that lead to reading comprehension, should be aware of factors and stages of development that affect a child’s ability to read. Teachers must also be knowledgeable about the reading process in order to teach certain concepts appropriate to the child’s maturity and ability. However, to effectively help pupils, student teachers should recall some concepts related to reading so that they know and understand better what they teach. On this note, the tutor should help student teachers or engage them in different activities to allow them recall the concepts on reading. These are:
At lower primary level
It is important to recall on the following components of teaching reading since they are the cornerstone of reading skills for early-grade pupils.
1. Phonological awareness
2. Phonics
3. Fluency
4. Vocabulary
5. Comprehension
In lower primary like other classes, the syllabus units are built on different contexts/ situation and each unit has different activities including reading. Therefore, student teachers should be facilitated in the learning of this content, especially those they find most challenging.
At upper primary level
Recall on all the content related to reading activities found in all units from P4 to P5.
Listen carefully as your teacher reads the story below, answer the questions that the teacher asks. The thirsty crow
A crow was very thirsty. He saw a jug with some water. He tried to drink the water. But his beak could not reach the water.
The crow saw some stones near the jug. He took one stone and dropped it in the jug. Then another one. The crow added very many stones to the jug. At last the water in the jug rose. Then the crow was able to drink the water. He was very happy.
Question
a. Which bird does the story talk about?
b. What was wrong with the bird?
c. How did the bird solve its problem?
5.2.3. Steps followed while teaching reading lessons
There are three mains steps to follow while teaching reading:
1. Before reading activities, they include:
• Reading the title of the text with pupils with illustrations or teaching
aids related to the text,
• Have pupils predict what the text will be about.
• Helping learners to understand the blocking words (words that may be a barrier for pupils to understand the text)
2. During reading activities
• The pupils read silently the text and the teacher asks some questions to check whether they have understood.
• The teacher model reads the text and stops time to time to infer the meaning of the happenings and the vocabulary.
• The pupils read the text with the teacher (choral reading) this is applicable to short text especially for young learners.
• The teacher asks learners to work in pairs and help each other in reading (one reads to another a sentence or a paragraph until the end)
• The teacher asks individuals to take turns reading to the class replacing one another.
3. After reading activities
• The teacher asks if their initial predictions were valid or not
• The teacher asks some comprehension questions.
5.3. Resources for teaching reading
5.3.1. Introduction:
Pupils learn to read by reading often a variety of materials. Teachers should put aside time each week for personal reading, where pupils use varied reading materials (books, magazines, newspapers, story books, internet documents etc.) The teacher should help pupils keep records of materials they read during this time (both the title of the material as well as the type of the material), allocate time at the end of each personal reading session for pupils to share with the class or with a partner what they read and their point of view about it.
5.3.a. Learning activity
Identify different reading materials shown in the pictures below
5.3.2. Different types of texts
Pupils develop as readers, writers and thinkers through experiences with rich texts in different forms: poetry and prose (fiction and nonfiction), print, oral, digital and visual texts. They need opportunities to read, discuss and respond to a wide range of texts, including texts of their own choices, across subject areas and for variety of purposes.
5.3.2.1. Features of a poem
a. Structure
• Stanzas
• Lines or verses
b. Meaning and intent
• Sound effect (alliteration, assonances etc.)
• Imagery
• Metaphor
c. Tone, mood, etc.
5.3.2.2. Features of prose
• Written in paragraphs
• Tells a story rather than describes an image or metaphor
• Generally, has characters and a plot
5.4. Phonological awareness and phonics
5.4.a. Learning activity
Picture observation and interpretation Show objects which begin with the sound “b”
After observing the picture and instructions given, answer the following question:
a. Explain the skill that this activity can help the pupils to develop.
b. In which level do you think the exercise above can be given?
Notes:
The first component of reading is phonological awareness. This is the ability to hear, identify, and differentiate sounds.
We start with phonological awareness because it builds the foundation for phonics and word reading and writing. Phonological awareness is a critical step towards literacy. The better children are at phonological awareness activities, the easier it will be for them to match specific sounds to specific letters. When we read, we connect sounds to make words. When we write, we break down words into sounds and write the letters that go with those sounds. Being able to hear individual sounds in words will help pupils to read and write. Phonological awareness is completely oral there is no print used. Learning print letters comes after learning the sounds.
An important phonological awareness skill is to listen for sounds in words and be able to identify the sound. Words are made up of a series of sounds. Sometimes it can be hard to hear the different sounds because we blend them together when we say a word. Pupils need to practice hearing these sounds.
It is important for children to be able to tell the difference between sounds in words because that is what they do when they are reading or writing. Hearing different sounds that make up a word is particularly important for writing because it will allow the child to hear the word and spell it correctly.
Studies have found that children who can hear different sounds of words have an easier time learning to read. They also become better readers in later grades.
5.4.2. Phonics
5.4.2.a. Learning activity
After reading the below text about phonics, answer the following questions:
The second component of reading is phonics. It’s ability to connect sounds to letters. This is the most important skill for pupils to have to be able to read and understand what they read. Reading is turning printed letters and words into sounds. Likewise, writing is turning sounds into printed letters and words. Phonics is key to beginning reading and writing. With practice, reading and writing become automatic and children can thereafter focus on meaning. We need to explicitly teach children which letters go with which sounds.
Once children have learned letters, the best way to practice them is through reading and writing. When we practice blending syllables to read words, children gain a firm grasp on the sound-letter correspondence. They use this knowledge and the practice they have had hearing the sounds in wordsN when they write words. Studies have found that phonics instruction improves reading ability. For children in the early grades of school, it also improves comprehension and spelling.
At the end of phonics activities, children should be able to connect sounds to letters and syllables so that they can read and write, even when words are unfamiliar. The first phonics skill is learning which letter goes with each sound. Words are made up of a series of sounds that are represented by letters. It is important for children to know the letters that go with each sound because that is what allows them to read and write. This knowledge is especially important for reading and writing words they have never seen before. In some reading instruction programs, children memorize whole words, but this does not help them to read words they have not seen before, and they cannot memorize every word in the language. they have learned the letters that go with different sounds, they can begin to blend those letters together as they read words. When children write, they identify the sounds and then write down the letters that make those sounds. They should be helped practicing reading phonics.
a. Define phonics.
b. What is the role of phonics in teaching young children to read?
Key Practices for Phonics
• Make sure children can see the letter. Use large letters on the board. If you are showing a letter card, make it large and move around the classroom so everyone can see it.
5.5. How to teach vocabulary
5.5.a. Learning activity
Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow
A tragnex jiid is a jiid that can make plivyns while bryzpn around a wide synz lismad. Unlike a bronty jiid, tragnexes do not need to be huwrens to jiid grimnjic to work. Tragnexes today are very bruffown and rantle, but this was not submub so. The first tragnex, scinpemed in 1973, flormed one themx!
A mobile phone is a portable electronic device that can make calls on a range of geographic area. Unlike landline telephones, mobile phones do not need connection to telephonic wires to work. Mobile phones today are very small and light, but this was not always the case. The first mobile phones which were introduced in 1973, weighed one kilogram!
a. Was it easy to read the first paragraph? Explain why?
b. Identify the reason that can cause a pupil to be able to read or not read the above paragraphs.
5.5.1. Introduction
Vocabulary is the term used to describe the collection of words in a given language used and understood in Speaking, Listening, Reading and Writing. It is important for children to develop knowledge of word meanings from an early age and to this end, they need to be actively engaged in vocabulary development. Vocabulary for academic learning is linked to the teaching of concepts. When a concept is completely unfamiliar to the students, they need to develop an understanding of the concept first and then vocabulary can be introduced. If the concept is familiar to the children new vocabulary is introduced in order to connect new words to an already familiar or understood concept. As children develop, they need to be able to draw on different sets of vocabulary and as such teachers need to be mindful of these different sets when selecting words for instruction.
Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2002) have proposed three tiers of vocabulary that need to the explicitly taught to children.
When teaching vocabulary, we need to plan for:
• Teaching individual words such as teaching synonyms, antonyms, root words, suffixes etc. Direct word-meaning teaching is an effective way to facilitate children’s vocabulary development.
• Teaching word-learning strategies such as words in context, definitions, word maps.
• Fostering an awareness and love of words and language such as multiple meanings, word games, word of the week.
• Providing varied experiences for using words through reading, writing and oral language. Children need to be exposed to new vocabulary to acquire word knowledge and exposure in different contexts supports their acquisition of nuanced meanings.
For children to understand what they read and communicate effectively, they need to build their vocabulary. Teachers can teach them new words through a story. For example, the teacher can read a text to them aloud or give them story books to read from the classroom library, or children can read a story from their textbooks.
5.5.2. Steps of teaching vocabulary
1. First, the teacher asks pupils to choose a word they have learnt, provide the meaning and use it in a sentence.
2. After pupils have given their answers, the teacher supplements or correct their answers and use the words in sentences. It is important that the teacher uses the simplest meaning of the word as much as possible to ensure that children understand words. It can be very helpful when the teacher dramatizes the meaning; or brings concrete or semi concrete materials that represent the words. Etc.
3. The teacher may ask 1 or 2 pupils to make sentences and correct the sentences if necessary. However, praise the children for their efforts.
4. The teacher should move around helping children with their sentences.
5.6. Automaticity and Fluency
5.6.a. learning activity
What is your understanding of automaticity and Fluency Reading?
What do you to develop reading automaticity and Fluency?
5.6.1. Introduction
Fluency is derived from the Latin word ‘fluens’ which means ‘to flow’. Fluent reading is then defined as “the ability to read expressively and meaningfully, as well as accurately and with appropriate speed” (Padak and Rasinski, 2008, p. 3)
Automaticity refers to the ability to quickly identify letter names and letter sounds. Children who struggle to identify letter names and will have great difficulty reading English words and sentences.
It is also the ‘ability to recognise words rapidly and effortlessly, saving mental energy for comprehension’. (Focus On Fluency, 2012, p. 3).
5.6.2. Strategies to improve reading fluency
1. Read aloud to children to provide a model of fluent reading.
It is common for primary teachers to read aloud to their students. But as students get older, the treasured Read Aloud becomes something we do “if we have time.”
A regular read aloud period is a must in any elementary classroom. No matter their age or ability, children need a frequent model of fluent reading.
2. Practice sight words using playful activities.
When children know many words by sight, they’re less likely to be awkward, choppy readers. I prefer games over flash cards. This can be done through games. Especially BUZZ game (Competing to read words either on flashcard or blackboard quickly without mistakes).
3. Do paired reading.
Some teachers have made paired reading (also called “buddy reading”) a daily practice within their literacy block. This may be conducted by asking one pupil to read to his partner a sentence and the other one takes over reading the next sentence until the text is over.
To do paired reading, put students in pairs and have them read to each other. Pair more fluent readers with less fluent readers, but be careful not to make the ability gap too great. Children can take turns reading by sentence, paragraph, or page.
6. Try echo reading.
With echo reading, the teacher displays an enlarged text so that students can follow along. The teachers often point to words as he/she reads a sentence or short paragraph. Then she points to the words again as students echo her reading.
7. Do choral reading.
With choral reading the teacher reads an enlarged text several times until students are familiar with it. Then the class joins her as they read the text together. Nursery rhymes, songs, and funny poems are fantastic for choral reading.
8. Do repeated reading.
Echo reading and choral reading are both forms of repeated reading. Repeated reading is also something that students can do individually. Choose a short passage of 100-200 words. Students can read the same passage multiple times. Have them time their reading and graph their results to see a visual record of improvement. A variation is to set a timer for 1-2 minutes and have students record how many words they read during each reading. Again, use a graph to chart progress.
9. Have your students do a lot of reading at a level they can read independently.
The more we practice, the better at something we get. Make sure your readers are reading at their independent reading level and give them some minutes each school day to read on their own.
Conclusion
Fluency Instruction: Practice with phonetically controlled, decodable word lists, sentence and passage. Use Guided Practice with decodable texts and at the initial stage of reading development, it is important that text is limited to word structure that has been taught.
• Provide text that is limited to the letter sound relationships, syllable patterns and words that have been mastered for accurate decoding or recognition on sight
• As students’ progress they also need to have substantial guided practice transferring emerging skills to authentic text
• Provide significant opportunity to apply skills with interest-driven, non-controlled text as pupils acquire decoding skills (Fink, 1998)
Teacher Modelling: If pupils are to become fluent readers, they must have an idea of what is meant by fluency. The best way to experience fluency is to hear it produced by another more fluent reader. This means that we need to read aloud to our pupils, using our voice to reflect and add to the meaning of the passage. Modelling can help pupils to understand that meaning is not just carried in the words in the passage but also in the way that the words are expressed. When pupils have an opportunity to hear you (or another skilled reader) model fluent reading, they get a sense of what they should sound like when reading. This is especially important for pupils whose reading is choppy and lacking in expression. (Doherty, p.8)
5.7. Comprehension
5.7.1. Introduction
Comprehension is among the most important components of reading. Indeed, the goal of reading is to understand what you read. Comprehension is understanding text. When children have comprehension of text, it means they understand what they have read. Children need to practice noticing information in text when they are reading or listening. There are strategies that children can learn to help them understand texts better. Comprehend a script is the reason we read.
5.7.a. Learning activity:
After reading the above text, answer the following comprehension questions:
a. What is the main purpose of reading?
b. How can you make sure that pupils comprehend what they read?
Notes:
Comprehending what you read happens before reading (initial prediction, vocabulary), during reading (stopping time to time to recall the vocabulary) and after reading (comprehension questions). After reading the teacher asks close or open questions for example: who are told in the text, what happened? Which character did you like and why? Summarizing. Etc.
The teacher should facilitate the learners in the process of answering comprehension questions by modelling how the answer is found in the text (reading the text and stopping the time you get to the answer)
5.8 Activities for developing generic competences and integration of cross-cutting issues in the lessons related to reading
5.8.a. Learning activity
Read the poem below and answer questions that follow
My son will talk about me
Grandfather talks a lot about great grandfather,
In the presence of my father.
My father too talks a lot about my grandfathers.
He says that they preserved our family.
Now I am talking about my father,
He gave me life.
My son will,
Talk about me.
Find out the number of people mentioned in the poem and draw a family tree for the poem.
Display your work and share with the class.
Give names to each person in the family tree.
After reading the above activity, answer the following question:
Identify different generic competences developed and cross-cutting issues addressed from the above activities.
Notes
Generic competences developed and Cross-cutting issues addressed during the unit of reading
Generic competences developed
Critical thinking: through reading and analysing the text, story, poem, pupils will judge and develop imaginations on the situation to answer comprehension questions. For example, the teacher can ask pupils to summarize, illustrate, predict and relate it to another text, story or poem read before. Therefore, pupils will need to use critical thinking to carry out those tasks.
Communication: through reading the text, story, poem and answering comprehension questions, pupils will develop communication since there is also interpretation in order to understand the key message. Then as a result, pupils will develop communication as a competence.
Research and problem-solving: through searching relevant information from different sources to answer comprehension questions on texts, stories, poems, etc. pupils will develop problem-solving skills and research, hence research and problem-solving as competence. In addition, different texts, stories and poems pupils read are based on real situations such conflict management, people’s behaviours, family relationship which help pupils to develop their problem-solving skills.
Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills: through analysing the texts, stories, poems and sharing the findings to comprehension questions, pupils will need to work as a team, respecting everyone’s idea during presentation, learn the relationship. Again, choral reading, reading something groups, pair reading, and other techniques used by the teacher will help pupils to cooperate, trust and put themselves in the shoes of their classmates, cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills will be developed as a competence.
Life- long learning: through reading the poems, texts, stories, etc. that are contextualised from real life situation, pupils will develop the curiosity to learn more even beyond classroom, hence life-long learning as a competence will be developed. For example, pupils may ask their parents or guardians about the proverb, story, Island, the great King read in the classroom,
Cross-cutting issues
Peace and value education: because most of our reading materials such as texts, stories, poems, etc. are based on people’s living styles. It can also be addressed from the teacher’s technique when for example using choral reading, pair reading, echo-reading technique. With those techniques, pupils will be required to actively listen to their classmates reading a loud, respecting each other’s idea when answering comprehension questions in groups. Therefore, such environment full of respect, active listening, and valuing ideas will address the issue of peace and value education.
Inclusive education: through reading activities, the teacher should address the issue of inclusive education by providing special help to pupils with special need education. For example, to print or write everything on chalk board in big character to those with visual impairment, to seat pupils with long and short sightedness far/near the chalk board and providing remedial activities.
Gender education: through reading and answering comprehension questions, the issue of gender will only be addressed when both girls and boys will be treated equally. Again, it can also be addressed from the teacher’s techniques such as choral reading, pair reading, echo-reading. With those techniques, girls and boys may be given equal chance to participate. In addition, some texts, poems, stories may sometimes have gender issues.
For example, reading a story of parents who never wanted to take their daughter to school, the teacher need to help pupils understand that such parents are not good since every person has a right to education.
5.9. How to write a lesson plan
5.9.a. Learning objective
Read carefully the lesson plan below and answer the following questions.
School Name: x Teacher’s name: x
Lesson plan analysis
a. Discuss the main steps described in the lesson observed.
Summary: steps involved in teaching a reading lesson
Pre-reading: The teacher opens the lesson by showing illustrations to pupils and asks them what they think the story will be about. Afterwards, the teacher helped pupils explain the new words that can be a barrier to understand the text
During reading: the teacher reads aloud the story to pupils and asks them to read in pairs one taking over the other until the text is ended. The teacher reads with the whole class and called individuals to read to the class fluently and while giving turns to many other pupils.
After reading: the teacher asks pupils whether their initial prediction came true.
The teacher also asks some comprehension questions.
UNIT 6 : Teaching writing lessons
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
Picture observation and interpretation
Picture 1. Pre- primary learners Picture 2. Primary school learners
Observe the above pictures and answer the following questions:
a. Talk about the main activities which are being done in both pictures.
b. What are the materials used by pupils in the second pictures and the role of the teacher?
c. Explain the importance of those activities illustrated in an English lesson.
6.1. Recall on topics related to writing lessons
6.1a. Learning activity
Read the following paragraph and answer related questions.
In Reception early grade, children will start to learn how to form letters correctly. They will be encouraged to use their knowledge of phonics to write words in ways which match their spoken sounds. By the end of lower primary school, they will be expected to write sentences and simple paragraphs which can be read by themselves and others. In upper primary, they will continue to learn how to organize paragraphs and will be expected to use what they know about grammar in their writing and to read through what they have written to find ways to improve it. Moreover, pupils will as well learn to write for a range of purposes, compositions, stories and information texts.
a. Identify the topics which do you find challenging to you.
b. Explain the importance of writing activities in primary schools.
Notes
Learning to write is one of the most important thing that a child at primary school will learn. Pupils use their writing in almost all other subjects of the curriculum. Good writing also gives children a voice to share their ideas with the world. For a pupil, learning to write can be a tricky business, not least because good writing involves handwriting, spelling, grammar and punctuation not to mention what we want to write and who we are writing for. Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement of speech or spoken language.
Again, writing is not a language, but a tool used to make language readable. Within a language system, writing as well as speech, relies on many components of language structure such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics, with added dependency on a system of signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text and the recipient of text is called a reader. The following paragraphs present different levels of primary and what student teachers should recall.
Lower primary
Recall on knowledge related to how pupils are taught to write words and sentences describing different situations/ contexts contained in all the units (P1-P3).
Upper primary
Recall on knowledge related to how pupils are taught to write sentences, paragraphs, compositions, and short stories that describe different situations/ contexts contained in all the units (P4-P6).
6. 2. Principles of writing and qualities of a good writer
6. 2. 1. Principles of writing
6.2.1.a. Learning activity
Read the following writing activity set by a teacher to develop learners’ writing skills and state-specific strategies that he/she uses in this situation:
Referring to the dialogue below, think about a place that would be interesting for your class to visit. Discuss this visit with your classmates. Remember to give some reasons for visiting the place. Write a dialogue in which two classmates ask each other questions about the planned visit. Give your dialogue to one of the pairs in your class to check mistakes within.
Notes:
Everyone can be a good writer. Writers follow specific principles when writing.
These are:
1) Having an objective: Think before you write. What’s your goal? Make sure you fully understand the assignment. Are you writing a one-paragraph executive summary or a five-page report? Try answering this question: What specifically do I want the reader to know, think, or do?
2) Outlining ideas: Write down the ideas or points you want to cover. Why? This helps you get started in identifying the key ideas you want to discuss. If you have trouble getting started, try discussing your ideas with someone else. “Kicking an idea around” often helps you clarify your objective and fine-tune what you are trying to accomplish.
3) Organizing ideas: Just as it is difficult to find what you want in a messy, disorganized desk drawer, it’s hard to find important ideas in a poorly organized message. Here are a few ways you can organize your ideas based on the following criteria:
Importance – Begin with the most important piece of information and then move to the next most important.
Chronological order – Describe what happened first, second, third, ... then last. Facts or events are arranged according to the moment they took place.
Problem-Solution – Define the problem, then describe possible alternatives or the solution you recommend.
Question-Answer – State a question and then provide your answer.
Organize your ideas so the reader can easily follow your argument or the point you are trying to get across.
4) Backing it up. Have an opinion but back it up – support with data. There are a number of ways you can support your ideas, including explanations, examples, facts, personal experiences, stories, statistics, and quotations. It’s best to use a combination of approaches to develop and support your ideas.
5) Separating main ideas. Each paragraph should have one main point or idea captured in a topic sentence. The topic sentence is normally the first sentence in the paragraph. Each paragraph should be presented either in block with skipped line before the next one or started with indentation without having to skip a line before starting the next paragraph.
6) Writing complete sentences. When talking about people, a sentence can be about someone doing something – taking action. That someone may be a manager, employee, customer, etc. The “doing something – taking action” can include mental processes such as thinking, evaluating, and deciding, or physical actions such as writing and talking. A good rule to practice is to have subjects closely followed by their verbs.
7) Use short sentences. Sentences should be a maximum of 12 to 15 words in length. According to the American Press Institute, sentences with 15 or fewer words are understood 90% of the time. Sentences with eight or fewer words are understood 100% of the time.
8) Be precise and accurate. Words like “large,” “small,” “as soon as possible,” “they,” “people,” “teamwork,” and “customer focus” are vague and imprecise. The reader may interpret these words to mean something different than what you intended. Reduce communication breakdowns by being specific and precise. Define terms as neededas the reader may not understand certain acronyms and abbreviations.
9) Use punctuation appropriately. Use for example a comma to separate the elements in a series of three or more items. His favourite colours are red, white, and blue. Use a comma to set off introductory elements. After coffee and donuts, the meeting will begin. Use a comma to separate adjectives. That tall, distinguished, good-looking professor teaches history.
10) Use the correct word. Here are several words that cause confusion.
–You’re is a contraction for “you are.” Your means possession, such as “your coat.”
–It’s is a contraction for “it is.” Its indicates possession.
–Their means possession/ownership- “their house.” There means location. They’re is a contraction for “they are.”
11) Be concise. It is inappropriate to use multiple words that mean or say the same thing. For example, consider the following:
–Wordy; My personal beliefs… Beliefs are personal, so just state, my beliefs…
–Wordy; I decided to paint the machine grey in colour. Grey is a colour, so just state; I decided to paint the machine grey.
12) Numbers. When using numbers in the body of your paper, spell out numbers one through nine, such as “Three men decided…” When using numbers 10 or above it’s proper to write the number, such as “The report indicated 68 customers…”
13) Have a conclusion. Would you really enjoy watching a movie or sporting event that had no conclusion? No. The conclusion ties your points together. The reader wants to know the final score – the bottom line message.
14) Edit your work. Read what you have written several times.
– On your first reading, focus on the organization and sentence structures. Shorten long sentences. Cross out unnecessary words and phrases. Reorganize material as needed.
– Read it again and make sure commas, quotation marks are used appropriately and that there is a punctuation mark at the end of every sentence.
– Read it a third time and focus on word choice. Are there certain words that are vague or unclear? Replace them with specific words.
– Read what you have written aloud to yourself or to a friend to see if he or she (and you) can understand it and improve it in any way. A significant part of good writing involves editing. Very few people can sit down and write a perfect paragraph on their first try. It requires multiple rewrites.
- You could do peer editing to better your essay.
15) Get help. There are several web sites that can help you improve your writing. Check out the following: · www.hodu.com has useful articles on business communications · www.dictionary.com helps with spelling and making sure you’re using the words correctly, also has links to lots of other resources.
6.2. 2. Qualities of a good writer
6.2.2.a. Learning activity
Based on what you already know about writing, what do you think makes a good writer?
Notes
Is it true that anyone can write? True, anyone can write, but that doesn’t make him/her a writer, leave alone a good writer. In order to be called a good writer, certain qualities are required:
1. Love of writing. This is the most important factor. Unless there is the love and passion for writing, one can never produce a good piece. The more intense the passion, the better the writing.
2. Love of words. This is not the same as the love of writing. Love of words means having a good vocabulary and understanding not only their meanings, but also the correct usage of words and their connotations. It is this love of words that makes a writer select the right words, and it is this choice of words that make an impact on the readers.
3. Good grammatical skills. This is an obvious one. We all know how bad imperfect grammar can leave a bad impression. For example, incorrect punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence.
4. Creativity. This is another important quality. This skill introduces the writer to a sea of ideas that are shaped on paper. Even a non-fiction writer needs imagination to make his/her writing lucid.
5. Observation. Good writers have a knack of observing people and things, and then mentally storing these observations to reproduce later in their writings.
6. Self-motivation. We all go through periods of difficulties and mental blocks. A good writer never waits for someone else to come inspire him/ her. He/she is able to motivate himself/herself, is always confident and is able to come up with ideas.
7. Professionalism. A good writer always has a professional approach to writing. This means that a writer should always take his/her work seriously and must be able to learn every aspect of writing. He/she must be able to understand the market and offer readers material that they wish to read. If an individual has these seven essential qualities, then that person can be called a good writer.
6.2.3. Objectives of writing
• Recognize and use correctly letters of the alphabet and theirphonemic representation.
• Write down and use words, phrases, clauses and sentences correctly.
• Use different sentence structures correctly.
• Express ideas in continuous writing.
• Use punctuation marks appropriately in their written work.
• Write down dictated content.
• Use correct tone and diction in their written work.
• Use different registers and genres to express themselves in writing.
• Paraphrase and summarize what is heard and read.
6.2.4. Difficulties of writing
Some pupils experience difficulties in understanding what is expected in continuous writing. Hence, they need help with choice, planning and arrangement of content, which we refer to as content organization. Allow the pupils know that a good writer plans and organizes before they start writing. Coe and Rycroft (1982:2) outline the following as the reasons why a learner’s writing may be difficult to understand as a result of the difficulties in writing. You should ensure these problems are eliminated in the learner’s writing.
Why are there difficulties in writing?
Here are some of the main reasons of pupils’ set back in writing:
• The sentences may not have clear punctuation: there will be commas and full stops without any good reason, or there may be no punctuation where there should be.
• The ideas may not have been presented in an order that easily makes sense to the reader. The relation between the ideas may not be clear because of the absence, or inappropriate use, of linking words and phrases.
• The writer’s attitude to what is being written may not be clear; is the writer describing, suggesting or criticizing something.
• The ideas may not be grouped together into distinct paragraphs or the learner may begin particularly every sentence on a new line.
• A text may contain ideas that are not really relevant to what the writer wants to express, or the writer may find it difficult to think of enough ideas. (Coe and Rycroft, 1983:2)
• Pupils may not have correct grammatical structures and constructions
6.3. Techniques of teaching writing skills
6.3.a. Learning activity
Based on your knowledge about writing, discuss the techniques that a language teacher can use to boost learners’ writing skills.
Notes:
Writing is a complex skill which most students actually need in order to successfully go through college. Because everything is based on writing during academic years, a student who possesses good writing skills will automatically do better at almost everything. Exams, essays, assignments, and so on.
As a teacher, your role is to help each and every pupil improve themselves, acquire new skills, and become a better individual by the end of their time spent in school. What most teachers don’t actually realize is that they should be carrying way more responsibility when it comes to helping students improve their writing skills.
In this summary, we’ll talk about some important tips on how to motivate and instruct your students. If you follow these tips, you’ll soon notice great improvements in your students’ writing skills.
1. Encourage good writing
Some teachers expect good results, but they never do anything to motivate their students. Stress the fact that good, thoughtful, and clear writing will be greatly rewarded. Let your students know that bonus points will be available for those who make greater efforts to express themselves better on paper.
2. A lot of practice equals better performance
As the learning activities are organized in the pupil’s book, each lesson organizes writing activities that the teacher conducts every day. Pupils write a significant amount of words on a specific level of primary every day. It may seem hard and painful for them at first, but the more they write, the better their writing will get. These brief writing sessions, combined with their home assignments and exams (most of which will require essay writing skills), will assure you that their writing is always practiced. In this way, they will find it much easier to pull off better words, ideas and content.
3. Provide instructions throughout the writing process
The moment you provide your students with a specific assignment, take a few moments and explain to them how they should go about it. Another thing you can do is give them a starting point. Show them some techniques that will save them time and energy. By approaching them in this manner, and giving them more than enough in order to complete their assignments, they will just do better. With time, they will significantly improve their writing skills.
4. Provide helpful feedback
When it comes to improving writing skills—for everybody, not just for students—feedback plays a huge role during the process. As a teacher, you have a great deal of knowledge compared to your fellow pupils. They see you as a role model, especially if you’re the one who’s training them. Your role as a teacher, besides the teaching, is to offer your students quality feedback. Your feedback should contain specific tips and corrections for each and every student separately. This way, you’ll prove to them that you really care about them, and you’ll also let them know where they’ve specifically gone wrong.
5. Have your students read a lot
Most successful writers are also keen readers. Try to make your students understand the importance of everyday reading, and the link between reading and writing. A good way to make it easier for them is to give them clear instructions and reading material. For example, you can give them a list of books/articles/essays, and offer them specific and clear indications of where to look when they start the reading process, how to study the sentences, the style, and so on. In doing so, they will see great improvement when it comes to their word choice, sentence structure, and how the whole content will chronologically flow.
Adapted from https://www.wabisabilearning.com/blog/6-ways-improvestudents-
writing-skills
6.4. Steps followed while teaching writing about different topics
6.4.a. Learning activity:
Picture observation and interpretation
Observe the above image and answer the following questions:
a. Identify the steps for a writing process.
b. Describe the steps for a writing process.
Notes
Graves’ (1983) research influenced writing pedagogy by suggesting that writing can be divided into several distinct stages that follow:
1) Prewriting: This is the planning phase of the writing process. When pupils brainstorm, research, gather and outline ideas, often using diagrams for mapping out their thoughts. The target audience and purpose should be considered at this point, and for the older pupils, a working thesis statement needs to be clearly started.
2) Drafting: Pupils create their initial composition by writing down all their ideas in an organized way to convey a particular idea or present an argument. The purpose of the writing needs to be finalized.
3)Revising: Pupils review, modify, and reorganize their work by rearranging, adding, or deleting content and by making the tone, style and content appropriate for the intended audience. The goal of this phase of the writing process is to improve the draft.
4) Editing: At this point in the writing process, writers proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics they equally edit to improve style and clarity. Having another writer’s feedback at this stage is helpful.
5) Presenting/Publishing: In this last step of the writing process, the final writing is shared with the group. Sharing can be accomplished in a variety of ways, and with the help of computers, it can even be printed or published online.
6.4.1.Steps for writing a story
Taking those first steps towards writing a story can be both a fun and challenging activity for your child. By planning and writing a story, children learn to put their thoughts into order and use written language to communicate their ideas in a variety of ways.
Finding ideas and inspiration for writing a story can be tricky for both children and adults alike. Helping your child structure their story from beginning to end is a great way to make the writing process a whole lot easier.
Step 1: Think of an idea
A good place to start is by reading a book together. Stop and ask your child to make predictions about how the story might end. Your child’s alternative ending may become great material for a new and original story. You can also write stories based on real-life experiences such as your child’s first day of school, an adventure in the park, or losing their first tooth.
Step 2: Create a character and a setting
Ask your child to create a character and a setting. Will their main character be a child, an adult, or even an animal? Will the story be set in the local park, a different country, or even outer space? Let your child’s imagination run wild and avoid being critical or adding your own creative flair to their ideas.
Step 3: Beginning
All good children’s stories have a beginning, middle and an end. Ask your child to expand on their original story idea and set the opening scene. What’s special or different about their main character? Maybe it’s a cat who enjoys taking baths, a superhero who can’t fly, or a princess who lives in a cave!
Step 4: Conflict
A story with no conflict can be rather dull. Help your child understand the concept of conflict in a story by revisiting some of their best-loved books. Explain to them when a conflict arises and encourage them to create one for their own story. They can even introduce a new character to shake things up!
Step 5: Turning Point
The turning point is usually in the middle of the story, and helps to make a story more interesting. It can be a moment, a time where a character discovers a hidden superpower, or a surprise that throws the whole story into a spin. Ask your child to think of something that the reader would least expect. It doesn’t always have to make sense – this is your child’s time to unleash their imagination and full potential.
Step 6: Resolution
A good story doesn’t finish without a final resolution. Ask your child how the conflict in their story pans out. Challenge them to link the conflict with the turning point to create a meaningful resolution.
Step 7: Ending
A satisfying ending is the perfect way to finish a story. What happened to the characters once their conflict became resolved? Were they able to finally achieve something, or did they learn an important lesson as a result?
A trip to Gatuna
Mutoni had never been to the Gatuna Border Post. She heard about it from her father. One day, Mutoni requested her father to take her to Gatuna. “Yes, I can,” Mutoni’s father replied. “I can go with you over the weekend. I will not be working on Saturday.” They planned to leave early the following Saturday. “I am going to Gatuna Border Post on Saturday,” Mutoni told her friend when they met. Mary was interested in going too. “I am going to ask for permission from my parents. I would like to come with you,” Mary told Mutoni.Mary’s parents gave her permission to go. Mutoni’s father asked her to be ready by 5.45 am on Saturday. They set off at exactly 6:00 a.m. on Saturday. The two pupils were very excited with what they saw along the way. There were terraced hills, meandering roads and vast tea plantations.
After reading, assess whether the extract follows the following criteria:
a) A clear and consistent organization
b) Short sentences
c) Excellent use of grammar
d) Varied vocabulary
e) Punctuation
f) Use of dialogue
Activities for developing generic competences and integration of cross-cutting issues in the lessons related to reading
Learning activity
Read and answer questions
Jane and Sam wrote down a plan for their activities as follows.
Our planned activities for tomorrow
6:00 am – we will get up and take a bath.
6:30 am – we will have breakfast and then board a bus to school.
7:00 am –we will be at school.
1:00 pm – we will go to the bus stop and board a bus back home.
1:30 pm – we will have lunch with our parents.
3:00 pm – we will go to play football with our friends.
6:00 pm – we will go back home, bathe and do our homework.
8:00 pm – we will watch TV and go to bed.
Activity
1. Make a similar plan of activities for yourself.
2. Write down the activities in your exercise book.
3. Present your plan to your classmates.
After reading the above activity, carry out the following tasks:
Which skills can be developed by students in the activity above?
What are the generic competences developed and Cross-cutting issues addressed in the above activity?
Notes
Generic competences developed
Creativity and Innovation: through writing activities such as sentences, paragraphs, compositions and stories, pupils need to create them or innovate ones given to get a new one. Therefore, all these activities mentioned develop creativity and innovation in our pupils because they will later be able to write and produce newspapers, textbooks, novels while using all the competences acquired during their writing activities.
Critical thinking: writing activities in English require a pupil to create ideas, judge on the topic when writing a composition, evaluate ideas when summarizing a story and also use their imagination to produce anything written. These elements mentioned show how writing requires critical thinking as an ideal competence.
Research and problem-solving: referring to a saying that states, ‘a good reader is a good writer’, literally meaning that people who write reflect to what they have read. For example, you can never write a good story if you do not read stories, you cannot produce good books when you do not carry out research from other books where you can learn for example how to define different concepts. So, as far as writing is concerned, for a pupil to produce something, he/she needs to be encouraged to read/search, hence research and problem-solving.
Communication: writing is a productive skill that intends to inform. During writing activities in English, the teacher needs to help pupils learn to put different parts of speech and ideas together to produce a sentence, a paragraph, a composition, a story to inform or communicate something. For example, a pupil can write the following sentence: ‘I love my mother’, in case they were asked to comment on their families. Therefore, when a pupil writes something like in the example given in the above sentence, he/she will be required to put together different parts of speech or gather ideas to produce something, which therefore develops effective communication as a competence.
Cross-cutting issues addressed
Environment and sustainability: referring to unit 3(Our district) in p4, unit 4 (Weather) and unit 4 in p5 (environment), a teacher can ask pupils to write a composition talking about their districts or ask them to describe different weather types and their surrounding environment.
From those units mentioned, a teacher can assign a task to pupils to talk about the importance of forests or animals. The teacher can also ask pupils to discuss the relevance of protecting forests and animals. Therefore, the issue of environment and sustainability will be addressed from what pupils will write on the topics of environment.
Notice: As far as writing lessons is concerned, cross-cutting issues will be addressed depending on the topics to talk about as we have seen in the above example. For instance, pupils can write on social cohesion (peace), HIV/AIDS, etc. However, apart from the content, the teacher’s techniques and attitude while teaching writing lessons will address different Crosscutting issues.
6.5. How to write a lesson plan on teaching writing skills.
Lesson plan analysis
Learning activity 6.4.a. Carefully read the lesson plan below and answer the questions that follow.
a. Discuss the main steps described in the lesson observed.
b. Compare and contrast the methodological steps used within the current lesson and the previous lesson of Reading.
Summary
The teaching of writing
As the steps of writing and the sample writing lesson plan detail, before asking pupils to write a text, have them gather their information and organize it into a cohesive content. This process can include reading, taking notes, brainstorming, and categorizing information. Prewriting is the most creative step and most students develop a preferred way to organize their thoughts.
• The second step the teacher gives instructions that make students transfer the information gathered and organize it into a paragraph.
• The third step is to revise. Have students revise their writing. It could include adding, deleting, rearranging and substituting words, sentences, and even entire paragraphs, replacing some passive verbs in their paper with more active ones to have their writing more accurately represented in their ideas.
• The fourth step is editing. Have pupils exchange their work with a partner and scan the mistakes. This is a chance for the writer to scan his or her paper for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
• The last step is where the pupil reads his/her production to the whole class.
Kagabo and Kaneza are primary English teachers. They started teaching English in 1987 and said that they have been facing different challenges when helping learners to develop their writing skills. However, they also learnt a lot when it comes to lessons related to writing as explained in the following paragraphs.
They said that writing is a major classroom procedure, an important language activity (e.g. dictation, paragraphing, composition, summary, written exercises, tests) and an effective technique help to reinforce the oral and written language material. It also provides evidence of pupils’ achievements. Learning to write is a gradual process which begins with simple copying and ends with free expression. Pupils should be trained systematically, under the guidance of the teacher through several stages of writing experience namely: handwriting, copying, dictation, controlled, guided and free writing. Such gradation is necessary for developing the writing skill.
In addition, as long as their experience is concerned, they stated that writing is a complicated task for many learners of English language. Therefore, it is important that teachers motivate and encourage learners as a key factor for effective writing. Again, linguistic problems play a great role in making writing very difficult as writing is represented in spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, capitalization, handwriting, paragraphing and organization. However, the cognitive problem which deals with the mental capacity of learners’ minds should equally be paidattention to. Pupils must know how to think, to create ideas, organize these ideas in a good piece of writing according to specific steps.
Finally, as far as writing related lessons is concerned, we would like to remind English teachers that there is permanence of writing as opposed to speech. Writing enables the writer to reach a wider audience in a shorter space and time. What is written should not be ambiguous becauseit is frequently addressed to very large readership of mixed linguistic abilities, background and experience. Teaching of writing skills should also encourage integration of the four basic language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. This is because the writing skill is a strenuous activity that calls for use of various skills and techniques.
Read the above scenario and answer questions that follow:
a. Explain the importance of writing skills as described in the scenario.
b. Does the lack of knowledge and skills of punctuation and capitalization rules lead to poor writing? Which category of problem are punctuation and capitalization related to?
c. Discuss practical strategies and techniques that can improve pupil’s performance in writing.
UNIT 7 : Teaching grammar lessons
INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY
7.1. Recall on the concepts related to grammar
7.1. a. Learning activity
Use primary English syllabus and pupils’ books for both lower and upper
primary, and carry out the following tasks:
a. Select different topics related to language structure (grammar).
b. Among the selected topics, which ones do you find challenging to you?
c. Make a self-study on the challenging topics. You can ask for help from a
classmate or your tutor.
Notes
Grammar is a part of the language system. People sometimes describe grammar as the “rules” of a language; but in fact, no language has permanent rules. It even has exceptions. If we focus on the word “rules”, we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases, and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call “grammar” is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.
• Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allow humans to form and interpret the words and sentences of their language.
• Grammar adds meanings that are not easily inferable from the immediate context.
• One of the kinds of meanings realised by grammar is for example the fact that it is representational, meaning that grammar enables us to use language to describe the world in terms of how, when and where things happen.
e.g. Example: The sun sets at 7:30pm. The children are playing in the garden.
In this regard, student teachers should recall different rules used in English to prepare them teach what they understand. The following paragraphs show what student teachers should recall from primary school.
Lower primary
Recall on the parts of speech (-nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, possessives, plural, articles) and some tenses, such as Present simple tense and present continuous that can be identified from different contexts/situation announced in different units (P1 to P3).
Upper primary
Student teachers need to remember different parts of speech such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, verbs, conjunctions, interjections, and articles which can be identified from different contexts/ situations announced in each unit from P4 to P5. They should also recall all the tenses taught in different levels (from present simple tense to conditional tense that can be identified from different contexts/situations announced in different units (P4 to P6).
7.2. Rationale of teaching and learning grammar
7.2.a. Read the text below and answer questions that follow:
Languages make no sense without using grammatical rules. If everyone uses language without any grammar, the language would have too many variations and would be ambiguous and full of contradiction, e.g. using of wrong tense or punctuation can change the meaning of whole sentence, which causes problems in mutual communication. Enhanced communication skills call for a high degree of grammatical competence. Communicative proficiency involves knowledge and application of grammar and use of appropriate vocabulary of the language to convey meanings in a socially acceptable way. This is also the reason why grammar teaching is meaningful. It can have the effect that the speaker is not understood. In that case the whole point of communication is lost. Grammar is the base of English language. English especially as a second or a foreign language is not acquired naturally; instruction and structured learning are important. Through grammar, an ESL learner masters how to operate at the sentence level and studies the governance of the syntax or word orders that are the rule of the game in language. Knowing about grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear, interesting and precise. Grammar can be part of literature discussions especially when we and our students closely read the sentences in poetry and stories. Knowing about grammar means finding out that all languages and all dialects follow grammatical patterns. (Brock Haussamen, “Guideline on Some Questions and Answers about Grammar”, 2002)
a. Why do we teach grammar?
b. Discuss the consequences of misusing language rules.
Notes:
It is necessary to put grammar in the forefront in second language teaching, because knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is the base of the English language. Grammatical competence is one of the communicative competences. Communicative competence involves knowing how to use the grammar and vocabulary of a language to achieve communicative goals and knowing how to do this in a socially appropriate way. Communicative goals are the goals of learners’ studying English language. Therefore, teaching grammar is necessary to achieve the goals.
The primary English syllabus explains the language structure that comes in each unit lessons and the teacher must remember to bring it in and make sure students practice it through a wide range of activities that relate to the key unit competence. To give illustration in unit 1 of p6 (leisure and sports), the language structure that is introduced is - --Like, prefer +/-ing and the activity is to find out from a student’s friend about the hobbies and leisure activities he or she prefers and sharing with the class a friend’s preferences.
There are thousands of words in the English language. Different combinations of these words in sentences can produce almost as many different meanings as there are stars in the sky. On the other hand, every word in the English language can be assigned to at least one of eight categories called the parts of speech namely nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The meaning of a word and the way it is used in a sentence determines its parts of speech.
7.3. Principles and rules of teaching grammar
7.3.a. Learning activity
Read the text below and answer questions that follow:
In teaching grammar, the teacher does not provide grammar rules. There is a text where new grammatical structure is introduced. Pupils read the text and find out the new structure.
Pupils’ attention is not focused on the new structure, but on the text. Pupils work with the text, they practice new language and the focus does not have to be on the grammar. Pupils play with words and sentences and they can take in new grammar subconsciously. For instance, Lessons can be built around topics or themes, such as animals, friends, food or family, for very young learners; and for older learners, themes can be drawn from subjects in their other classes and the community, such as; transport, country life, travel and famous people. Theme-based lessons provide continuity across activities and enable English learning to be connected to the children’s lives.
Finally, apart from clear guidelines or principles that may help the teacher effectively teach grammar, some rules as well should be respected where the teacher needs to teach grammar in order to facilitate the learners’ comprehension and production of real language, rather than as an end in itself and always provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some communicative use and provide the right conditions for learning grammar as it is presented in the above picture.
a. Explain how lessons of English are built and identify the principle of teaching grammar.
b. Provide some rules of teaching grammar in an English language class. Closely refer to the description in the text.
Notes
7.3.1. The principles of teaching and learning grammar
Since the approach used in teaching grammar should be integrative and communicative, it is appropriate that the teacher starts by giving grammar structures in meaningful sentences. This practice adds concreteness to what is presented. Starting with explanations of rules would make language practice more abstract. In the same vein, it would be logical to start practice with what pupils can understand and end up with generalizations, rather than having it the other way round.
Other principles require that what is regular and common should be taught before what is irregular and exceptional, what is marginal. For instance, it is agreed that regular verbs should be taught before irregular ones, positive forms of adjectives before comparatives and superlatives. Thus, after the practice of basic structural patterns, marginal structures could be taught. After practicing structures in sentences, a short table illustrating grammatical patterns and the application of rules would be enough.
7.3.2. The rules of teaching and learning grammar
The following are guiding rules for teaching and learning grammar (parts of the speech)
• The Rule of Context:
Teach grammar in context. If you have to take an item out of context inorder to draw attention to it, ensure that it is re-contextualized as soon as possible. Similarly, teach grammatical forms in association with their meanings. The choice of one grammatical form over another is always determined by the meaning the speaker or writer wishes to convey.
• The Rule of use:
Teach grammar in order to facilitate the learners’ comprehension and production of real language, rather than as an end in it. Always provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some communicative use.
• The Rule of economy:
To fulfil the rule of use, be economical. This means economising on presentation time in order to provide maximum practice time. With grammar, a little can go a long way.
• The Rule of Relevance:
Teach only the grammar that students have problems with. This means, start off by finding out what they already know. And don’t assume that the grammar of English is a wholly different system from the learner’s mother tongue. Exploit the common ground.
• The Rule of Nurture:
Teaching doesn’t necessarily cause learning - not in any direct way. Instead of teaching grammar, try to provide the right conditions for learning grammar.
• The Rule of appropriateness:
Interpret all the above rules according to the level, needs, interests, expectations and learning styles of the students. This may mean giving a lot of prominence to grammar, or it may mean never actually teaching grammar at all - in any up-front way. But either way, it is your responsibility as a teacher to know your grammar inside out.
7.4.a. Learning activity
Observe and interpret the diagram below and answer these questions:
a. What are the approaches of teaching English language?
b. Explain the approaches identified using examples.
Notes:
7.4.1. The deductive approach rule driven learning
A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied. The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it through the study and manipulation of
examples.
Advantages of the deductive approach:
• It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving. Many rules especially rules of form can be more simply and quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow more time for practice and application.
• It respects the intelligence and maturity of many especially adult students and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition.
• It confirms many students› expectations about classroom learning particularly for those learners who learn analytically.
• It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather than having to anticipate and deal with them later.
Disadvantages of deductive approach:
• Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not have enough met language (i.e. language used to talk about language such as grammar terminology). Or they may not be able to understand the concepts involved.
• Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission style in the classroom; the teacher’s explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction.
• Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation such as demonstration.
• Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply a case of knowing the rules.
7.4.2. The inductive approach- the rule discovery path
What are the advantages of encouraging learners to work out rules for themselves?
• Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.
• The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater recalling of information.
• Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more attentive and more motivated.
• It is an approach which favours pattern recognition and problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.
• If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language, learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.
• Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater selfreliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy.
The disadvantages of an inductive approach include:
• The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a means.
• The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.
• Students may hypothesize the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application: this is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.
• It can place heavy demands on teachers while planning a lesson. They need to select and organise the data carefully to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule while also ensuring that the data is intelligible.
• However carefully organised the data is, many language areas such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.
• An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer simply to be told the rule.
7.5. Techniques of teaching grammar
7.5.a. Learning activity:
Picture observation and interpretation
Referring to the above images, carry out the following tasks
a. What is the importance of the first image in teaching English?
b. Discuss the relationship between the first image and the second.
c. Identify the techniques of teaching grammar.
Notes
7.5.1. Teaching grammar through texts.
If learners are to achieve a functional command of English as a second language, they should be helped to understand and produce not just isolated sentences, but whole texts in English language.
Language is context-sensitive; which is to say, an utterance becomes fully intelligible only when it is placed in its context. Book texts tend to be specially tailored for ease of understanding to display specific features of grammar. This often gives them a slightly unreal air, as illustrated in the example below:
Authentic texts or classroom texts?
Advocates of authentic texts argue that not only are such specially written texts uninteresting and therefore not motivating but they misrepresent the way the language is used in real-life contexts. On the other hand, the problems associated with authentic texts cannot be washed away, either, as any teacher who has attempted to use a dense newspaper article with low level students will have discovered. The linguistic load of unfamiliar vocabulary and syntactic complexity can make such texts impenetrable, and ultimately very de-motivating.
A compromising position is to take authentic texts, and to simplify them in ways which retains their genuine flavour. Another alternative is to write classroom texts, but to make them more engaging than the example quoted above. In fact, with only the slightest change, the text about Mr West could be made somewhat more attention-grabbing:
This is Mr West. He has a bag in his left hand. Where is he standing? He is standing at the door of his house. What is Mr West going to do? He is going to put his hand into his pocket. He is going to take a gun out of his pocket. He is going to point the gun at...
The implications of this context-sensitive view of language on grammar teaching are that:
• Grammar is best taught and practiced in context.
• This means using whole texts as contexts for grammar teaching.
Advantages of using texts:
• They provide co-textual information, allowing learners to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar grammatical items from the co-text.
• If the texts are authentic, they can show how the item is used in real communication.
• Texts provide vocabulary input, skills practice and exposure to features of text organisation as well as grammar input.
• The use of texts in the classroom is good preparation for independent study.
• If the texts come from the students themselves, they may be more engaging and their language features therefore more noticeable and memorable.
Disadvantages
• The difficulty of the text, especially an authentic one, may mean that some of the above advantages are lost.
• The alternative - to use simplified texts - may give a misleading impression as to how the language item is naturally used, again defeating the purpose of using texts.
• Not all texts will be of equal interest to students.
• Students who want quick answers to simple questions may consider the use of texts to be the ‘scenic route’ to language awareness and would prefer a quicker, more direct route instead.
7.5.2. Teaching Grammar through stories.
Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and illustrating grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning, while the latter requires deductive thought, and it is useful to include both approaches in lesson planning. In addition, a well-told story is a perfect context for a structure-discourse match, but the technique can also be used effectively for a structure-social factor match. Storytelling is one of these extremely versatile techniques, and once you get the hang of it, it can be a convenient and natural grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it is the technique that holds students’ attention best, as well as the one they enjoy most.
Grammar points can be contextualized in stories that are absorbing and just plain fun if they are selected with the interest of the class in mind, are told with a high degree of energy, and involve the students. Students can help create stories and impersonate characters in them.
Students will certainly appreciate and respond to your efforts to include them in the storytelling process, but will also enjoy learning about you through your stories. Stories should last from one to five minutes and the more exaggerated and bizarre they are, the more likely students will remember the teaching points they illustrate.
7.5.3. Teaching grammar through songs and rhymes.
Songs
Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities.
They are precious resources to develop pupils’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and adverbs. Learning English through songs also provides a non-threatening atmosphere for students who usually are tense when speaking English in a formal classroom setting. Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are motivating.
Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are presented through songs.Therefore, through using them, the language which is cut up into a series of structural points becomes a whole again.
Example:
7.5.4. Teaching grammar through Poems
Poems, like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since poetry is often spoken, repeated, dealt with and considered, it acts as an effective tool for practicing a specific grammatical structure. Through repeating and considering the poem, the grammatical structures become more deeply internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides a rewarding resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for review. If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us; this polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many pupils.
Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language. Thus, it is an important aspect to be taught since English is a syllable timed language with stressed syllables being spoken at roughly equal time pauses even in everyday speech. Like songs, poems have an enormous linguistic value as they provide unique language concepts and sounds.
Examples showing how a situation, or a context can be used in grammar lessons.
7.6 Steps for teaching grammar lessons
7.6.a. Learning activity:
Observe and interpret the diagram.
Referring to the above diagram, carry out the following activity
After observing the above diagram, identify and interpret the steps for teaching language structure (grammar).
Describe and identify the main steps for teaching language structure.
Notes
Steps for teaching grammar
Step 1. Free observation
The pupils observe different sentences, phrases containing the new pattern to be taught, they do freely on their own (at least three minutes)
Step 2. Guided observation
The pupils guided by the teacher work together to point out different elements which they underline, distinguish and analyse through different sentences, examples and questions. They should also answer questions asked about the new pattern being taught.
Step 3 Comparison
Using different colours of chalk, the teacher and the learners compare the known and the unknown elements by underlining, categorizing different elements: feminine, masculine, plural, singular, type of conjunction, words showing relationships, interaction, etc…
Step 4 Generalization
• Both the teacher and learners set out, identify a rule concerning a new topic(pattern being taught).
• The teacher reads the rule while the learners listen careful.
• The learners repeat the rule after the teacher individually and in small groups.
Step 5 Application
Some exercises concerning the taught pattern are given to the learners to be done in their exercise books. This is done to assess or verify whether they are capable of applying the rule.
NB: the teacher in setting out the rule, will write it out on the chalkboard.
Briefly, grammar lessons follow these steps:
1. Contextualization: grammatical structure in sentence or in situation.
2. The teacher isolates the item to be taught in a model.
3. Learners repeat the model sentences, the teacher writes it on the chalkboard.
4. Visualization of grammatical structure by underlining it or putting it in colour using a piece of chalk.
5. Pupils read the model sentences written on the chalkboard.
6. Generalization: Application generally consists of different drills.
Drills are exercises often oral about a grammatical structure.
The above steps for teaching grammar are summarized into three stages as described below:
Teachers of English usually divide grammar lessons into three phases:
Presentation, Practice and Production. One of the best ways of helping pupils to reach the objectives of the lesson is to introduce the new language well in the first phase of the lesson: the presentation phase. Pupils need to have plenty of activities to help them practice the new language. This is the practice phase. Lastly, the students need time to use the new language they have learned in order to communicate with each other. This is the production phase.
1. Presentation
Jeremy Harmer says that the first phase which is presentation, is the stage at which students are introduced to the form, meaning and issue of a new piece of language. Students learning new grammar should apply this new rule to themselves. This experience is known as personalization. Presentation should be clear, efficient, lively, interesting, captivating, appropriate and productive. To achieve all these characteristics, the teacher can use various teaching aids e.g. such as charts, dialogues, mini-situations, text for contrast or for grammar explanation etc.
According to Claudia Riemer and Gert Henrici, the German linguists and authors of books about teaching of foreign languages, teachers can choose 3 different ways of grammar presentation.
• The inductive method: Students must first meet with a specific example from which they derive a new grammatical rule. The benefit of this method is the fact that students must think actively about the language, it is motivating, and this way of presentation leads to independence and self-activity of learners. But on the other hand, it takes a long time and sometimes difficult for students to derive a new rule without any help.
• The deductive method: The teacher formulates at first a grammatical rule that students practice with examples. This approach is faster than inductive method. It is more systematic and therefore easier to implement.
• The analytic-deductive method: At first, students work with sample sentences and then formulate and analyse the grammatical rule together with their teacher. This rule is then practiced in different exercises. The analytic-deductive method is very creative, interesting and effective for pupils, but it requires very careful preparation of teachers. for fresh teachers, it can be difficult.
The first and third method use the so-called discovery techniques. Jeremy Harmer explains them as methods where students are given examples of language and told to find out how it works. They discover grammar rules on their own and are not. Students can be asked to look at some sentences and say how the meaning is expressed and what the differences between the sentences are. The teacher can use preview, matching techniques, text study, problem-solving etc. as a discovery technique. Whether the teacher chooses any method, his presentation should include the following structure.
• Building up an appropriate context in which the grammar rule can be better understood.
• Explaining target structure in a marker sentence,
• Drilling target structure.
• Focusing on form, demonstrating how the structure is formed, know its meaning, check learners’ understanding of meaning by asking them questions.
• Providing a written model on board.
1. Practice of grammar
After the presentation, the teacher needs to plan for the second or the practice phase of the lesson. The aim of this stage is to give pupils thorough practice of target items to ensure that they can use them correctly and fluently. The practice stage usually starts with fully teacher-controlled activities and continues with less controlled ones to relatively free communicative tasks. The activities can be divided into two groups. The following types of exercises are borrowed from Adrian Doff, an experienced teacher trainer.
Mechanical Practice: At this stage of the lesson, the teacher gives students practice on forming the structure. It should be a controlled kind of practice that will be done very quickly. The teacher can use e. g.:
• Repetition: The teacher presents different examples and the students repeat them.
Teacher: I am sitting.
Pupils: I am sitting.
• Substitution – Students repeat what the teacher said, but they replace some specific elements in each sentence.
Teacher: I am sitting.
Pupils: I am speaking. I am learning....
• Single word prompt: Teacher gives a word as a prompt and the students give examples.
Teacher: playing
Pupils: We are playing.
Teacher: sitting
Pupils: We are sitting.
• Picture prompt: The teacher shows pictures and pupils create sentences about what are they see, e.g. the teacher shows a picture of a man sitting and pupils make sentences. “He is sitting.”
• Free substitution: Pupils create their own sentences based on the model presented by the teacher.
• Meaningful Practice: It is the second stage of practice following the mechanical type of activities. At this stage pupils not only create the form, but they also must work with content. Learners must think and understand what they are saying. At this stage, teachers can use for example, the activities below borrowed from Adrian Doff again:
• True sentences: The teacher asks students to say real information about themselves by using specific structure, e. g.:
Teacher: I like chocolate, but I don’t like vegetables. What about you?
Pupil: I like music and movies, but I don’t like sport....
• Situation: The teacher creates a specific situation in which the pupils have to use the new grammar structure, e.g.:
Teacher: You are a stranger asking about places in a town.
Pupil: Is there a café near here?
Teacher: You want to watch a film.
Pupil: Is there a cinema near here? ...
• Adding something: The teacher can ask questions and let the students add something of their own, e. g.:
Teacher: Where are you going?
Pupil: I am going to the petrol station.
Teacher: Why? ...
• Choosing the best sentence: The teacher describes a situation and gives pupils an opportunity to choose from two or more forms of sentences and which is the most suitable for the context. The contrast between two options may help pupils to see the difference. e.g.
Teacher: I am in the middle of teaching, what should I say? I am teaching English or I teach English.
• Imaginary situations: The teacher asks pupils to imagine a situation
that is not real, the pupils talk about it, e. g.:
Teacher: Imagine you are at home doing something. Tell me about your activity.
• Talking about real life – It works as the previous activity, but the pupil talks about real life.
Teacher: Tell me what you are doing.
Pupil: I am sitting and learning English. I am listening. I am taking notes.
2. Production of grammar It is the communicative phase which aims at using grammar structures pupils have been practicing in a natural way. Communicative activities which are possible to use include:
• A reply to a letter
• Report
• Discussion
• Role-play
• Guessing game
• Interview
Conclusion
It is important to remember that in the actual classroom teaching, compromise is often the best approach. Use of an eclectic approach where there is a mixture of teaching methods and techniques, is recommended. Remember, lessons incorporating real life communication are always more meaningful and therefore more motivating to pupils. Lessons should be more learner-centred rather than teacher centred. The teacher should also remember that making errors is a normal process in language learning. Therefore, in applying all the techniques presented above, he/she should not be surprised to see errors of all sorts being made by pupils. These errors could serve as the starting points for designing other techniques for teaching grammar or reinforcing those already used. It would be useful for the teacher at both levels of primary education not to forget the main principles such as:
• Practice of structures should always be contextualized for them to be more meaningful and interesting to learners.
• Many examples should be given in sentences, illustrating the use of grammatical structures to be learned.
A scenario
For the last two lessons, I decided to teach present continuous tense. Based on agreement with a colleague, an English teacher, who found out that this grammar is for P5 pupils. For presenting it, I chose “The monkey song”. Here, I made the most of the activities from the perspective that children really love songs. This song is also very cheerful and funny, which attracted pupils’ attention maximally. In the beginning of the lesson, I familiarized pupils with the fact that we were going to learn something new that was going to surely be very amazing. I told them that I was going to play a song about animals, and they would have to guess what animals they were, and I mimed it.
As I am a very good pretender, pupils immediately knew, that it was going to be a song about monkeys. I played the song, while pupils watched and listened with noticeable interest. Then I asked them to say some words that they could hear in the song. Pupils named the words monkey, doctor, bed, mother, jumping. Then pupils read the questions on the board (with my help), we explained their meaning. I played the song again and the task was to find answers for the questions. All the responses were available on the board. After listening, the first pupil with his hand up went to the board and pulled the first answer to the question. His action was immediately checked since the correct options were on the board. And yes, he made it. I praised the pupil and allowed him choose one of his classmates to answer the next question.
The pupils answered all the questions correctly. I then wrote all the answers on the board and asked pupils to underline all verbs in sentences formulated on the board. They quickly discovered that there were more verbs in each sentence. They marked the verb “to be” with a red colour and we reviewed all the forms of the verb “to be”. While I was mentioning various nouns and pronouns pupils were responding with the proper forms of the verb “to be”. Then we marked the verbs in –ing form with a green colour. We deduced the rule of making sentences with verbs in present continuous tense and I pointed out that we use it when we want to say that something is happening right now.
After reading the above scenario, carry out the following tasks:
a. What subject and topics were being taught?
b. Explain the techniques that were used by the teacher in the scenario.
c. Briefly discuss the steps used in the lesson as described in the scenario.
UNIT 8 : Observation of model lessons related to English
8.1. Importance of classroom observation
Observation is an important part of learning how to teach. Much of what beginner teachers need to be aware of cannot be learned solely in the university class. Therefore, classroom observation presents an opportunity to see real-life teachers in real-life teaching situations.
In their reflections, many of our teacher- friends mention their observations and how these observations influence the way they plan and teach.
Teachers are forever reflecting and making decisions, and when they see someone else in action, in as much as they are seeing someone else, they are almost simultaneously seeing themselves. This means that observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s career. In this section we will discuss the importance and value of observation, not only for student teachers, but for all teachers.
What is classroom observation? Why is it important? Classroom observation describes the practice of sitting in on another teacher’s class to observe, learn and reflect. Various aspects of the class can be examined, such as routines, use of time, schedule, participation, teaching strategies, management strategies, learner interest, and much more. A teacher will naturally look for support on an issue that is difficult for him or her, but it is often a great method of being exposed to a new and different approach to teaching.
Classroom observation can often help expose teachers to new methods of teaching that might not have occurred to them beforehand. It may be threatening to be subject to peer observation since teachers might feel territorial and defensive in their classroom and protective of their resources and ideas. However, when it is done in a considerate and respectful fashion, observation can be beneficial for both the observing teacher and the teacher being observed. Below are some benefits of observation in the classroom.
8.1.2. Benefits for the observer…
• Observe new techniques, strategies, ideas and resources.
• Gain insight into one’s own strategies and techniques.
• Observe student reactions from a different perspective.
• Help create a professional learning community with the best interests of the students in mind.
• Personal Professional Development and growth.
8.1.3. Benefits for the observed…
• Chance to see class through someone else’ eyes.
• Chance to re-evaluate the classroom from a different perspective.
• Chance to receive input (suggestions, ideas, resources) from a colleague.
• Creation of a professional learning community with the best interests of the students in mind.
• Personal Professional Development and growth.
Best practices involve the sharing of resources, techniques and strategies. Allowing another teacher into one’s classroom allows for sharing between both; it also allows for self-reflection by all involved.
Teachers are responsible for their own growth and development, and observation is an excellent alternative to the traditional Professional Development seminars.
8.1.4. What should observation for a language class include?
For a student teacher at the beginning of their career, there are some general issues that they would need to observe and identify. The focus would be on general pedagogic knowledge, which includes issues such as classroom management, differentiation and instructional strategies. However, with training and experience, teachers would need to progress to focus on specific issues, which can be categorized as English teaching techniques. In this case, the student teachers would focus on the overlap between pedagogic knowledge and content knowledge as well as what takes place specifically in a SL classroom (English classroom).
For example, it would be difficult to imagine an English classroom without pair work activities. In other classes and other subjects, one might observe group work activities; however, due to the linguistic content, there would be significant differences between the interactive exercises. In other subjects, group work or pair work might be optional; but in a language classroom, they are necessary. Furthermore, beginner SL learners require much more structure in activity than beginners in other courses, because the structure increases the likelihood of success.
From https://sites.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/Best%20of%20Bilash/observation.html
Learning activity 8.1.a:
a. Discuss the importance of classroom observation
b. Discuss the competence-based classroom observation form provided by REB and how you can assess a well delivered lesson.
8.2. Instructional Language used for facilitating English lessons at primary schools.
(starting and finishing a lesson, giving instructions, praising, encouraging all pupils, Asking questions, etc.)
8.2.a. Learning activity
Think about the classroom situations listed below. What do you the teacher usually say to his/her pupils in these situations? Greeting students, taking attendance, giving instructions, checking previous knowledge, managing behaviour, encouraging students to participate, praising your students, giving homework, saying goodbye etc.
Leaning activity:
Match the classroom task and the corresponding English you can use.
The language you can use to start and finish a lesson
Note: English for everyday classroom activities
Everyday classroom activities can provide meaningful authentic opportunities for your students to regularly listen to and speak English. Such small activities can include things like greeting your students, taking attendance, introducing a new topic or giving instructions. Using English like this in the classroom is beneficial for your students because they get to hear more English and they hear how the language is used in real-life communication. It also gives them a purpose for speaking English.
In order to be able to communicate using English, students need to be able to hear and speak the language regularly in lots of different settings and with lots of different tasks, not just in textbook exercises.
Here are some useful phrases for the classroom. You can add other phrases to this list.
Greeting students
Good morning students. How are you today?
Good afternoon everyone. Are you ready to start?
Using more English in your classroom
Let’s start the lesson.
What did you do yesterday?
How did you find the homework?
Can anyone remember what we did in the last class?
Taking attendance
Let’s take attendance.
Who is missing today?
Is anyone absent?
Does anyone know why Sarah is not here?
Listen while I call your names.
Raise your hand and say ‘Here’/ ‘Present’ when I call out your name.
Giving instructions
Open your books at page 38.
Look at the picture at the top of the page.
Please read the first paragraph of the text.
Deborah, please read the questions.
Read the first stanza aloud.
Repeat after me.
Do it again, please.
Discuss the questions with your partner.
You have ten minutes.
OK – start! Two more minutes
OK! Time’s up! Listen.
Now write down what I say
Checking previous knowledge
The topic of the lesson is what someone is wearing.
Can anyone tell me what he is wearing?
Can you remember what we did in the last class?
Does anyone already know what this is called?
Does anyone have one of these at home?
Can anyone tell me how to say XXX in English?
Managing behaviour
Students, could you all sit down, please.
Now, the pair work activity is over.
Please return to your desks.
Can the four of you work together, please?
Let Sarah say something too, please.
Encouraging your students to speak
Could you speak up a bit, please?
Would you like to try to answer, Ishimwe?
Yes, that’s almost right.
Can anyone help Alice with the answer?
Go on … I’m sure you can answer that.
Can you explain that to the rest of the class?
Praising your students
Very good! , Very nice! , Excellent!, Well done! , Good work!, I’m impressed., Keep it up., That’s correct.
That was very good, you are very good at this., I like the way you’re doing that.
Giving homework
For your homework, please do Activity B.
We’re out of time. Please finish this activity at home.
Don’t forget about your homework!
At home, please do the exercises on the next page.
Finishing a lesson
Okay then, that’s all for today.
Goodbye. See you all tomorrow.
It’s time to finish. Put your books away.
How much time is left?
That’s all for today.
We’ll read the next part of the passage in the next lesson.
Goodbye! See you tomorrow.
Have a nice weekend.
Don’t forget your homework!
Take care when you cross the road.
Talking to your students about their lives
How are you today?
Where is kalisa? Is she ill?
Have you been ill?
Are you okay now?
What did you do yesterday after school?
Did you have a nice day on Sunday?
What did you do?
Did you do anything nice during your holiday?
What are you doing this weekend?
Is it your birthday?
Does anyone in your family speak English?
What languages do you use at home?
Adapted from the book titled “Using more English in your classroom” which is available from
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/resource/view.php
